HARD DISK DRIVE AND CONTROLER

Definition - What does Hard Disk Controller (HDC) mean?

A hard disk controller (HDC) is an electrical component within a computer hard disk that
enables the processor or CPU to access, read, write, delete and modify data to and
from the hard disk. Essentially, an HDC allows the computer or its processor to control
the hard disk.
A hard disk controller's primary function is to translate the instructions received from the
computer into something that can be understood by the hard disk and vice versa. It consists of
an expansion board and its related circuitry, which is usually attached directly to the backside of
the hard disk. The instructions from a computer flow through the hard disk adapter, into the hard
disk interface and then onto the HDC.

Hard Disk Drive Basics A hard disk is a sealed unit containing a number of platters in
a stack. Hard disks may be mounted in a horizontal or a vertical position. In this description,
the hard drive is mounted horizontally.

Electromagnetic read/write heads are positioned above and below each platter. As the
platters spin, the drive heads move in toward the center surface and out toward the edge. In
this way, the drive heads can reach the entire surface of each platter.

What is IDE
Integrated Device Electronics. It is the most widely-used hard drive interface on the
market. The fancy name refers to how the IDE technology “integrates” the electronics
controller into the drive itself. The IDE interface, which could only support drives up to
540 MB has been replaced by the superior EIDE (Enhanced-IDE) technology which
supports over 50 GB and allows for over twice as fast data transfer rates. The other
most common hard drive interface is SCSI, which is faster than EIDE, but usually costs
more.

What is SATA Hard Drive?

Definition

Serial Advanced Technology Attachment, often abbreviated SATA or S-ATA, is a serial

link – a single cable with a minimum of four wires creates a point-to-point connection
between devices. As an evolution of the older Parallel ATA physical storage interface,
SATA host-adapters and devices communicate via a high-speed serial cable.
SATA computer bus, a storage-interface for connecting host bus adapters (most
commonly integrated into laptop computers and desktop motherboards) to mass
storage devices (such as hard disk drives and optical drives), offers several compelling
advantages over the older parallel ATA/”EIDE” interface: reduced cable-bulk and cost (7
pins vs 40 pins), faster and more efficient data transfer, and the ability to remove or add
devices while operating (hot swapping).

Advantage

1) Transfer rates for Serial ATA begin at 150MBps

2) One of the main design advantages of Serial ATA is that the thinner serial
cables facilitate

3) In contrast, IDE cables used in parallel ATA systems are bulkier than Serial

What is SCSI
Small Computer System Interface. This interface was introduced as a method of
connecting multiple peripherals to computers. Based on a parallel bus structure,
with each device having a unique ID (or address), the SCSI bus will support up to
seven devices plus the host adapter. Newer ‘wide’ interfaces, used almost
exclusively for hard drives, can support up to 15 devices plus the host controller,
and can transfer data at burst speeds of up to 320 MB/sec. Because of the
multiple device support and extended cable length (up to 6 meters for SCSI-2),
the higher transfer rate, and the ability to install multiple host adapters on the
motherboard or in available connectors, the SCSI interface is used most often to
connect external devices such as scanners, CD-ROMs, CD duplicators, and
multi-drive storage enclosures, while at the same time connecting to SCSI
devices internally, usually on the same adapter.
IEEE 1394 Interface
Definition - What does IEEE 1394 Interface mean?
The IEEE 1394 interface is an electronic standard that is used to connect computers. It
includes a plug-and-socket connection with a serial bus interface. Up to 63 devices may
be connected at the same time with (relatively) high data transfer speeds.
The IEEE 1394 standard has proved very popular for communication between
computers and peripheral devices.
The IEEE 1394 interface is commonly known as FireWire.

Redundant Array of Independent

Disks (RAID)
Definition - What does Redundant Array of Independent
Disks (RAID) mean?
Redundant array of independent disks (RAID) is a method of storing duplicate data on
two or more hard drives. It is used for data backup, fault tolerance, to improve
throughput, increase storage functions and to enhance performance.
RAID is attained by combining two or more hard drives and a RAID controller into a
logical unit. The OS sees RAID as a single logical hard drive called a RAID array. There
are different levels of RAID, each distributing data across the hard drives with their own
attributes and features. Originally, there were five levels, but RAID has advanced to
several levels with numerous nonstandard levels and nested levels. The levels are
numbered RAID 0, RAID 1, RAID 2, etc. They are standardized by the storage
networking industry association and are defined in the common RAID disk data format
(DDF) standard data structure.

Solid-State Computer (SSC)

Definition - What does Solid-State Computer (SSC) mean?
A solid-state computer (SSC) is a computer system that is built using solid-state devices,
equipment and components within its physical architecture.
Solid-state computers differ from the typical computers in their use of solid-state technology and
their lack any moving parts.

Solid state computers are also known as solid-state PCs (SSPC).

Techopedia explains Solid-State Computer (SSC)

Solid-state computers consist of solid-state components such as semiconductors, integrated
circuits, solid-state storage drives and nonvolatile flash memory. Because solid-state computers
lack mechanical parts, they are less noisy than conventional computers, and provide faster data
retrieval and processing capabilities.

However, because solid-state computers have no exhaust fan, these computers may not have a
graphic card in their architecture, which relies on an embedded fan for cooling.

Disk Geometry

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Introduction
If you’re planning an Exchange infra-structure or even if you have already
implemented it, one of the must-reads is undoubtably Optimizing
Storage for Exchange Server 2003. In this fine document you can
read:

"Disk subsystem bottlenecks cause more performance

problems than server-side CPU or RAM deficiencies, and a
 poorly designed disk subsystem can leave your organization
vulnerable to hardware malfunctions."

This is so true! As memory chips become cheaper and consolidation dictates

more users per server, the disk subsystem turns into the main cause of
performance problems. The key to a system without problems is proper
planning and design. Of course there’s always some tweaking you can do,
preferably before going live with the system. Realigning the hard disk is one
of these things, which can lead to a significant performance improvement.
Hard Disk Basics
Hard disks are organized as a concentric stack of platters. The data is stored
on concentric circles on the surfaces known as tracks. Sections within each
track are called sectors. A sector is the smallest physical storage unit on a
disk and typically it will hold 512 bytes of data. The disk itself can't handle
smaller amounts of data than one sector.

Figure 1: Hard disk schematic

Electromagnetic read/write heads are positioned above and below each

platter. As the platters spin, the drive heads move in toward the center surface
and out toward the edge. In this way, the drive heads can reach the entire
surface of each platter. Reading from 2 tracks implies a realignment of the
reading heads, thus it takes longer than reading a single track.
Simple, right? Well, it gets more complicated than this, but we’ll discuss that
later.
The Theory
Microsoft provides a tool, DiskPar, which allows aligning the disk tracks
with sector tracks. For partitions created by Windows 2000 and Windows
Server 2003, the default starting sector for disks that have more than 63
sectors per track is the 64th sector. Because Windows will read blocks of 4
KB (8 sectors), one out of every eight blocks of data written to your disk will
span two disk tracks (assuming 64 sectors per track). DiskPar can increase
disk performance as much as 20 percent, but you should always consult your
hardware vendor before using this tool (I’ll discuss why next). Some disk
configurations will have no benefit from the tool.
There is also another tool that can perform the same job, DiskPart (notice the
extra “t”), but you’ll have to install Windows 2003 Service Pack 1 in order to
get this functionality.
The Real World
Now that you know what’s inside your hard disk and how the data is stored,
it’s time to add some complexity.
If you imagine the surface of a disk platter, considering a constant number of
sectors per track and knowing that track lengths increase the farther a track
resides from the center of the disk (they are concentric circles), it’s not hard
to conclude that the outer data sectors are longer than the inner data sectors.
This means that the outer tracks are greatly underutilized, because in theory
they can hold many more sectors given the same linear bit density. In order to
increase capacity and eliminate this wasted space, a technique called zone bit
recording (ZBR) is employed on modern hard disks. With this technique,
tracks are grouped into zones based on their distance from the center of the
disk, and each zone is assigned a number of sectors per track. As you move
from the innermost part of the disk to the outer edge, you move through
different zones, each containing more sectors per track than the one before.
This allows for more efficient use of the larger tracks on the outside of the
disk.
 Figure 2: Zoned Bit Recording (ZBR)

Nowadays, disks use many complex internal structures, so there’s no simple

way of knowing the real geometry of a disk. Indeed, the number of sectors
per track is variable, because of zone bit recording, so there is no real number
of sectors per track.
By now you may be confused, wondering if there’s a point in aligning disk
tracks. I can assure you there is, but you should definitely consult your
hardware vendor. He should provide you with pertinent information
regarding the use of an alignment tool. One fine example of information
provided by the storage vendor is HP. Just take a look at this document: HP
StorageWorks Enterprise Virtual Array 5000 and Microsoft®
Exchange Server 2003: storage performance and
configuration — white paper.
And even if you can’t get the information from the vendor, you can make
your own performance testing using a tool like JetStress and varying the
starting disk offset with DiskPar or DiskPart. A good value to start is
probably 64 sectors (or 32 KB).
There is also a KB article about how Windows handles the complex
geometry of modern hard disks: Q161563: How Windows NT
Handles Drive Translation.

Hard Disk Heads :-

A read/write head or RW head is a device found on the arm of a hard
drive that is used to read and write data from the hard drive's disk
platter. Hard drives usually have one read/write head for each platter
side. While idle, each head resides on the platter and when the platter
spins an air cushion develops causing the head floats 3 to 20-millionths
of an inch above the platter. When data needs to be read or written the
read/write arm is controlled by a motor within the Actuator. Below is an
example of the inside of a desktop and laptop hard disk drive.

A hard drive is a magnetic media and works by using the write head to
polarize sections of the hard drive to face North (up) or (down) to represent
either 1 or 0 (binary). Once the information has been written to the hard
drive, it is read by the read head that detects the polarization of each section
of the drive to understand the data.
In the above picture, the write head has already written "10100101" to the
hard drive and has four more visible empty places. To write information
(change the polarization) the electromagnetic write head changes the wire
coils electric current direction. One direction makes the North face up, and
the other direction causes it to face down.

Track (disk drive)

A disk drive track is a circular path on the surface of a disk or diskette on
which information is magnetically recorded and from which recorded
information is read.
A track is a physical division of data in a disk drive, as used in the
Cylinder-Head-Record (CCHHR) addressing mode of a CKD disk. The
concept is concentric, through the physical platters, being a data circle per
each cylinder of the whole disk drive. In other words, the number of tracks
on a single surface in the drive exactly equals the number of cylinders of
the drive.
Tracks are subdivided into blocks (or sectors, pages) (see: Storage
block and Virtual page).
The term track is sometimes prefaced with the word logical (i.e. "3390-9
has 3 logical tracks per physical track") to emphasize the fact when used
as an abstract concept, not a track in the physical sense.
Disk sector

Figure 1: Disk structures:

A. Track
B. Geometrical sector
C. Track sector
D. Cluster

In computer disk storage, a sector is a subdivision of a track on

a magnetic disk or optical disc. Each sector stores a fixed amount
of user-accessible data, traditionally 512 bytes for hard disk
drives (HDDs) and 2048 bytes for CD-ROMs and DVD-ROMs.
Newer HDDs use 4096-byte (4 KiB) sectors, which are known as
the Advanced Format (AF).
The sector is the minimum storage unit of a hard drive.[1] Most
disk partitioning schemes are designed to have files occupy an
integral number of sectors regardless of the file's actual size. Files
that do not fill a whole sector will have the remainder of their last
sector filled with zeroes. In practice, operating systems typically
operate on blocks of data, which may span multiple sectors.[2]
Geometrically, the word sector means a portion of a disk between
a center, two radii and a corresponding arc (see Figure 1, item B),
which is shaped like a slice of a pie. Thus, the disk sector (Figure
1, item C) refers to the intersection of a track and
geometrical sector.
In modern disk drives, each physical sector is made up of two
basic parts, the sector header area (typically called "ID") and the
data area. The sector header contains information used by the
drive and controller; this information includes sync bytes, address
identification, flaw flag and error detection and correction
information. The header may also include an alternate address to
be used if the data area is undependable. The address
identification is used to ensure that the mechanics of the drive
have positioned the read/write head over the correct location. The
data area contains the sync bytes, user data and an error-
correcting code (ECC) that is used to check and possibly correct
errors that may have been introduced into the data.

Cylinder Definition

A cylinder is any set of all of tracks of equal diameter in a hard disk drive
(HDD). It can be visualized as a single, imaginary, circle that cuts through
all of the platters (and both sides of each platter) in the drive.

A platter is a thin, high-precision aluminum or glass disk that is coated on

both sides with a high-sensitivity magnetic material and which is used by a
HDD to store data. Modern HDDs contain multiple platters, all of which are
mounted on a single shaft, in order to maximize the data storage surface in a
given volume of space.

The magnetic media on each side of each platter is divided into a series of
tracks. A track is any of the concentric circles over which one magnetic
head passes while it is stationary but the platter is rotating at high speed. A
 magnetic head, also commonly referred to as just a head, is a small, high-
sensitivity electromagnet that is used for reading and writing data on the
magnetic media. Each platter requires two heads, one for each side. All
heads in a HDD are mechanically linked and move in unison, and
consequently they are always in a common cylinder.

Each track, and thus each cylinder, on a modern HDD has a width of only a
few microns (i.e., millionths of a meter). There can be tens of thousands of
tracks on each platter, and thus the same number of cylinders in the HDD.

BIOSs (basic input output systems) on older computers were unable to read
past the first 1024 cylinders of the primary HDD. A BIOS is a
small program that controls a personal computer's hardware from the time
that the power is turned on until the operating system is loaded
into memory and takes over. This limitation added to the complexity of
installing multiple operating systems on a single computer; fortunately, it
does not exist in newer BIOSs.

The term cylinder as used with regard to HDDs is a slight misnomer and
thus may lead to some confusion for those not yet familiar with the internals
of HDDs. This is because the conventional definition of a cylinder is a solid
object with a circular cross section, such as a piston in an internal
combustion engine, whereas the meaning in a HDD context is only a
cylinder's outer curved surface and exclusive of its interior.

Hard Drive Clusters and File Allocation

As we have explained throughout our segments on hard drives, as well as their

structures and file systems, the purpose of the file system itself is to organize data on
the drive. Until recently, the most frequently used file system for personal computers
and workstations has been the FAT family of file systems, consisting of FAT12,
FAT16, VFAT and FAT32. Each of these file systems use a specific technique for
dividing the storage on a disk volume into discrete areas so as to create a balance
between efficient disk use and performance. These discrete areas are referred to
as clusters, and the process by which files are assigned to clusters is called allocation.
Hence, clusters are sometimes referred to as allocation units.

As we move through this discussion of hard drive clusters and file allocation, we will
touch on what clusters are and how they are assigned to files. While here, we will also
spend some time discussing how the FAT file system handles the deletion and
restoration of files, what causes fragmentation and some of the system errors that can
occur with the FAT file system.

Clusters (Allocation Units)

The smallest unit of space on the hard disk that any software program can access is
a sector, which usually consists of 512 bytes. It is possible to have an allocation
system for a disk whereupon each file is assigned as many individual sectors as is
required. An an, a 1 Megabyte would require approximately 2,048 individual sectors
to store its data, and the HPFS utilizes this type of allocation system.

The FAT file system, as is the case with most file systems, does not utilize individual
sectors, and there are several performance reasons for this. By using individual
sectors, the process of managing disks becomes overly cumbersome since files are
being broken into 512-byte pieces. If you were to take a 20 GB disk volume set up
with 512 byte sectors and manage them individually, the disk would have over 40
million individual sectors. Just keeping track of this many pieces of information is
both time, as well as resource, consuming. While some operating systems do allocate
specific sector storage, they also require some advanced intelligence to do so. Bear in
mind how old the FAT file system is, as it was designed many years ago as merely a
simple file system, without the capability to managed individual sectors.

Landing zones[edit]
A landing zone is an area of the platter usually near its inner diameter (ID),
where no data is stored. This area is called the Contact Start/Stop (CSS)
zone. Disks are designed such that either a spring or, more recently,
rotational inertia in the platters is used to park the heads in the case of
unexpected power loss. In this case, the spindle motor temporarily acts as
a generator, providing power to the actuator.
Spring tension from the head mounting constantly pushes the heads
towards the platter. While the disk is spinning, the heads are supported by
an air bearing and experience no physical contact or wear. In CSS drives
the sliders carrying the head sensors (often also just called heads) are
designed to survive a number of landings and takeoffs from the media
surface, though wear and tear on these microscopic components
eventually takes its toll. Most manufacturers design the sliders to survive
50,000 contact cycles before the chance of damage on startup rises above
50%. However, the decay rate is not linear: when a disk is younger and has
had fewer start-stop cycles, it has a better chance of surviving the next
startup than an older, higher-mileage disk (as the head literally drags along
the disk's surface until the air bearing is established). For example, the
Seagate Barracuda 7200.10 series of desktop hard disk drives are rated to
50,000 start–stop cycles, in other words no failures attributed to the head–
platter interface were seen before at least 50,000 start–stop cycles during
testing.[6]
Around 1995 IBM pioneered a technology where a landing zone on the disk
is made by a precision laser process (Laser Zone Texture = LZT) producing
an array of smooth nanometer-scale "bumps" in a landing zone,[7] thus
vastly improving stiction and wear performance. This technology is still
largely in use today, predominantly in desktop and enterprise (3.5-inch)
drives. In general, CSS technology can be prone to increased stiction (the
tendency for the heads to stick to the platter surface), e.g. as a
consequence of increased humidity. Excessive stiction can cause physical
damage to the platter and slider or spindle motor.

Master Boot Record (MBR)

The Master Boot Record (MBR) is the information in the first sector of
any hard disk or diskette that identifies how and where an operating system is
located so that it can be boot(loaded) into the computer's main storage
or random access memory. The Master Boot Record is also sometimes called
the "partition sector" or the "master partition table" because it includes a table
that locates each partition that the hard disk has been formatted into. In
addition to this table, the MBR also includes a program that reads the boot
sector record of the partition containing the operating system to be booted into
RAM. In turn, that record contains a program that loads the rest of the
operating system into RAM.

Zone bit recording

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In computer storage, zone bit recording (ZBR) is a method used by disk drives to optimise
the tracks for increased data capacity. It does this by placing more sectors per zone on outer tracks
than on inner tracks. This contrasts with other approaches, such as constant angular velocity (CAV)
-drives, where the amount of sectors per track are the same. On a disk consisting of
roughly concentric tracks – whether realized as separate circular tracks or as a single spiral track –
the physical track length (circumference) is increased as it gets farther from the centre hub.

Physical layout of sectors in a zone-bit disc: As distance from the centre increases, the number of sectors in a
given angle increases from one (red) to two (green) to four (grey).

The inner tracks are packed as densely as the particular drive's technology allows. The packing of
the rest of the disks is changed depending on the type of disk.
With a CAV-drive the data on the outer tracks are the same angular width of those in the centre, and
so less densely packed. Using ZBR instead, the inner zoning is used to set the read/write rate, which
is the same for other tracks. This permits the drive to have more bits stored in the outside tracks
compared to the inner ones. Storing more bits per track equates to achieving a higher total data
capacity on the same disk area.[1]
However, ZBR influences other performance characteristics of the hard disk. In the outer most
tracks, data will have the highest data transfer rate. Since both hard disks and floppy disks typically
number their tracks beginning at the outer edge and continuing inward, and since operating systems
typically fill the lowest-numbered tracks first, this is where the operating system typically stores its
own files during its initial installation onto an empty drive. Testing disk drives when they are new or
empty after defragmenting them with some benchmarking applications will often show their highest
performance. After some time, when more data are stored in the inner tracks, the average data
transfer rate will drop, because the transfer rate in the inner zones is slower; this, combined with the
head's longer stroke and possible fragmentation, may give the impression of the disk drive slowing
down over time.[1]
Some other ZBR drives, such as the 800 kilobyte 3.5" floppy drives in the Apple IIGS and
older Macintosh computers, don't change the data rate but rather spin the medium slower when
reading or writing outer tracks, thus approximating the performance of constant linear velocity drives.
[2
Hard Disk (Hard Drive)
Performance – transfer rates,
latency and seek times
The performance of a hard disk is very important to the overall speed of the system – a slow hard
disk having the potential to hinder a fast processor like no other system component – and the
effective speed of a hard disk is determined by a number of factors.

Chief among them is the rotational speed of the platters. Disk RPM is a critical component of
hard drive performance because it directly impacts the latency and the disk transfer rate. The
faster the disk spins, the more data passes under the magnetic heads that read the data; the slower
the RPM, the higher the mechanical latencies. Hard drives only spin at one constant speed, and
for some time most fast EIDE hard disks span at 5,400rpm, while a fast SCSI drive was capable
of 7,200rpm. In 1997 Seagate pushed spin speed to a staggering 10,033rpm with the launch of its
UltraSCSI Cheetah drive and, in mid 1998, was also the first manufacturer to release an EIDE
hard disk with a spin rate of 7,200rpm.

In 1999 Hitachi broke the 10,000rpm barrier with the introduction of its Pegasus II SCSI drive.
This spins at an amazing 12,000rpm – which translates into an average latency of 2.49ms.
Hitachi has used an ingenious design to reduce the excessive heat produced by such a high spin
rate. In a standard 3.5in hard disk, the physical disk platters have a 3in diameter. However, in the
Pegasus II, the platter size has been reduced to 2.5in. The smaller platters cause less air friction
and therefore reduce the amount of heat generated by the drive. In addition, the actual drive
chassis is one big heat fin, which also helps dissipate the heat. The downside is that since the
platters are smaller and have less data capacity, there are more of them and consequently the
height of the drive is increased.

Hard Drive Latency

Mechanical latencies, measured in milliseconds, include both seek time and rotational latency.
Seek Time is measured defines the amount of time it takes a hard drive’s read/write head to find
the physical location of a piece of data on the disk. Latency is the average time for the sector
being accessed to rotate into position under a head, after a completed seek. It is easily calculated
from the spindle speed, being the time for half a rotation. A drive’s average access time is the
interval between the time a request for data is made by the system and the time the data is
 available from the drive. Access time includes the actual seek time, rotational latency, and
command processing overhead time.

Hard Drive Transfer Rates

The disk transfer rate (sometimes called media rate) is the speed at which data is transferred to
and from the disk media (actual disk platter) and is a function of the recording frequency. It is
generally described in megabytes per second (MBps). Modern hard disks have an increasing
range of disk transfer rates from the inner diameter to the outer diameter of the disk. This is
called a zoned recording technique. The key media recording parameters relating to density per
platter are Tracks Per Inch (TPI) and Bits Per Inch (BPI). A track is a circular ring around the
disk. TPI is the number of these tracks that can fit in a given area (inch). BPI defines how many
bits can be written onto one inch of a track on a disk surface.

The host transfer rate is the speed at which the host computer can transfer data across the
IDE/EIDE or SCSI interface to the CPU. It is more generally referred to as the data transfer rate,
or DTR, and can be the source of some confusion. Some vendors list the internal transfer rate,
the rate at which the disk moves data from the head to its internal buffers. Others cite the burst
data transfer rate, the maximum transfer rate the disk can attain under ideal circumstances and
for a short duration. More important for the real world is the external data transfer rate, or how
fast the hard disk actually transfers data to a PC’s main memory.

By late 2001 the fastest high-performance drives were capable of an average latency of less than
3ms, an average seek time of between 4 and 7ms and maximum data transfer rates in the region
of 50 and 60MBps for EIDE and SCSI-based drives respectively. Note the degree to which these
maximum DTRs are below the bandwidths of the current versions of the drive’s interfaces –
Ultra ATA/100 and UltraSCSI 160 – which are rated at 100MBps and 160MBps respectively.

Hard Disk Controller with functional block diagram

The disk controller is the circuit which enables the CPU to communicate with a hard disk.

Hard disk controller is made up of some common blocks Like:

1. Buffer Memory
2. Buffer Controller
3. Disk Sequencer
4. ECC(Error Correction Code)
5. Host Interface
6. Code Memory
7. Read/Write Memory
8. Disk Drive CPU
9. Servo Controller & Demodulator
10. Motion Motor

Function diagram of hard disk is describe below.

 Buffer Memory

o Buffer memory is used as temporary storage of user's Data.

o This memory may also serve as temporary storage.
o It is made up of SRAM(Static RAM) or DRAM(Dynamic RAM).
o It can be external or embedded with HDC.
o If it is combined in HDC it will provide highest throughput.

 Buffer Controller

o Main function of buffer controller is to provide arbitration & row-signal control to the
bank of buffer memory.
o This memory can be SRAM,DRAM or embedded.
o All remaining components of HDC required this section.
o Buffer controller,under some priority scheme will prevent these block from colliding
while accessing memory buffer.
o System throughput & performance can majorly memory affected by this block.

 Disk Sequencer

o The main task of disk sequencer is to over sec & manage transfer of data between
disk interface and buffer.
o For a disk write operation, the disk sequencer takes user data, appends additional
field such as ECC bytes, and write out newly formatted data to media interface.
o For a disk read operation, disk sequencer read formatted data & convert it back into
user data that is then sent to host interface.

 ECC(Error Correction Code)

o In terms of a single function, ECC is one of the largest blocks of an HDC.

o It is responsible for appending ECC symbol to the user data and also to check & if
needed correct the user data before it is returned to host.
o Large size of ECC block improve performance of HDC.

 Host Interface

o Host Interface provide a standard protocol for disk drive to talk to a host system like
server or computer etc.
o Major host interface are ATA, SCSI & Serial.
o It should have multiple interface blokes & each block should support to particular host
protocol & HDC.
o This allows verity of design, depending on interface chosen and the performance
desired, size of host interface can vary.

 Disk Drive CPU

o CPU of HDC can be implemented in multiple ways.

o Single 8-bit, 16-bit or 32-bit digital signal processors have been used.
o Disk drive control the overall system.
 Servo Controller & Demodulator

o Servo controller block is responsible for general logic of the discs & in positioning of
the actuator on the disk.
o It is hard to standardize this block because it is application specific.

What Is a DVD Drive?

A DVD drive is a component of a computer or other electronic device
designed specifically to utilize digital versatile discs, or DVDs. They are
installed on everything from desktop computers, laptops, DVD players, cars,
televisions and many other devices and areas. They have grown from their
first inception in 1997 to the Blu-Ray discs today. This media will most likely
change as the industry demands more and more performance

Q: What are DVD types?

A:DVD±R
Two recordable DVD formats allow single-layer data to be stored
on each side of the disc -- in other words, one side of the disc can
hold upto 4.38 gigabytes of information. Both DVD formats are
write-once formats, and can be read with most stand-alone DVD
players and with virtually all DVD-ROM drives, though DVD+R is
technically slightly more advanced than DVD-R.
DVD±RW
Two recordable DVD formats allow single-layer data to be stored
on each side of the disc -- in other words, one side of the disc can
hold upto 4.38 gigabytes of information. Both DVD formats can be
read with most stand-alone DVD players and with virtually all
DVD-ROM drives, though DVD+RW is technically slightly more
advanced than DVD-RW.
DVD-R DL
Known as DVD-R9, this is blank DVD media that uses Dual Layer
technology. It can hold up to twice the capacity of a single layer
DVD-R.
DVD+R DL
DVD+R DL is the dual layer version of DVD+R format. It's main
difference to the DVD+R is that it can store upto 8.5 gigabytes on
one disc side, unlike DVD+R which can only hold the same
amount of data that a single layer disc can, appx. 4.38 gigabytes.
This means basically that every single one-sided movie disc ever
released can be stored to one DVD+R DL disc without
compression or removing anything from the original disc.
DVD-RAM
DVD-RAM (DVD-Random Access Memory) media are used in
computers as well as camcorders and personal video recorders.
Compared with other writeable DVDs, DVD-RAM is more closely
related to hard disk technology, as it has concentric tracks
instead of one long spiral track.

What Is a DVD Recorder and a Burner?

Although internet streaming and saving recordings to the Cloud, instead of on physical
media is very popular, many still favor saving their memories and favorite TVs shows on
DVD. Recordings can be made on a DVD recorder or DVD burner, and although the
core technology used to make recordings is the same for both, there some differences.

How DVD Recordings Are Made

DVD recorders and DVD Burners both create DVDs by "burning" via a laser to a blank
DVD disk. The laser creates "pits" on a recordable DVD using heat (that is where the
word "burning" comes in) that stores the bits of video and audio information needed to
create a playable DVD.

Differences Between DVD Recorders and DVD Burners

However, what makes a DVD recorder different is that it refers to a specific type of
standalone unit that resembles and functions very much like a VCR. A DVD burner, on
the other hand, refers to a unit that is either an external add-on or internal DVD drive for
a PC or MAC. These devices are also many times referred to as a DVD writer. DVD
writers not only record video but can also read and write computer data and store it on a
blank DVD disc.
All DVD recorders can record from any analog video source (most can also record video
from digital camcorders via Firewire. Like a VCR, DVD recorders all have AV inputs,
and most have an onboard TV tuner for recording TV shows. DVD Recorders come in
several configurations such as Standalone, DVD Recorder/VCR Combo, or DVD
Recorder/Hard Drive combo units.

Another characteristic of most DVD writers is that they can also record video and audio
onto CD-Rs/CD-RWs, whereas standalone DVD recorders do not have the ability to
read or write computer data, nor record onto CD-R/CD-RWs.

Also, in order to record video and audio onto a PC-DVD burner, the user must input the
video to the computer's hard drive using Firewire, USB, or S-Video through a video card
— this is done in real time. However, you can then copy the resultant files from the hard
drive onto a blank DVD disk, in an accelerated manner.

Recording From Different Sources

However, although a standalone DVD recorder can record from compatible video
sources (such as its tuner or external device), it must be in real time, direct to a blank
DVD.

It is also important to point that when making copies from VHS to DVD either from an
external source within a DVD recorder/VHS combination recorder, this can only be done
in real time. The same goes from DVD-to-DVD if copying from an externally plugged in
DVD player. However, for DVD recorder/Hard Drive combos, if a video is recorded on
the hard drive portion from an external VHS or DVD source, a copy can be made to the
DVD section in either real-time or via Hi-Speed dubbing.

On the other hand, it is important to point out that when making copies from either
externally sourced VHS or DVD content, or from a DVD recorder Hard Drive to a
DVD, video copy-protection limitations apply

Standalone DVD recorders cannot be used to connect to a computer for recording of

data files and can only record video from analog video inputs and, on most DVD
recorders, from a digital camcorder via an iLink (Firewire, IEEE1394) input. Standalone
DVD recorders typically do not come with drivers that are required to interact directly
with a PC.

However, it may be possible that some PC video editing software may allow for the
exporting of standard DVD video files made on a PC to certain standalone DVD
recorders through a PC's and DVD recorder's firewire interface, but, in this rare
instance, you need to consult your software and DVD recorder operating manual or tech
support for specific details. If no information is available on this, with regards to a
specific DVD recorder, the assumption would be that the DVD recorder in question is
not capable of this type of operation.
Final Thoughts

Although DVD burners for PCs are still available as either built-in or add-ons, DVD
recorders are now very rare. This is due to restrictions on what consumers can record
onto DVD, as well as the preference for video-on-demand, internet streaming, and
downloading services.

DISC CONSTRUCTION AND MANUFACTURING

What is the construction ofDVD-R and DVD+R discs?

DVD-R and DVD+R discs can be either single or double-sided. A single-
sided (SS) disc is composed of a recording side and a dummy side while a
double-sided (DS) disc consists of two recording sides. The recording side
of a DVD-R and DVD+R disc is a sandwich of a number of layers. First
comes a polycarbonate plastic substrate containing a shallow spiral groove
extending from the inside to the outside diameter of the disc. A DVD-R disc
additionally includes pits and lands on the areas between the coils of the
groove (land pre-pits). Added to this substrate is an organic dye recording
layer (azo, cyanine, dipyrromethene or others) followed by a metal
reflective layer (silver, silver alloy, gold). The dummy side of a single-sided
disc consists of an additional flat polycarbonate plastic substrate
(sometimes with an additional metal layer to obscure the bonding layer
from view for aesthetic purposes). An adhesive then bonds two recording
sides (for a double-sided) or a recording and dummy side (for a single-
sided) together into the final disc. Some single-sided discs are also topped
on the dummy side with decorations or additional layers that provide
surfaces suitable for labeling by inkjet, thermal transfer or re-transfer
printers.

How are DVD-R and DVD+R discs made?

The first step in manufacturing a DVD-R or DVD+R disc is to fabricate the
polycarbonate plastic substrates (incorporating the spiral groove and land
pre-pits) using an injection molding process. The dye is then applied using
spin coating and the metal layers by means of DC sputtering. After both
sides of the disc are completed they are bonded together using a hot melt,
UV cationic or free radical process. Additional decoration or printable layers
are typically applied using screen printing methods. A DVD-R (General)
disc undergoes a further manufacturing step in which a specialized
computer DVD recorder is used to “prewrite” information in the Control
Data Zone of its Lead-in Area to inhibit direct copying of prerecorded DVD-
Video discs encrypted with the Content Scrambling System (CSS). Apart
from this, and some minor differences in the configuration of the molding
stamper used to create the substrates, the process for manufacturing DVD-
R and DVD+R discs is virtually identical.

What is the construction of DVD-RW, DVD+RW and DVD-RAM discs?

To allow information to not only be written but also re-written many times
over, DVD-RW, DVD+RW and DVD-RAM (rewritable) disc construction is
more complex than that of DVD-R and DVD+R (recordable). Just like a
recordable disc, a rewritable disc can be either single or double-sided. The
recording side of a rewritable disc also uses multiple layers beginning with
a polycarbonate plastic substrate containing a shallow spiral groove
extending from the inside to the outside diameter of the disc. A DVD-RW
disc additionally includes pits and lands on the areas between the coils of
the groove (land pre-pits) and a DVD-RAM disc also inside the groove itself
(land and groove). Next comes a dielectric layer (zinc sulfide and silicon
dioxide), followed by a phase-change alloy recording layer (either indium,
silver, tellurium and antimony or germanium, tellurium and antimony),
another dielectric layer and a metal reflective layer (silver, silver alloy,
aluminum). Additional layers may also be incorporated above or below the
dielectric layers (germanium nitride, silicon carbide, silicon dioxide, silicon
nitride, zinc sulfide, antimony telluride and others). The dummy side
consists of a flat polycarbonate plastic substrate sometimes with an
additional metal layer. An adhesive then bonds the sides together into a
single disc. The exterior of the recording side may also be “hard coated”
with a transparent material (indium tin oxide, silicon-based lacquer and
others) designed to repel dust and resist fingerprints and scratches. Similar
to a barcode in appearance, a DVD-RAM or DVD-RW disc can also contain
near its inner diameter an optional Burst Cutting Area (BCA) or Narrow
Burst Cutting Area (NBCA) to supply information required to implement
Content Protection for Recordable Media (CPRM).

How are DVD-RW, DVD+RW and DVD-RAM discs made?

As with DVD-R and DVD+R, producing DVD-RW, DVD+RW or DVD-RAM
discs involves using multiple manufacturing stages. The first step is to
fabricate the substrates (incorporating the spiral groove, land pre-pits and
embossed areas) by injection molding. The dielectric layers, phase-change
recording, reflective and any additional layers are applied to the substrate
using DC, RF and reactive sputtering. After both sides of the disc are
completed they are bonded together using a hot melt, UV cationic or free
radical process. Since the sputtering process lays down the phase-change
alloy in its amorphous condition a special device using powerful lasers
(initializer) returns the recording layer back to its crystalline state.
Subsequent recording then results in less reflective (dark) areas being
written against a more reflective (bright) background. The Burst Cutting
Area (BCA) or Narrow Burst Cutting Area (NBCA) is marked into the disc
using the initializer or a dedicated device outfitted with a YAG (yttrium
aluminum garnet) laser. Hard coating can be applied to the substrates at
different stages in disc manufacturing using a variety of processes such as
spin coating, vacuum deposition and screen printing. A DVD-RAM disc can
optionally undergo a further manufacturing step in which it is physically
formatted by a conventional computer recorder (to detect and map any
defective sectors). Apart from some minor differences in the configuration
of the molding stamper used to create the substrates the process for
manufacturing DVD-RW and DVD+RW discs is virtually identical while
DVD-RAM fabrication is more involved.

How does writable DVD and CD disc manufacturing differ?

Apart from the thinner substrates and tighter manufacturing tolerances, the
most significant difference between writable DVD and CD manufacturing is
the need to perfectly bond two DVD halves together to create a disc that is
the same thickness as a CD (1.2 mm). It is imperative that the two disc
halves have the same long-term mechanical behavior to ensure that the
resulting disc maintains its thermo-mechanical stability. This is particularly
important for high-speed discs where flatness and uniformity are
paramount. Writable DVD disc manufacturing equipment and production
steps (with the addition of the bonding stage) closely resemble those used
to fabricate their CD counterparts. In fact, many media manufacturers have
simply modified their existing CD-R and CD-RW equipment to produce
writable DVD discs although it is generally expected to become less
feasible to do so (for productivity and product quality demands) as the
technology and business evolves.
Computer interfaces[edit]

Digital audio output, analog audio output, and parallel ATA interface.

Most internal drives for personal computers, servers and workstations are designed to fit in a
standard 5.25" drive bay and connect to their host via an ATA or SATA interface. Additionally, there
may be digital and analog outputs for audio. The outputs may be connected via a header cable to
the sound card or the motherboard. At one time, computer software resembling CD
players controlled playback of the CD. Today the information is extracted from the disc as data, to be
played back or converted to other file formats.
External drives usually have USB or FireWire interfaces. Some portable versions for laptops power
themselves from batteries or directly from their interface bus.
Drives with SCSI interface were made, but they are less common and tend to be more expensive,
because of the cost of their interface chipsets, more complex SCSI connectors, and small volume of
sales.
When the optical disc drive was first developed, it was not easy to add to computer systems. Some
computers such as the IBM PS/2 were standardizing on the 3.5" floppy and 3.5" hard disk, and did
not include a place for a large internal device. Also IBM PCs and clones at first only included a single
(parallel) ATA drive interface, which by the time the CDROM was introduced, was already being
used to support two hard drives. Early laptops simply had no built-in high-speed interface for
supporting an external storage device.

HP C4381A CD-Writer Plus 7200 Series, showing parallel ports to connect between a printer and the
computer.

This was solved through several techniques:

 Early sound cards could include a CD-ROM drive interface. Initially, such interfaces were
proprietary to each CD-ROM manufacturer. A sound card could often have two or three different
interfaces which are able to communicate with cdrom drive.
 A parallel port external drive was developed that connected between a printer and the computer.
This was slow but an option for laptops.
 A PCMCIA optical drive interface was also developed for laptops.
 A SCSI card could be installed in desktop PCs for an external SCSI drive enclosure, though
SCSI was typically much more expensive than other options.

DVD Drive Performance Criteria:-

CD, DVD and Blu-ray writing speeds[edit]

1X speed
Full Read
Capacity Capacity
Media Time
(GB) (GiB)
(min)
Mbit/s kB/s KiB/s MiB/s

CD 1.229 153.6 150.0 0.15 734 MB 700 MiB 80

DVD 11.080 1,385.0 1,352.5 1.32 4.7 GB 4.38 GiB 120

Blu-ray
36.000 4,500.0 4,394.5 4.29 25.0 GB 23.28 GiB 180
Disc

Modern compact discs support a writing speed of 52X and higher, with some
modern DVDs supporting speeds of up to 24X.[2] It is important to note that the speed of writing a
DVD at 1X (1,385,000 bytes per second)[3] is approximately 9 as fast as writing a CD at 1X (153,600
bytes per second).[4] However, the actual speeds depend on the type of data being written to the
disc.[4]
For Blu-ray discs, 1X speed is defined as 36 megabits per second (Mbit/s), which is equal to
4.5 megabytes per second (MB/s).[5] However, as the minimum required data transfer rate for Blu-ray
movie discs is 54 Mbit/s, the minimum speed for a Blu-ray drive intended for commercial movie
playback should be 2X. The fastest Blu-ray speed is 16X.
Historically, the 1X writing speed is equivalent to the 1X reading speed, which in turn represents the
speed at which a piece of media can be read in its entirety - 74 minutes. Those 74 minutes come
from the maximum playtime that the Red Book (audio CD standard) specifies for a digital audio CD
(CD-DA); although now, most recordable CDs can hold 80 minutes worth of data. The DVD and Blu-
ray discs hold a higher capacity of data, so reading or writing those discs in the same 74-minute
time-frame requires a higher data transfer rate.

access time
Access time is the time from the start of one storage device access to the time
when the next access can be started. Access time consists of latency (the
overhead of getting to the right place on the device and preparing to access it)
and transfer time.

The term is applied to both random access memory (RAM) access and
to hard disk and CD-ROM access. For RAM access, IBM prefers the
term cycle time. However, the use of access timefor RAM access is common.
Access time to RAM is usually measured in nanoseconds. Access time to a
hard disk or CD-ROM is usually measured in milliseconds.

Disk buffer:-
In computer storage, disk buffer (often ambiguously called disk cache or cache buffer) is the
embedded memory in a hard disk drive(HDD) acting as a buffer between the rest of the
computer and the physical hard disk platter that is used for storage.[1] Modern hard disk drives
come with 8 to 256 MiB of such memory, and solid-state drives come with up to 4 GB of cache
memory.[2]
Since the late 1980s, nearly all disks sold have embedded microcontrollers and either
an ATA, Serial ATA, SCSI, or Fibre Channel interface. The drive circuitry usually has a small
amount of memory, used to store the data going to and coming from the disk platters.
The disk buffer is physically distinct from and is used differently from the page cache typically
kept by the operating system in the computer's main memory. The disk buffer is controlled by
the microcontroller in the hard disk drive, and the page cache is controlled by the computer to
which that disk is attached. The disk buffer is usually quite small, ranging between 8 and
256 MiB, and the page cache is generally all unused main memory. While data in the page
cache is reused multiple times, the data in the disk buffer is rarely reused.[3] In this sense, the
terms disk cache and cache buffer are misnomers; the embedded controller's memory is more
appropriately called disk buffer.
Note that disk array controllers, as opposed to disk controllers, usually have normal cache
memory of around 0.5–8 GiB.

Blu-ray:-
The plastic disc is 120 millimetres (4.7 in) in diameter and 1.2 millimetres (0.047 in) thick, the
same size as DVDs and CDs.[5]Conventional or pre-BD-XL Blu-ray discs contain 25 GB per
layer, with dual-layer discs (50 GB) being the industry standard for feature-length video discs.
Triple-layer discs (100 GB) and quadruple-layer discs (128 GB) are available for BD-XL re-
writer drives.[6]
High-definition (HD) video may be stored on Blu-ray discs with up to 2160p resolution
(3840×2160 pixels) and at up to 60 frames per second. DVD-Video discs were limited to a
maximum resolution of 480p (NTSC, 720×480 pixels) or 576p (PAL, 720×576 pixels).[7]Besides
these hardware specifications, Blu-ray is associated with a set of multimedia formats.
The BD format was developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association, a group representing makers of
consumer electronics, computer hardware, and motion pictures. Sony unveiled the first Blu-ray
disc prototypes in October 2000, and the first prototype player was released in April 2003 in
Japan. Afterwards, it continued to be developed until its official release on June 20, 2006,
beginning the high-definition optical disc format war, where Blu-ray Disc competed with the HD
DVD format. Toshiba, the main company supporting HD DVD, conceded in February 2008,
[8]
and later released its own Blu-ray Disc player in late 2009.[9] According to Media Research,
high-definition software sales in the United States were slower in the first two years than DVD
software sales.[10] Blu-ray faces competition from video on demand (VOD) and the continued sale
of DVDs.[11] Notably, as of January 2016, 44% of U.S. broadband households had a Blu-ray
player.[12]

UNIT – III

input devices printer:-

keyboard:-- A keyboard is a peripheral device that enables a user to input text into
a computer or any other electronic machinery. A keyboard is an input device and is the
most basic way for the user to communicate with a computer. This device is patterned
after its predecessor, the typewriter, from which the keyboard inherited its layout,
although the keys or letters are arranged to function as electronic switches. The keys
include punctuation, alphanumeric and special keys like the Windows key and various
multimedia keys, which have specific functions assigned to them.

Keyboard operation:-
A keyboard's primary function is to act as an input device. Using a keyboard, a
person can type a document, use keystroke shortcuts, access menus, play
games and perform a variety of other tasks. Keyboards can have different keys
depending on the manufacturer, the operating system they're designed for, and
whether they are attached to a desktop computer or part of a laptop. But for the
most part, these keys, also called keycaps, are the same size and shape from
keyboard to keyboard. They're also placed at a similar distance from one another
in a similar pattern, no matter what language or alphabet the keys represent.

Most keyboards have between 80 and 110 keys, including:

 Typing keys
 A numeric keypad
 Function keys
 Control keys
The typing keys include the letters of the alphabet, generally laid out in the
same pattern used for typewriters. According to legend, this layout, known
as QWERTY for its first six letters, helped keep mechanical typewriters' metal
arms from colliding and jamming as people typed. Some people question this
story -- whether it's true or not, the QWERTY pattern had long been a standard
by the time computer keyboards came around.

Keyboards can also use a variety of other typing key arrangements. The most
widely known is Dvorak, named for its creator, August Dvorak. The Dvorak
layout places all of the vowels on the left side of the keyboard and the most
common consonants on the right. The most commonly used letters are all found
along the home row. The home row is the main row where you place your
fingers when you begin typing. People who prefer the Dvorak layout say it
increases their typing speed and reduces fatigue. Other layouts
include ABCDE, XPeRT, QWERTZ and AZERTY. Each is named for the first
keys in the pattern. The QWERTZ and AZERTY arrangements are commonly
used in Europe.
The numeric keypad is a more recent addition to the computer keyboard. As the
use of computers in business environments increased, so did the need for
speedy data entry. Since a large part of the data was numbers, a set of 17 keys,
arranged in the same configuration found on adding machines and calculators,
was added to the keyboard.

The Apple keyboard's control keys include the "Command" key.

In 1986, IBM further extended the basic keyboard with the addition
of function and control keys. Applications and operating systemscan assign
specific commands to the function keys. Control keys provide cursor and screen
control. Four arrow keys arranged in an inverted T formation between the typing
keys and numeric keypad move the cursor on the screen in small increments.

Other common control keys include:

 Home
 End
 Insert
 Delete
 Page Up
 Page Down
 Control (Ctrl)
 Alternate (Alt)
 Escape (Esc)
The Windows keyboard adds some extra control keys:
two Windows or Start keys, and an Application key. Apple keyboards, on the
other hand, have Command (also known as "Apple") keys. A keyboard
developed for Linux users features Linux-specific hot keys, including one marked
with "Tux" the penguin -- the Linux logo/mascot.
Keyboard types[edit]
One factor determining the size of a keyboard is the presence of duplicate keys, such as a separate
numeric keyboard, for convenience.
Further the keyboard size depends on the extent to which a system is used where a single action is
produced by a combination of subsequent or simultaneous keystrokes (with modifier keys), or
multiple pressing of a single key. A keyboard with few keys is called a keypad.
Another factor determining the size of a keyboard is the size and spacing of the keys. Reduction is
limited by the practical consideration that the keys must be large enough to be easily pressed by
fingers. Alternatively a tool is used for pressing small keys.

Standard[edit]
Standard alphanumeric keyboards have keys that are on three-quarter inch centers (0.750 inches,
19.05 mm)[citation needed], and have a key travel of at least 0.150 inches (3.81 mm). Desktop computer
keyboards, such as the 101-key US traditional keyboards or the 104-key Windows keyboards,
include alphabetic characters, punctuation symbols, numbers and a variety of function keys. The
internationally common 102/104 key keyboards have a smaller left shift key and an additional key
with some more symbols between that and the letter to its right (usually Z or Y). Also the enter key is
usually shaped differently. Computer keyboards are similar to electric-typewriter keyboards but
contain additional keys, such as the command or Windows keys. There is no standard computer
keyboard, although many manufacturers imitate the keyboard of PCs. There are actually three
different PC keyboards: the original PC keyboard with 84 keys, the AT keyboard also with 84 keys
and the enhanced keyboard with 101 keys. The three differ somewhat in the placement of function
keys, the control keys, the return key, and the shift key.

Laptop-size[edit]

Keyboards on laptops usually have a shorter travel distance and a reduced set of keys.

Keyboards on laptops and notebook computers usually have a shorter travel distance for the
keystroke, shorter over travel distance, and a reduced set of keys. They may not have a numeric
keypad, and the function keys may be placed in locations that differ from their placement on a
standard, full-sized keyboard. The switch mechanism for a laptop keyboard is more likely to be a
scissor switch than a rubber dome; this is opposite the trend for full-size keyboards.

Flexible keyboards[edit]
Flexible keyboards are a junction between normal type and laptop type keyboards: normal from the
full arrangement of keys, and laptop from the short key distance. Additionally, the flexibility allows
the user to fold/roll the keyboard for better storage and transfer. However, for typing the keyboard
must be resting on a hard surface. The vast majority[citation needed] of flexible keyboards in the market are
made from silicone; this material makes them water- and dust-proof. This may be useful in
hospitals[citation needed] where keyboards are subjected to frequent washing.

Handheld[edit]

An AlphaGrip handheld keyboard

Handheld ergonomic keyboards[8][9] are designed to be held like a game controller, and can be used
as such, instead of laid out flat on top of a table surface. Typically handheld keyboards hold all the
alphanumeric keys and symbols that a standard keyboard would have, yet only be accessed by
pressing two sets of keys at once; one acting as a function key similar to a 'Shift' key that would
allow for capital letters on a standard keyboard.[10] Handheld keyboards allow the user the ability to
move around a room or to lean back on a chair while also being able to type in front or away from
the computer.[11] Some variations of handheld ergonomic keyboards also include a trackball mouse
that allow mouse movement and typing included in one handheld device.[12]

Thumb-sized[edit]
Smaller external keyboards have been introduced for devices without a built-in keyboard, such
as PDAs, and smartphones. Small keyboards are also useful where there is a limited workspace. [13]
A thumb keyboard (thumb board) is used in some personal digital assistants such as the Palm
Treo and BlackBerry and some Ultra-Mobile PCs such as the OQO.
Numeric keyboards contain only numbers, mathematical symbols for addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division, a decimal point, and several function keys. They are often used to
facilitate data entry with smaller keyboards that do not have a numeric keypad, commonly those of
laptop computers.[14] These keys are collectively known as a numeric pad, numeric keys, or a
numeric keypad, and it can consist of the following types of keys: Arithmetic
operators, numbers, arrow keys, Navigation keys, Num Lock and Enter key.

Multifunctional[edit]

Multifunction keyboard with LCD function keys

Multifunctional keyboards provide additional function beyond the standard keyboard. Many are
programmable, configurable computer keyboards and some control multiple PCs, workstations
(incl. SUN) and other information sources (incl. Thomson Reuters FXT/Eikon, Bloomberg, EBS, etc.)
usually in multi-screen work environments. Users have additional key functions as well as the
standard functions and can typically use a single keyboard and mouse to access multiple sources.

Multifunction keyboard with touch

Multifunctional keyboards may feature customised keypads, fully programmable function or soft keys
for macros/pre-sets, biometric or smart card readers, trackballs, etc. New generation multifunctional
keyboards feature a touchscreen display to stream video, control audio visual media and alarms,
execute application inputs, configure individual desktop environments, etc. Multifunctional keyboards
may also permit users to share access to PCs and other information sources. Multiple interfaces
(serial, USB, audio, Ethernet, etc.) are used to integrate external devices. Some multifunctional
keyboards are also used to directly and intuitively control video walls.
Common environments for multifunctional keyboards are complex, high-performance workplaces
for financial traders and control roomoperators (emergency services, security, air traffic
management; industry, utilities management, etc.).