Chapter One

Matrices, Determinant and Systems of Linear Equation

●●●

Definition of Matrix: A rectangular array of numbers of the form 𝐴 =

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛

⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ where each 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ∈ ℝ is called a Matrix and the notation
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛

abbreviated as 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 .

The horizontal arrangement of the array is called a row while the vertical

arrangement of the array is called column. Here, we say that 𝐴 has size or

order 𝑚 by 𝑛 written as 𝑚 × 𝑛. That means it has 𝑚 rows and 𝑛 columns.

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 Matrices

●●●
● The numbers in a matrix are called the entries or the elements
of the matrix.
● Matrices are denoted by single capital letters such as 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and
so on.
● The word matrix is singular and matrices is its plural form.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑎 𝑏
Example: 𝐴 = is a 2 × 2 matrix, 𝐵 = 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 is a 3 ×
𝑐 𝑑
𝑔 ℎ 𝑘
1 2 4
3 matrix, 𝐶 = 2 3 is a 3 × 2 matrix, 𝐷 = 3 is a 4 × 1 matrix
2
4 5 1
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 Operations on Matrices

●●●
● Operation on matrices refers to sum, the difference and the
product of two given matrices. Assuming 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 and B=
(𝑏𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 , let’s define these operation.
● Addition of Matrices: The sum of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the matrix 𝐴 + 𝐵
obtained by adding corresponding entries as 𝐴+𝐵 =
(𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 .
● Subtraction of Matrices: The difference of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the
matrix 𝐴 − 𝐵 obtained by subtracting corresponding entries as
𝐴 − 𝐵 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 − 𝑏𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 .
● Scalar multiple: The scalar multiple k𝐴 of 𝐴 is a matrix
obtained by multiplying each entries of 𝐴 by the scalar 𝑘 as k𝐴 =
(𝑘𝑎𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 .
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 Operations on Matrices

●●●
● Compatibility condition: Two matrices can be added or
subtracted if they have the same size. This means that we cannot
add or subtract matrices of different size.
3 4 1 2
Example: Let 𝐴 = ,𝐵 = . Then, we can find 𝐴+B,
5 6 3 4
A-B and 3𝐴 as follows:
3 4 1 2 3+1 4+2 4 6
● 𝐴+𝐵 = + = =
5 6 3 4 5+3 6+4 8 10
● 𝐴−𝐵 = 3 4
−
1 2
=
3−1 4−2
=
2 2
5 6 3 4 5−3 6−4 2 2
● 3𝐴 = 3 3 4
=
3×3 3×4
=
9 12
5 6 3×5 3×6 15 18
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 Operations on Matrices

●●●
● Matrix Multiplication: is the operation that we can use to find
the product 𝐴𝐵.
● Note: The product 𝐴𝐵 is defined if and only if the number of
columns in the matrix 𝐴 equals the number of rows in the matrix
𝐵.
● Besides, if 𝐴 is 𝑚 × 𝑝 and 𝐵 is p × 𝑛, then the product 𝐴𝐵 will
be 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix
1 2 −2 3
● Example: Let 𝐴 = ,𝐵 = . Then, find the
0 −3 1 −1
product 𝐴𝐵.
1 2 −2 3 0 −1
● Solution: 𝐴𝐵 = = .
0 −3 1 −1 −3 3
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 Equality of Matrices

●●●
Two matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be equal (write 𝐴 = 𝐵) if and
only if 𝐴 and 𝐵 have the same size and all their corresponding
entries are equal. That is, 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 , 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 with 𝑎𝑖𝑗 =
𝑏𝑖𝑗 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 1≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑚, 1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛.
● Example: Find the values of 𝛼 and 𝛽 for which the given
matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 are equal.
1 2 𝛼−𝛽 2
𝐴= , 𝐵= .
3 −1 𝛼 −1
● Solution: Similarly, we have 𝑎11 = 𝑏11 implies 𝛼 − 𝛽 = 1, 𝑎21 =
𝑏21 implies 𝛼 = 3, and hence 𝛽 = 2.
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 Equality of Matrices
●●●

● Remark: Two matrices are said to be equal if

they are of the same order and if all
corresponding entries are equal.

● Exercise: Solve the following matrix equation

𝑥−𝑦 𝑦+𝑧 8 1
for 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 and 𝑤 . =
3𝑤 + 𝑧 2𝑥 − 4𝑤 7 6

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 Types of Matrices

●●●
● Zero Matrix or Null Matrix: if all entries of a matrix are zero,
then the matrix is called zero matrix or null matrix. That is, an 𝑚 ×
𝑛 matrix 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is said to be zero matrix if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 for all 𝑖𝑗.
● Example: The following are zero matrices.
0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
● 0 0 , , 0 0 0 , 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
● Row Matrix: A matrix having exactly one row is called row matrix
and denoted by 𝐴 = (𝑎1𝑗 )1×𝑛 .
● Example: The matrices 𝐴 = 4 − 5 and 𝐵 = −2 3 7 are row
matrices.

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 Types of Matrices

●●●
● Column Matrix: A matrix having exactly one column is called column
matrix and denoted by 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖1 )𝑚×1 .
−2
4
● Example: The matrices 𝐶 = and 𝐷 = 3 are Column matrices.
−5
7
● Square Matrix: A matrix that has equal number of rows and columns is
called square matrix. If 𝐴 has 𝑛-rows and 𝑛-columns, we call it a square
matrix of size 𝑛.
𝑎11 𝑎12 2 −3 4
Example: 𝐴 = 𝑎 𝑎 (Square matrix of size 2), 𝐵 = 3 2 5
21 22
0 8 −2
(Square matrix of size 3)
𝑐11 𝑐12 ⋯ 𝑐1𝑛
𝑐21 𝑐22 ⋯ 𝑐2𝑛
● 𝐶=
⋮ ⋮
(Square matrix of size 𝑛)
⋱ ⋮
𝑐𝑛1 𝑐𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑐𝑛𝑛

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 Types of Matrices

●●●
● In square matrix, the entries 𝑐11 , 𝑐22 , … , 𝑐𝑛𝑛 are called diagonal entries.
● The diagonal containing the entries 𝑐11 , 𝑐22 , … , 𝑐𝑛𝑛 is called main diagonal
or principal diagonal of 𝐴.

● The entries that are not in the main diagonal are called non-diagonal entries .

2 3 5
● Example: The matrix C = 5 3 2 the entries 𝑐11 = 2, 𝑐22 = 3 and
4 0 7
𝑐33 = 7 constitute the ,main diagonal.

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 Types of Matrices

●●●
● Definition (Trace of Square Matrix): The sum of the entries on the
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
main diagonal of a square matrix 𝐴 = of
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛
order 𝑛 is called the trace of 𝐴. It is given by
𝑛

𝑡𝑟 𝐴 = ෍ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎11 + 𝑎22 + … + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 .

𝑖=1

2 3 5
● Example: Consider a matrix 𝐴 = 5 3 2 , then trace of 𝐴 ,
4 0 7
𝑡𝑟 𝐴 = 2 + 3 + 7 = 12.

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 Types of Matrices
●●●

● Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑖𝑗 𝑛×𝑛

is said to be diagonal

matrix if 𝑑𝑖𝑗 = 0 whenever 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗. That is, a square matrix whose every

element other than diagonal elements 𝑑𝑖𝑗 are zero, is called diagonal
matrix.

𝑑11 0 ⋯ 0
0 𝑑22 ⋯ 0
𝐷=
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
0 0 ⋯ 𝑑𝑛𝑛

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 Types of Matrices
●●●
● Example: The following are diagonal matrices.
● 𝐷 = 1 0 (Diagonal matrix of size 2)
0 1
1 0 0
● 𝐷 = 0 2 0 (Diagonal matrix of size 3)
0 0 3
0 0 0
● 𝐷 = 0 −2 0 (Diagonal matrix of size 3)
0 0 1
0 0 0
● 𝐷 = 0 0 0 (Diagonal matrix of size 3)
0 0 0

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 Types of Matrices
●●●
● Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix whose all the
diagonal elements are equal is called a scalar matrix.

𝛼 0
⋯ 0
●𝑆= 0 𝛼
⋯ 0
⋮ ⋮
⋱ ⋮
0 ⋯ 𝛼
0
4 0 0 0 0 0
1 0
● Example: 0 4 0 , 0 0 0 and are
0 1
0 0 4 0 0 0
examples of scalar matrix.

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 Types of Matrices
●●●
● A diagonal matrix whose all main diagonal elements are equal to 1 is called an
identity or unit matrix. An identity matrix of order n is denoted by 𝐼𝑛 or
more simply by I.
1 0 ⋯ 0
𝐼𝑛 = 0 1 ⋯ 0
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
0 0 ⋯ 1
● Example : The following are identity matrices.
1 0 0
1 0
𝐼2 = (Identity matrix of size 2), 𝐼3 = 0 1 0 (Identity
0 1
0 0 1
matrix of size 3)
Note: Let 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 be a square matrix. 𝐴 is an identity matrix if and only if
1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑗
𝑎𝑖𝑗 = ቐ
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗

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 Types of Matrices
●●●
● Triangular Matrix: A square matrix is said to be an upper triangular
matrix if all entries below the main diagonal are zeros. A square matrix
is said to be an lower triangular matrix if all entries above the main
diagonal are zeros. Thus, a triangular matrix is a matrix which is either
lower or upper triangular.

● A square matrix 𝑎𝑖𝑗 whose element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0, whenever 𝑖 < 𝑗 is called

a lower triangular matrix. Similarly, a square matrix 𝑎𝑖𝑗 whose
element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0, whenever 𝑖 > 𝑗 is called a upper triangular matrix.

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 Types of Matrices
●●●

2 3 3
● Example: The matrix 𝐴 = 0 7 5 is a particular example of
0 0 −1
upper triangular matrix.

7 0 0
● Matrix 𝐵 = 8 0 0 is a particular example of lower triangular
9 5 −3
matrix.

● Hence, 𝐴 and 𝐵 are triangular matrices.

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 Exercise
●●●

−2 −2 6
1. Given the matrix 𝑌 = 0 2 −10 . Find 𝑋 such that 2𝑋 + 3𝑌 is
8 −6 4
scalar matrix whose trace is 𝑡 = 6.

2. If a matrix 𝐴 has 𝑚 rows & 𝑚 + 5 columns and 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐵 has 𝑛 rows

& 11 − 𝑛 columns, find 𝑚 & 𝑛 so that both products 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐴 exist.

2 4
3. Let 𝐴 = and 𝐼 + 𝑎𝐴 + 𝑏𝐴2 = 0, where 𝐼 is identity matrix of
4 2
order 2, then find 𝑎 and 𝑏.

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 Transpose of a matrix
●●●
● The transpose of a matrix 𝐴 is obtained by interchanging the rows and
columns of 𝐴. It is denoted by 𝐴𝑡 .

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑎11 𝑎21 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚1

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑎12 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚2
● That is, 𝐴 = ⋮ ⋮
𝑡
, then 𝐴 =
⋮ ⋮
⋱ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑎1𝑛 𝑎2𝑛 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑚
● Note that the 𝑘 − 𝑡ℎ row of matrix 𝐴 becomes 𝑘 − 𝑡ℎ column of 𝐴𝑡 , and
the 𝑘 − 𝑡ℎ column of 𝐴 becomes 𝑘 − 𝑡ℎ row of 𝐴𝑡 .

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 Transpose of a matrix
●●●
● Example: Compute the transpose of the following matrices.
2 1 3
1 −1 −1
𝐴= , 𝐵 = 1 5 −3
1 2 3
3 −3 7
● Solution: First let us consider matrix 𝐴. Now, row 1 of matrix 𝐴
becomes column 1 of 𝐴𝑡 , and row 2 of 𝐴 becomes column 2 of 𝐴𝑡 .
Thus, we have
1 1
𝐴𝑡 = −1 2
−1 3
● Similarly,
2 1 3
𝐵𝑡 = 1 5 −3
3 −3 7

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 Transpose of a matrix
●●●
● Theorem (Properties of Matrix Transpose). When the relevant
sums and products are defined, and 𝛼 is a scalar. Then,
1. (𝐴𝑡 )𝑡 = 𝐴
2. (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑡 = 𝐴𝑡 + 𝐵𝑡
3. (𝛼𝐴)𝑡 = 𝛼 𝐴𝑡
4. (𝐴𝐵)𝑡 = 𝐵𝑡 𝐴𝑡 whenever 𝐴𝐵 is defined
5. (𝐴 − 𝐵)𝑡 = 𝐴𝑡 − 𝐵𝑡

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Symmetric and Skew-symmetric
●●●

● A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if 𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴 and

skew-symmetric if 𝐴𝑡 = −𝐴.

● Example : Distinguish whether the given matrix is

symmetric or not.

1 1 3 0 1 3
𝐴= 1 2 2 (b) 𝐵 = −1 0 2
3 2 3 −3 −2 0

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Symmetric and Skew-symmetric
●●●
Solution:

1 1 3 1 1 3
● For the matrix 𝐴 = 1 2 2 , 𝐴𝑡 = 1 2 2 . Thus, we have 𝐴 =
3 2 3 3 2 3
𝐴𝑡 , and hence 𝐴 is symmetric.

0 1 3 0 −1 −3
● For the matrix 𝐵 = −1 0 2 , 𝐵𝑡 = 1 0 2 . Thus, we
−3 −2 0 3 2 0
have B ≠ 𝐵𝑡 , and hence 𝐵 is not symmetric.

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Symmetric and Skew-symmetric
●●●

0 1 3
● Example: −1 0 4 is a particular example of skew-
−3 −4 0
symmetric matrix since

0 −1 −3 0 1 3
● 𝐴𝑡 = 1 0 −4 = − −1 0 4 = −𝐴
3 4 0 −3 −4 0
● Note: For any square matrix 𝐴, 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑡 is symmetric and 𝐴 − 𝐴𝑡 is
skew- symmetric.

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Symmetric and Skew-symmetric
●●●
● Any square matrix 𝐴 can be expressed uniquely as a sum of
symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices. That is 𝐴 = 𝑆 + 𝐾 ,
where 𝑆 is symmetric and 𝐾 is skew-symmetric.
1 1
● For any square matrix 𝐴, 𝑆 = 2 (𝐴 + 𝐴𝑡 ) and K = 2 (𝐴 − 𝐴𝑡 ).

3 2 1
● Exercise: Express the matrix 𝐴 = 4 5 6 as a sum of
7 8 9
symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices.

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 Determinant
●●●
● The determinant of a square matrix 𝐴 is a scalar that is
associated with 𝐴 and denoted by det(𝐴) or 𝐴 . The
determinant of a matrix can be negative, zero or positive.
● Determinant of 𝟏 × 𝟏 Matrices: The determinant of 1 × 1
matrix 𝐴 = (𝑎11 ) is defined as det(𝐴) = 𝐴 = 𝑎11 .
Example : 3 = 3, −9 = −9 and 0 = 0.
● Determinant of 𝟐 × 𝟐 Matrices: The determinant of a 2 × 2
𝑎 𝑐
matrix 𝐴 = , denoted by 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) or 𝐴 , is defined by the
𝑑 𝑏
formula
𝑎 𝑐
𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = = 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑐𝑑.
𝑑 𝑏

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 Determinant
●●●

● Example: Find the determinant of a matrix 𝐴 = 3 5 .

2 7
Solution: Using the above definition, the determinant of matrix 𝐴 is given by
3 5
det 𝐴 = = 3 7 − 5 2 = 21 − 10 = 11.
2 7
● Determinant of 𝟑 × 𝟑 Matrices:
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
Let 𝐴 = 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 be a 3 × 3 matrix, and 𝐴𝑖𝑗 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖, 𝑗 = 1, 2, 3) be
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
the 2 × 2 submatrix of 𝐴 obtained by deleting the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ - row and 𝑗𝑡ℎ -column
of 𝐴. Then determinant of 𝐴 is denoted by 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) or 𝐴 , is defined as:

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 Determinant
●●●

● 𝐴 = (−1)1+1 𝑎11 𝐴11 + (−1)1+2 𝑎12 𝐴12 + (−1)1+3 𝑎13 𝐴13

𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22

𝑎11 𝑎32 𝑎33 − 𝑎12 𝑎31 𝑎33 + 𝑎13 𝑎31 𝑎32 .

● Example 3.36: Compute the determinants of the following matrices

2 3 4 3 −2 4
a. 𝐴 = 3 4 5 b. 𝐵 = −7 −1 0
4 5 9 1 5 2
● Solution: a. Using the above definition, the determinant of the matrix 𝐴
is given by

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 Determinant
●●●
2 3 4
det 𝐴 = 𝐴 = 3 4 5
4 5 9
4 5 3 5 3 4
= −1 1+1 2 + −1 1+2 3 + −1 1+3 4
5 9 4 9 4 5
= 2 4 × 9 − 5 × 5 − 3 3 × 9 − 5 × 4 + 4 3 × 5 − 4 × 4 = 22 − 21 − 4
= −3
3 −2 4
−1 0 −7 0 −7 −1
det 𝐵 = 𝐵 = −7 −1 0 = 3 − (−2) +4
5 2 1 2 1 5
1 5 2
= 3 −1 2 − 0 2 + 2 2 −7 − 0 1 + 4 −7 5 − −1 5
= 3 −2 + 2 −14 + 4 −35 + 1
= −6 − 28 − 136 = −170

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Singular and Non-singular matrices
●●●

● Let 𝐴 be any square matrix. Then, 𝐴 is said to

be

● non-singular matrix if det(𝐴) ≠ 0

● singular matrix if det 𝐴 = 0

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 Inverse of Matrix
●●●
● Let 𝐴 be an 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix. The adjoint of 𝐴 denoted by 𝐴𝑑𝑗(𝐴) is defined as
𝑡
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑀𝑖𝑗 = [𝐶𝑖𝑗 ]𝑡 .

● An 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 is invertible if and only if 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) ≠ 0.

● Only non-singular matrices have inverses or non-singular matrices are
invertible.

● If 𝐴 is a square matrix and 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) ≠ 0, then

𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴
𝐴−1 = .
det 𝐴

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 Inverse of Matrix
●●●
Remark:

● Inverse of a matrix is defined only for square matrices. Moreover, not all
square matrices are invertible. (Every square matrix is not invertible.)

● If 𝐵 is an inverse of 𝐴, then 𝐴 is also an inverse of 𝐵.

● If a matrix 𝐴 has inverse, then 𝐴 is said to be invertible.
● Inverse of a matrix is unique.
● The necessarily and sufficient conditions for a matrix to be invertible is
det 𝐴 ≠ 0. Such matrix are called ’non-singular’ matrix otherwise singular.

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 Inverse of Matrix
●●●
Procedure of Finding Inverse by using adjoint Matrix

● Step 1: Check invertible.

● Compute the determinant det 𝐴 and check whether det 𝐴 ≠ 0. If it is so,
the matrix is invertible, otherwise not invertible.

● Step 2: Find matrix of co-factors C.

● Step 3: Find Adj(A) by taking transpose of 𝐶; that is, Adj A = 𝐶 𝑡
● Step 4: Compute inverse from the following formula
1
● 𝐴−1 = det 𝐴 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴

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 Inverse of Matrix
●●●
● Example: Find the adjoint of 𝐴 and inverse of 𝐴, where
−1 3 6
𝐴 = 2 −1 5
−3 7 4
Solution: First of all we have to find the miner of a matrix 𝐴
3 6
● 𝑀11 = −1 5 = −39, 𝑀12 = 2 5
= 23, 𝑀13 = = −30
7 4 −3 4 7 4
3 6 −1 6 −1 3
● 𝑀21 = = −30, 𝑀22 = = 14, 𝑀23 = =2
7 4 −3 4 −3 7
3 6 −1 6 −1 3
● 𝑀31 = = 21, 𝑀32 = = −17, 𝑀33 = = −5
−1 5 2 5 2 −1

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 Inverse of Matrix
●●●
So, based on this the cofactors are

● 𝑐11 = −1 1+1 𝑀
11 = −39, 𝑐12 = −1 1+2 𝑀
11 = −23,

● 𝑐13 = −1 1+3
𝑀13 = 11, 𝑐21 = −1 2+1
𝑀21 = 30, 𝑐22 = −1 2+2
𝑀22 = 14,

● 𝑐23 = −1 2+3 𝑀
23 = −2, 𝑐31 = −1 3+1 𝑀
31 = 21,

● 𝑐32 = −1 3+2
𝑀32 = 17, 𝑐33 = −1 3+3
𝑀33 = −5
−39 −23 11
● Hence, 𝐶 = 30 14 −2 . Therefore, 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝐶 𝑡 =
21 17 −5
−39 30 21
−23 14 17
11 −2 −5

06/03/2024 math 35
 Inverse of Matrix
●●●
● and

−1 3 6
● det 𝐴 = 2 −1 5 = −1 −1 5 − 3 2 5 + 6 2 −1
7 4 −3 4 −3 7
−3 7 4
= −1 × −39 + 3 × −23 + 6 × 11 = 36 ≠ 0

Now we can compute the inverse of matrix 𝐴 by using

1 1 −39 30 21
𝐴−1 = 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = −23 14 17
det 𝐴 36
11 −2 −5

06/03/2024 math 36
 Inverse of Matrix
●●●
Properties of Invertible Matrices

● Let A and B be invertible matrices of order n and 𝛼 a nonzero scalar. Then,

● (𝐴𝑡 )−1 = (𝐴−1 )𝑡
● (𝐴−1 )−1 = 𝐴
● (𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵−1 𝐴−1
1
● (𝛼 A)−1 = 𝛼 𝐴−1

06/03/2024 math 37
Basic Properties of Determinant
●●●
❑ If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrices, then
1. det 𝐴𝑡 = det(𝐴)
1
2. det 𝐴−1 = det 𝐴 (Provided 𝐴 is invertible)
3. det 𝐴𝐵 = det(𝐴)det(𝐵) Provided AB is compatible
4. det 𝐴2 = (𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴)2 . Generally, det 𝐴𝑚 = (𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴)𝑚 .
5. det kA = 𝑘 𝑛 det(𝐴) if A is multiplied by the scalar 𝑘.
6. det B = tdet(A) if matrix 𝐵 is obtained from A by multiplying only one
row (Column) of A with a scalar t.
7. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are equal, their determinants are equal: i.e., 𝐴 = 𝐵 ⇒ det 𝐴 =
det(𝐵)

06/03/2024 math 38
 Exercise
●●●

● If the adjoint of matrix 𝐴 is 2 −3 , find 𝐴.

4 5

● If 𝐴 is a 3 × 3 matrix with 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) = 5, find det 2 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 .

● If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 2×2 matrices with 𝐴 = 6𝐴−1 , then find
det 𝐵𝑡 𝐴2 (2𝐵)−1 .

● Let 𝐴 be 3 × 3 scalar matrix 𝑑𝑒𝑡(3𝐴) = 216. Then, find matrix 𝐴.

● Find det 6𝐵𝑡 𝐴2 3𝐵 −1 if 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 2 × 2 matrices where 𝐴 = 4𝐴−1 .

● If the adjoint of matrix 𝐴 is 2 −3 , find matrix 𝐴.

4 5

06/03/2024 math 39
 Exercise
●●●
● If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 2 × 2 matrices with 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = −4 and 𝐶 = 3𝐵 −1
, find
det 𝐴2 𝐵𝑡 𝐶 .

● Find det 2𝐴𝐵𝑡 𝐶 −1 if 𝐴 & 𝐶 are 3 × 3 with 𝐵 = 2𝐴−1 and 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 32.

● If 𝐴 and 𝐶 are 3 × 3 matrices where 𝐴 is non-singular matrix with 𝐵 = 6𝐴−1 and

𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 24, then find det 𝐶 −1 .

−8 3 6
● Let 𝑋 = 0 −2 9 . Find a matrix 𝑌 so that 3𝑌 − 2𝑋 is a scalar matrix with
3 12 −5
det 4𝑌 − 6𝑋 = 64.

06/03/2024 math 40
 Solving System of Equations
●●●
System of linear equations

● In this section we will discuss about the solution of n linear simultaneous

algebraic equations in n unknowns. A finite set of linear equations in the variables

𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 is called a system of linear equations. A system of the form

𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 +…+𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 +…+ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
⋮⋮⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 +…+ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚

where the coefficients 𝑎𝑖𝑗 and the constants 𝑏𝑗 are known and 𝑥𝑖 represent the

unknowns to be determined is called system of 𝑚 linear equations in 𝑛 variables.

06/03/2024 math 41
 System of linear equations
●●●

● In matrix notation, the above system of equations can

be written as,

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥1 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥2 𝑏2
⋮ =
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 𝑏𝑚

06/03/2024 math 42
 System of linear equations
●●●
● In an abridged matrix form the above system can also be written as 𝐴𝑋 =

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑏2
𝑏, where 𝐴 = is coefficient matrix 𝑏 =
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑏𝑚

𝑥1
𝑥2
which is a column vector and 𝑋 = ⋮ is the unknown column vector.
𝑥𝑛

06/03/2024 math 43
 System of linear equations
●●●
● The values of the variables 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 that satisfy all the equations of
the system are called solutions. A given linear system of equations may
have a unique solution (exactly one solution), many solutions (infinitely
solutions) or no solutions (if there are no values for the variables
satisfying all the linear equations of the system).

● When a system of linear equation has at least one solution, then it is

called consistent otherwise it is inconsistent. A system of linear equations
in n unknowns has a unique solution, provided that the determinant of
the coefficient matrix is non-singular i.e., if |A| ≠ 0.

06/03/2024 math 44
 Cramer’s Rule
●●●
● Cramer’s Rule is a method for solving linear systems where the number
of equations and the number of unknowns are equal. Cramer’s rule relies
on determinants. If a linear system of equations consisting of n equations
with the same number of unknowns 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 given by
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 +…+ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 +…+ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
⋮⋮⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 +…+ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚

which has a matrix notation 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏 and has a non-zero coefficient

determinant 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴, the system has precisely one solution.

06/03/2024 math 45
 Cramer’s Rule
●●●
Solve the following system of linear equation by using Cramer’s rule.
2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 3
𝑥1 − 𝑥 2 = 9
Solution: First we have to rewrite the system of equation as
2 1 𝑥1 3
=
1 −1 𝑥2 9
Such that given system of equations becomes 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏 by letting
2 1 𝑥1 3
𝐴= , 𝑋 = 𝑥 and 𝑏 =
1 −1 2 9
Here
2 1
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴 = = −3 ≠ 0
1 −1

06/03/2024 math 46
 Cramer’s Rule
●●●
𝐷1 𝐷2
By using Cramer’s rule, 𝑥1 = , 𝑥2 = . Now, 𝐷1 is the matrix obtained by replacing
𝐷 𝐷

3 1
1𝑡ℎ column of 𝐴 by the vector 𝑏, 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝐷1 =
9 −1

3 1
⇒ 𝐷1 = = −12
9 −1

and 𝐷2 is the matrix obtained by replacing 2𝑛𝑑 column of 𝐴 by the vector 𝑏, 𝑖. 𝑒. ,

2 3 2 3
𝐷2 = ⇒ 𝐷2 = = 15
1 9 1 9

−12 15
Therefore, 𝑥1 = 4 and 𝑥2 = −5 are solutions of the system of equations.
−3 −3

06/03/2024 math 47
 Cramer’s Rule
●●●
● Exercise: Use Cramer’s rule to solve each of the following

system of equations:

2𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 + 𝑥 3 = 1

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥 3 = 0

𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 𝑥 3 = −1

06/03/2024 math 48
 Matrix inversion method
●●●

● Consider the linear system in matrix form

𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏

● If the matrix 𝐴 is non-singular, that is, if 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴 is not equal to zero,

then 𝐴−1 exists. Multiply both sides by 𝐴−1 , we get the solution of
the linear system
𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝑏

1
● where, −1
𝐴 =
𝐴
adjA and AdjA= C 𝑇 , where C is the cofactors of A.

06/03/2024 math 49
 Matrix inversion method
●●●

● Solve the following system of linear equation

by using inverse method.
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 3
𝑥−𝑦 =9

06/03/2024 math 50
 Matrix inversion method
●●●
● Solution: The system of linear equation can be expressed in
its equivalent matrix form as 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏 where

2 1 𝑥 3
● 𝐴= ,𝑋 = 𝑦 ,𝑏 =
1 −1 9

● Since 𝐴−1 = 3 1 1
1
1 −2
1 1 1 3 4
● So, 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝑏 = =
3 1 −2 9 −5
● Therefore, 𝑥 = 4 and 𝑦 = 5 is a solution of the system.

06/03/2024 math 51
 Matrix inversion method
●●●

● Obtain the solution of the following linear

simultaneous equations by the matrix
inversion method
2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5
3𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 15
2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 8
06/03/2024 math 52
 Solution
●●●
● Now converting given equations into matrix form

2 1 1 𝑥 5
3 5 2 𝑦 = 15
2 1 4 𝑧 8

2 1 1 𝑥 5
● Now, 𝐴 = 3 5 2 , 𝑋 = 𝑦 and 𝑏 = 15
2 1 4 𝑧 8
𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏

∴ 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝑏

06/03/2024 math 53
 Solution
●●●
2 1 1
5 2 3 2 3 5
det(𝐴) = 3 5 2 =2 −1 +1
1 4 2 4 2 1
2 1 4

= 2 × (5 × 4 − 2 × 1) − 1 × (3 × 4 − 2 × 2) + 1 × (3
× 1 − 5 × 2)
= 2 × (20 − 2) − 1 × (12 − 4) + 1 × (3 − 10)
= 2 × 18 − 1 × 8 + 1 × −7 = 36 − 8 − 7 = 21

06/03/2024 math 54
 Solution
●●●

● The determinant of 𝐴 is not zero, therefore the inverse matrix

𝐴−1 exist. To calculate the inverse matrix find additional minors
and cofactors of matrix 𝐴

● Find the minor 𝑀11 and the cofactor 𝑐11. In matrix 𝐴 cross out row
1 and column 1.

● 𝑀11 = 5 2 = 5 · 4 − 1 · 2 = 20 − 2 = 18
1 4
⇒ 𝑐11 = (−1)1+1 𝑀11 = 18

06/03/2024 math 55
 Solution
●●●
● Find the minor 𝑀12 and the cofactor 𝑐12 . In matrix 𝐴 cross out row 1 and
column 2.

● 𝑀12 = 3 2 = 3 · 4 − 2 · 2 = 12 − 4 = 8 ⇒ 𝑐12 = (−1)1+2 𝑀12 = −8

2 4
● Find the minor 𝑀13 and the cofactor 𝑐13 . In matrix 𝐴 cross out row 1 and
column 3.

● 𝑀13 = 3 5 = 3 · 1 − 2 · 5 = 3 − 10 = −7
2 1
⇒ 𝑐13 = (−1)1+3 𝑀13 = −7

06/03/2024 math 56
 Solution
●●●
● Find the minor 𝑀21 and the cofactor 𝑐21 . In matrix 𝐴 cross out row 2 and
column 1.

● 𝑀21 = 1 1 = 1 · 4 − 1 · 1 = 4 − 1 = 3 ⇒ 𝑐21 = (−1)2+1 𝑀21 =

1 4
−3
● Find the minor 𝑀22 and the cofactor 𝑐22 . In matrix 𝐴 cross out row 2 and
column 2.

● 𝑀22 = 2 1 = 2 · 4 − 2 · 1 = 8 − 2 = 6 ⇒ 𝑐22 = (−1)2+2 𝑀22 = 6

2 4

06/03/2024 math 57
 Solution
●●●
● Find the minor 𝑀23 and the cofactor 𝑐23 . In matrix 𝐴 cross out row 2 and
column 3.

● 𝑀23 = 2 1 = 2 · 1 − 2 · 1 = 2 − 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐23 = (−1)2+3 𝑀23 = 0

2 1
● Find the minor 𝑀31 and the cofactor 𝑐31 . In matrix 𝐴 cross out row 3 and
column 1.

● 𝑀31 = 1 1 = 1 · 2 − 5 · 1 = 2 − 5 = −3
5 2
⇒ 𝑐31 = (−1)3+1 𝑀31 = −3

06/03/2024 math 58
 Solution
●●●
● Find the minor 𝑀32 and the cofactor 𝑐32 . In matrix 𝐴 cross out row 3 and
column 2.

● 𝑀32 = 2 1 = 2 · 2 − 3 · 1 = 4 − 3 = 1
3 2
⇒ 𝑐32 = (−1)3+2 𝑀32 = −1

● Find the minor 𝑀33 and the cofactor 𝑐33 . In matrix 𝐴 cross out row 3 and
column 3.

● 𝑀33 = 2 1 = 2 · 5 − 3 · 1 = 10 − 3 = 7 ⇒ 𝑐33 = (−1)3+3 𝑀33 = 7

3 5

06/03/2024 math 59
 Solution
●●●
● Write the matrix of cofactors:
18 −8 −7
𝐶 = −3 6 0
−3 −1 7
● Transposed matrix of cofactors:
18 −3 −3
𝑡
𝐶 = −8 6 −1 = 𝐴𝑑𝑗(𝐴)
−7 0 7
● Find inverse matrix:
6 1 1
− −
7 7 7
−1
𝐴𝑑𝑗(𝐴) 8 2 1
𝐴 = = − −
det(𝐴) 21 7 21
1 1
− 0
3 3

06/03/2024 math 60
 Solution
●●●

Find a solution: 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝑏 =

6 1 1
− −
7 7 7 5
8 2 1
− − 15
21 7 21
1 1 8
− 0
3 3

06/03/2024 math 61
 Matrix Inversion Method
●●●

6 1 1 30 15 8
7
.5+ − 7 . 15 + − 7 . 8 − −
7 7 7 1 1
8 2 1 40 30 8
= − 21 . 5 + . 15 + − 21 .8 = − 21 + 7 − 21 = 2 ⇒𝑋= 2 =
7
1 1 5 8 1 1
−3 . 5 + 0.15 + .8 − 3 + 0 + 21
3

𝑥
𝑦 . Hence given system of equations has a solution 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 2 and 𝑧 = 1.
𝑧

06/03/2024 math 62
 Exercise
●●●
1 −2 −4
● If cofactor matrix 𝐴 is 𝐶 = 0 1 −1 and
2 −3 −8
𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴 < 0, then using Matrix Inverse method,
solve 𝐴𝑥 = 𝐵 where 𝐵 = (6 2 −3)𝑡 .

06/03/2024 math 63
 Exercise
●●●
● Using both Cramer’s Rule and matrix inversion
method (if possible) to solve the following linear
systems.

2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = −1 4𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = −2

i)ቐ 3𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 1 ii) ቐ 2𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 5𝑥3 = 16
2𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = −2 8𝑥1 − 5𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 = 4

06/03/2024 math 64