Module-6
MATERIALS AND HARDWARE
TOTAL ALLOCATED HOURS(T) – 110 Hrs.
APPLICABLE- CAT-B1.1
Document Ref. No. TIAT/CAR 147(B)/PPT/B1.1/Mod
6
Issue /Revision No. - 01/00
Syllabus
ALLOTTED
SUB MODULE SYLLABUS LEVEL
HOURS
6.2 A) 06 Hrs 2
Aircraft Materials Characteristics, properties and identification of common non-
— Non-Ferrous ferrous materials used in aircraft;
Heat treatment and application of non-ferrous materials;
B)
Testing of non-ferrous materials for hardness, tensile strength,
fatigue strength and impact resistance.
This PPT has been made in accordance with approved syllabus of current MTOE and CAR-66 appendix-I.
a) Characteristics, properties and identification of common non-ferrous materials
used in aircraft.
The term “nonferrous” refers to all metals which have elements other than iron as their
base or principal constituent. This group includes such metals as Copper, Aluminum,
Magnesium, Lead, Nickel, Tin, Zinc and Cobalt etc.
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys
Commercially pure aluminum is a white lustrous metal which stands second in the scale
of malleability, sixth in ductility, and ranks high in its resistance to corrosion. Aluminum
combined with various percentages of other metals forms alloys which are used in
aircraft construction. Aluminum alloys in which the principal alloying ingredients are
manganese, chromium, or magnesium and silicon show little attack in corrosive
environments. Alloys in which substantial percentages of copper are used are more
susceptible to corrosive action.
The various types of aluminum may be divided into two general classes:
(1) casting alloys (those suitable for casting in sand, permanent mold, or die castings)
(2) wrought alloys (those which may be shaped by rolling, drawing, or forging). Of these
two, the wrought alloys are the most widely used in aircraft construction, being used
for stringers, bulkheads, skin, rivets, and extruded sections.
Aluminum casting alloys are divided into two basic groups. In one, the physical
properties of the alloys are determined by the alloying elements and cannot be changed
after the metal is cast. In the other, the alloying elements make it possible to heat treat
the casting to produce the desired physical properties.
Aluminum alloy castings are produced by one of three basic methods: (1) sand mold, (2)
permanent mold, or (3) die cast.
Properties of aluminium
After iron, aluminium is now the second most widely used metal in the world. The
properties of aluminium include: low density and therefore low weight, high strength,
superior malleability, easy machining, excellent corrosion resistance and good
thermal and electrical conductivity are amongst aluminum’s most important
properties. Aluminium is also very easy to recycle.
Weight
One of the best known properties of aluminium is that it is light, with a density
one third that of steel, 2.700 kg/m3. The low density of aluminium accounts for it
being lightweight but this does not affect its strength.
Strength
Aluminium alloys commonly have tensile strengths of between 70 and 700 MPa.
Unlike most steel grades, aluminium does not become brittle at low temperatures.
Linear expansion
Compared with other metals, aluminium has a relatively large coefficient of linear
expansion. This has to be taken into account in some designs.
Machining
Aluminium is easily worked using most machining methods – milling, drilling, cutting,
punching, bending, etc. Furthermore, the energy input during machining is low.
Formability
Aluminium’s superior malleability is essential for extrusion. With the metal either hot
or cold, this property is also exploited in the rolling of strips and foils, as well as in
bending and other forming operations.
Conductivity
Aluminium is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. An aluminium conductor
weighs approximately half as much as a copper conductor having the same conductivity.
Joining
Features facilitating easy jointing are often incorporated into profile design. Fusion
welding, Friction Stir Welding, bonding and taping are also used for joining.
Reflectivity
Another of the properties of aluminium is that it is a good reflector of both visible light
and radiated heat.
Corrosion resistance
Aluminium reacts with the oxygen in the air to form an extremely thin layer of oxide.
Though it is only some hundredths of a (my) mm thick (1 (my) is one thousandth of a
millimeter), this layer is dense and provides excellent corrosion protection. The layer
is self-repairing if damaged.
Wrought aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys are divided into two general classes:
non-heat-treatable alloys and heat-treatable alloys. Non-heat-treatable alloys are
those in which the mechanical properties are determined by the amount of cold work
introduced after the final annealing operation.
The “full hard” temper is produced by the maximum amount of cold work that is
commercially practicable. Metal in the “as fabricated” condition is produced from the
ingot without any subsequent controlled amount of cold working or thermal treatment.
Wrought Aluminum
Wrought aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys are designated by a four digit index
system. The system is broken into three distinct groups: 1xxx group, 2xxx through
8xxx group, and 9xxx group (which is currently unused).
The first digit of a designation identifies the alloy type. The second digit indicates specific
alloy modifications. Should the second number be zero, it would indicate no special
control over individual impurities. Digits 1 through 9, however, when assigned
consecutively as needed for the second number in this group, indicate the number of
controls over individual impurities in the metal.
The last two digits of the 1xxx group are used to indicate the hundredths of 1 percent
above the original 99 percent designated by the first digit. Thus, if the last two digits were
30, the alloy would contain 99 percent plus 0.30 percent of pure aluminum, or a total of
99.30 percent pure aluminum. Examples of alloys in this group are:
• 1100—99.00 percent pure aluminum with one control over individual impurities.
• 1130—99.30 percent pure aluminum with one control over individual impurities.
• 1275—99.75 percent pure aluminum with two controls over individual impurities.
In the 2xxx through 8xxx groups, the first digit indicates the major alloying element used
in the formation of the alloy as follows:
• 2xxx—copper
• 3xxx—manganese
• 4xxx—silicon
• 5xxx—magnesium
• 6xxx—magnesium and silicon
• 7xxx—zinc
• 8xxx—other elements
In the 2xxx through 8xxx alloy groups, the second digit in the alloy designation indicates
alloy modifications. If the second digit is zero, it indicates the original alloy, while digits 1
through 9 indicate alloy modifications. The last two of the four digits in the designation
identify the different alloys in the group
Effect of Alloying Element
1xxx series: 99 percent aluminum or higher, excellent corrosion resistance, high thermal
and electrical conductivity, low mechanical properties, excellent workability.
2xxx series: Copper is the principal alloying element. Solution heat treatment, optimum
properties equal to mild steel, poor corrosion resistance unclad. It is usually clad with
6000 or high purity alloy. Its best known alloy is 2024. The 2xxx series alloys are used
for high strength structural applications .
3xxx series: Manganese is the principal alloying element of this group which is
generally non-heat treatable. The percentage of manganese which will be alloy effective
is 1.5 percent. The most popular is 3003, which is of moderate strength and has good
working characteristics.
4xxx series: Silicon is the principal alloying element of this group, and lowers melting
temperature. Its primary use is in welding and brazing. When used in welding heat-
treatable alloys, this group will respond to a limited amount of heat treatment. The 4xxx
series this alloy series is seldom used in the aerospace industry.
5xxx series: Magnesium is the principal alloying element. It has good welding and
corrosion resistant characteristics. High temperatures (over 150 °F) or excessive cold
working will increase susceptibility to corrosion.
6xxx series: Silicon and magnesium form magnesium silicide which makes alloys heat
treatable. It is of medium strength, good forming qualities, and has corrosion resistant
characteristics.6xxx series are high strength alloys that can be strengthened by heat
treatment .
7xxxx series: Zinc is the principal alloying element. When coupled with magnesium, it
results in heat-treatable alloys of very high strength. It usually has copper and chromium
added. The principal alloy of this group is 7075.
8xxx series: These are the relatively recently developed Al–Li alloys 8090, 8091 and 8093.
Lithium has significantly lower density than aluminum and since its solubility is also
relatively high, it can be alloyed with aluminum in sufficient quantities to give a significant
reduction in density .
Duralumin
Duralumin, strong, hard, lightweight alloy of aluminum, widely used in aircraft
construction. The original composition has been varied for particular applications; it may
contain about 4 percent copper, 0.5–1 percent manganese, 0.5–1.5 percent magnesium,
and, in some formulations, some silicon. After heat treatment and aging, these alloys are
comparable to soft steel in strength. Duralumin alloys are relatively soft, ductile, and
workable in the normal state.
HIDUMINIUM ALLOYS
The Hiduminium alloys or R.R. Alloys are a series of high-strength, high-
temperature aluminum alloys, developed for aircraft use by Rolls Royce before World
War II. They were manufactured and later developed by High Duty Alloys Ltd.. The
name Hi-Du-Minimum is derived from that of High Duty Aluminum Alloys.
Alclad
Alclad is a duplex metal product made by cladding an aluminum alloy core with
surface layers of pure aluminum or aluminum alloy, resulting in increased resistance
to corrosion. It is a sandwich of high-strength aluminum alloy between two sheets of
commercially pure metal for a combination of strength and corrosion resistance
produced by rolling.
Hardness Identification
Where used, the temper designation follows the alloy designation and is separated
from it by a dash: i.e., 7075-T6, 2024-T4, and so forth. The temper designation
consists of a letter indicating the basic temper which may be more specifically defined
by the addition of one or more digits. These designations are as follows:
• F — as fabricated
• O — annealed, recrystallized (wrought products only)
• H — strain hardened
• H1 (plus one or more digits) — strain hardened only
• H2 (plus one or more digits) — strain hardened and partially annealed
• H3 (plus one or more digits) — strain hardened and stabilized
The digit following the designations H1, H2, and H3 indicates the degree of strain
hardening, number 8 representing the ultimate tensile strength equal to that achieved
by a cold reduction of approximately 75 percent following a full anneal, 0 representing
the annealed state
Basic Temper Designations F “As fabricated”. Denotes metal that has been fabricated
to order Dimensions without any attempt on the part of the producer to control the
results of either strain-hardening Operations or thermal treatments. There are no
mechanical property limits, and the strength levels may vary form lot to lot and from
shipment to shipment.
Temper Designation O “Annealed”. Applies to wrought products that have undergone
a thermal treatment to reduce their mechanical property levels to their minimums.
Often described as "dead soft" metal.
Temper Designation H “Strain-hardened”. Applies to those wrought products which
have had an increase in strength by reduction through strain-hardening or cold
working operations The "H" is always followed by two or more digits.
Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium, the world’s lightest structural metal, is a silvery white material weighing
only two-thirds as much as aluminum. Magnesium does not possess sufficient strength
in its pure state for structural uses, but when alloyed with zinc, aluminum, and
manganese it produces an alloy having the highest strength to weight ratio of any of
the commonly used metals.
Magnesium embodies fire hazards of an unpredictable nature. When in large sections,
its high thermal conductivity makes it difficult to ignite and prevents it from burning. It
will not burn until the melting point of 1,204 °F is reached. However, magnesium dust
and fine chips are ignited easily
Titanium and Titanium Alloys
Titanium is a grayish white metal having a high strength to weight ratio. It has a
relative density of 4.5, making it 60% heavier than aluminum, but twice as strong, and
45% lighter than steel but equal in strength. Titanium also falls between Aluminum and
Stainless Steel in terms of elasticity, and elevated temperature strength.
Titanium has excellent corrosion resistance properties due to the oxide film which
forms.
Titanium Designations
The A-B-C classification of titanium alloys was established to provide a convenient and
simple means of describing all titanium alloys. Titanium and titanium alloys possess
three basic types of crystals: A (alpha), B (beta), and C (combined alpha and beta).
Their characteristics are:
• A (alpha) — all-around performance; good weldability; tough and strong both
cold and hot, and resistant to oxidation.
• B (beta)—bendability; excellent bend ductility; strong both cold and hot,
but vulnerable to contamination.
• C (combined alpha and beta for compromise performances) — strong when cold
and warm, but weak when hot; good bendability; moderate contamination
resistance; excellent forgeability.
Copper and Copper Alloys
Copper is one of the most widely distributed metals. It is the only reddish
colored metal and is second only to silver in electrical conductivity. Its use
as a structural material is limited because of its great weight. However,
some of its outstanding characteristics, such as its high electrical and heat
conductivity, in many cases overbalance the weight factor. Because it is
very malleable and ductile, copper is ideal for making wire. It is corroded
by salt water but is not affected by fresh water.
Beryllium copper is one of the most successful of all the copper base alloys.
It is a recently developed alloy containing about 97 percent copper, 2
percent beryllium, and sufficient nickel to increase the percentage of
elongation. The most valuable feature of this metal is that the physical
properties can be greatly stepped up by heat treatment,
Muntz metal is a brass composed of 60 percent copper and 40 percent zinc. It has
excellent corrosion resistant qualities in salt water. Its strength can be increased by heat
treatment. As cast, this metal has an ultimate tensile strength of 50,000 psi, and it can be
elongated18 percent. It is used in making bolts and nuts, as well as parts that come in
contact with salt water. Red brass, sometimes termed “bronze” because of its tin
content, is used in fuel and oil line fittings
Aluminum bronzes have good tearing qualities, great strength, hardness, and
resistance to both shock and fatigue. Because of these properties, they are used for
diaphragms, gears, and pumps. Aluminum bronzes are available in rods, bars, plates,
sheets, strips, and forgings
Silicon bronze is a more recent development composed of about 95 percent copper,
3 percent silicon, and 2 percent manganese, zinc, iron, tin, and aluminum. Although
not a bronze in the true sense because of its small tin content, silicon bronze has
high strength and great corrosion resistance.
Nickel and Nickel Alloys
There are basically two nickel alloys used in aircraft. They are Monel and Inconel.
Monel contains about 68 percent nickel and 29 percent copper, plus small amounts
of iron and manganese. Nickel alloys can be welded or easily machined. Some of the
nickel Monel, especially the nickel Monels containing small amounts of aluminum,
are heat-treatable to similar tensile strengths of steel. Nickel Monel is used in gears
and parts that require high strength and toughness, such as exhaust systems that
require high strength and corrosion resistance at elevated temperatures.
Monel
Monel, the leading high nickel alloy, combines the properties of high strength and
excellent corrosion resistance. This metal consists of 68 percent nickel, 29 percent
copper, 0.2 percent iron, 1 percent manganese, and 1.8 percent of other elements. It
cannot be hardened by heat treatment.
K-Monel
K-Monel is a nonferrous alloy containing mainly nickel, copper, and aluminum. It is
produced by adding a small amount of aluminum to the Monel formula. It is corrosion
resistant and capable of being hardened by heat treatment.
Inconel alloys of nickel produce a high strength, high temperature alloy containing
approximately 80 percent nickel, 14 percent chromium, and small amounts of iron and
other elements. The nickel Inconel alloys are frequently used in turbine engines
because of their ability to maintain their strength and corrosion resistance under
extremely high temperature conditions.
Invar: Also called Alloy 36 or Invar 36, Invar is a low expansion alloy whose name is
derived from “invariable” because it won’t react to thermal expansion. Invar is
used predominantly in precision instruments like stencils, fine line etching and
laser cutting, as well as scientific instruments, physics laboratory devices, motor
valves and solar panel manufacturing tools.
42 Alloy: Very similar to Invar, 42 Alloy has a slightly different coefficient of thermal
expansion. 42 Alloy is well-suited for the lid, lead frames, and stencil/etching and
aircraft industries. Easily machined and formed hot or cold, 42 Alloy is also used
extensively in the medical, electronics and automotive industries .
Tungsten: Tungsten has a hardness and high density that make it ideal for military
applications, rocket nozzles, turbine blades and wear-resistant parts and
coatings. Tungsten has the lowest coefficient of thermal expansion, highest melting
point, lowest vapor pressure and highest tensile strength of all metals in pure form.
LEAD AND ITS ALLOYS
Lead is bright and lustrous when freshly cut, but soon oxidizes to a dull grey. It is very
heavy and has a relative density 11.3. It is soft and malleable, resistant to corrosion. It
also has self-lubricating properties and is used in some bushing alloys.
Lead is a major constituent of soft solder. It has been used to make flying control surface
mass balance weights.
Tin base bearing metals are known as Babbitt metals and contain between 3.5%and
15%Antimory. E.g. 7% antimony, 90%tin and 3% copper. They are generally heavy duty
bearing metals.
Cadmium
Cadmium is a minor metallic element, one of the naturally occurring components in
the earth’s crust and waters, and present everywhere in our environment. It was first
discovered in Germany in 1817 as a by-product of the zinc refining process.
Heat Treatment of Nonferrous Metals
Aluminum Alloy
The most widely used alloys in aircraft construction are hardened by heat treatment
rather than by cold work. These alloys are designated by a somewhat different set of
symbols: T4 and W indicate solution heat treated and quenched but not aged, and T6
indicates an alloy in the heat treated hardened condition.
• W — Solution heat treated, unstable temper
• T — Treated to produce stable tempers other than F, O, or H
• T2 — Annealed (cast products only)
• T3 — Solution heat treated and then cold worked
• T4 — Solution heat treated
• T5 — Artificially aged only
• T6 — Solution heat treated and then artificially aged
• T7 — Solution heat treated and then stabilized
• T8 — Solution heat treated, cold worked, and then artificially aged
• T9 — Solution heat treated, artificially aged, and then cold worked
• T10 — Artificially aged and then cold worked
Additional digits may be added to T1 through T10 to indicate a variation in
treatment which significantly alters the characteristics of the product.
There are two types of heat treatments applicable to aluminum alloys. One is
called solution heat treatment, and the other is known as precipitation heat
treatment. Some alloys, such as 2017 and 2024, develop their full properties as a
result of solution heat treatment followed by about 4 days of aging at room
temperature. Other alloys, such as 2014 and 7075, require both heat treatments.
The alloys that require precipitation heat treatment (artificial aging) to develop
their full strength also age to a limited extent at room temperature; the rate and
amount of strengthening depends upon the alloy. Some reach their maximum
natural or room temperature aging strength in a few days, and are designated as -
T4 or -T3 temper. Others continue to age appreciably over a long period of time.
Because of this natural aging, the -W designation is specified only when the period
of aging is indicated, for example, 7075-W (1⁄2 hour). Thus, there is considerable
difference in the mechanical and physical properties of freshly quenched (W)
material and material that is in the -T3 or -T4 temper.
The hardening of an aluminum alloy by heat treatment consists of four distinct steps:
1. Heating to a predetermined temperature.
2. Soaking at temperature for a specified length of time.
3. Rapidly quenching to a relatively low temperature.
4. Aging or precipitation hardening either spontaneously at room temperature, or as
a result of a low temperature thermal treatment.
The first three steps above are known as solution heat treatment, although it has
become common practice to use the shorter term, “heat treatment.” Room
temperature hardening is known as natural aging, while hardening done at moderate
temperatures is called artificial aging, or precipitation heat treatment.
Solution Heat
Treatment Temperature
The temperatures used for solution heat treating vary with different alloys and range
from 825 °F to 980 °F. As a rule, they must be controlled within a very narrow range
(±10 °F) to obtain specified properties
Time at Temperature (soaking)
The time at temperature, referred to as soaking time, is measured from the time the
coldest metal reaches the minimum limit of the desired temperature range. The
soaking time varies, depending upon the alloy and thickness.
Quenching
After the soluble constituents are in solid solution, the material is quenched to
prevent or retard immediate reprecipitation. Three distinct quenching methods are
employed. The one to be used in any particular instance depends upon the part, the
alloy, and the properties desired.
Cold Water Quenching
Hot Water Quenching
Spray Quenching
Reheat Treatment
The treatment of material which has been previously heat treated is considered a
reheat treatment. The unclad heat-treatable alloys can be solution heat treated
repeatedly without harmful effects.
Precipitation Heat Treating
As previously stated, the aluminum alloys are in a comparatively soft state
immediately after quenching from a solution heat-treating temperature. To obtain
their maximum strengths, they must be either naturally aged or precipitation
hardened. During this hardening and strengthening operation, precipitation of the
soluble constituents from the supersaturated solid solution takes place. As
precipitation progresses, the strength of the material increases.
Precipitation hardening produces a great increase in the strength and hardness of the
material with corresponding decreases in the ductile properties. The process used to
obtain the desired increase in strength is therefore known as aging, or precipitation
hardening.
Annealing of Aluminum Alloys
The annealing procedure for aluminum alloys consists of heating the alloys to an
elevated temperature, holding or soaking them at this temperature for a length of time
depending upon the mass of the metal, and then cooling in still air. Annealing leaves the
metal in the best condition for cold working. However, when prolonged forming
operations are
involved, the metal will take on a condition known as “mechanical hardness” and will
resist further working.
Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloy Rivets
Aluminum alloy rivets are furnished in the following compositions: Alloys 1100, 5056,
2117, 2017, and 2024. Alloy 1100 rivets are used in the “as fabricated” condition for
riveting aluminum alloy sheets where a low strength rivet is suitable. Alloy 5056 rivets
are used in the “as fabricated” condition for riveting magnesium alloy sheets. Alloy 2117
rivets have moderately high strength and are suitable for riveting aluminum alloy sheets.
These rivets receive only one heat treatment, which is performed by the manufacturer,
and are anodized after being heat treated. They require no further heat treatment
before they are used.
Alloy 2117 rivets retain their characteristics indefinitely after heat treatment and
can be driven anytime. Rivets made of this alloy are the most widely used in aircraft
construction. Alloy 2017 and 2024 rivets are high strength rivets suitable for use
with aluminum alloy structures. They are purchased from the manufacturer in the
heat-treated condition. Since the aging characteristics of these alloys at room
temperatures are such that the rivets are unfit for driving, they must be reheat
treated just before they are to be used. Alloy 2017 rivets become too hard for
driving in approximately 1 hour after quenching. Alloy 2024 rivets become hardened
in 10minutes after quenching. Both of these alloys may be reheat treated as often
as required; however, they must be anodized before the first reheat treatment to
prevent intergranular oxidation of the material. If these rivets are stored in a
refrigerator at a temperature lower than 32 °F immediately after quenching, they
will remain soft enough to be usable for several days.
Heat Treatment of Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium alloy castings respond readily to heat treatment, and about 95 percent of
the magnesium used in aircraft construction is in the cast form. The heat treatment of
magnesium alloy castings is similar to the heat treatment of aluminum alloys in that
there are two types of heat treatment: (1) solution heat treatment and (2) precipitation
(aging) heat treatment. Magnesium, however, develops a negligible change in its
properties when allowed to age naturally at room temperatures.
Heat Treatment of Titanium
Titanium is heat treated for the following purposes:
• Relief of stresses set up during cold forming or machining.
• Annealing after hot working or cold working, or to provide maximum ductility for
subsequent cold working.
• Thermal hardening to improve strength.
Stress Relieving
Stress relieving is generally used to remove stress concentrations resulting from
forming of titanium sheet. It is performed at temperatures ranging from 650 °F to
1,000 °F. The time at temperature varies from a few minutes for a very thin sheet
to an hour or more for heavier sections. A typical stress relieving treatment is 900
°F for 30 minutes, followed by an air cool. The discoloration or scale which forms
on the surface of the metal during stress relieving is easily removed by pickling in
acid solutions. The recommended solution contains 10 to 20 percent nitric acid
and 1 to 3 percent hydrofluoric acid. The solution should be at room temperature
or slightly above.
Full Annealing
The annealing of titanium and titanium alloys provides toughness, ductility at room
temperature, dimensional and structural stability at elevated temperatures, and
improved machinability. The full anneal is usually called for as preparation for
further working. It is performed at 1,200–1,650 °F. The time at temperature varies
from 16 minutes to several hours, depending on the thickness of the material and
the amount of cold work to be performed. The usual treatment for the commonly
used alloys is 1,300 °F for 1 hour, followed by an air cool. A full anneal generally
results in sufficient scale formation to require the use of caustic descaling, such as
sodium hydride salt bath.
Thermal Hardening
Unalloyed titanium cannot be heat treated, but the alloys commonly used in aircraft
construction can be strengthened by thermal treatment, usually at some sacrifice in
ductility. For best results, a water quench from 1,450 °F, followed by reheating to
900
°F for 8 hours is recommended.
TESTING OF NON-FERROUS MATERIALS
Non-ferrous metals are tested for strength, toughness, fatigue and hardness using
exactly the same techniques as described in Subsection 6.1 (b) for Ferrous Metals.
