3.
0 NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
3.1 Introduction
Steel and other ferrous alloys are consumed in exceedingly large quantities because they have
such a wide range of mechanical properties, may be fabricated with relative ease, and are
economical to produce. However, they have some distinct limitations chiefly:
a) Relatively high density,
b) Comparatively low electrical conductivity, and
c) An inherent susceptibility to corrosion in some common environments.
Thus, for many applications it is advantageous or even necessary to use other alloys that have
more suitable property combinations. Alloy systems are classified either according to the base
metal or according to some specific characteristic that a group of alloys share. Figure 3.1
represents a classification scheme for nonferrous alloys.
Cast and wrought alloys
On occasion, a distinction is made between cast and wrought alloys. Alloys that are so brittle
(forming or shaping by appreciable deformation is not possible) typically are cast; these are
classified as cast alloys. However, those that are amenable to mechanical deformation are
termed wrought alloys.
Figure 3.1 Classification scheme for the various nonferrous alloys.
3.2 Aluminum and Its Alloys
Aluminum and its alloys are characterized by:
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a) Relatively low density (2.7 g/cm3 as compared to 7.9 g/cm3 for steel),
b) High electrical and thermal conductivities,
c) Resistance to corrosion in some common environments, including the ambient
atmosphere.
d) Many of these alloys are easily formed by virtue of high ductility; this is evidenced by the
thin aluminum foil sheet into which the relatively pure material may be rolled. Because
aluminum has an FCC crystal structure, its ductility is retained even at very low
temperatures.
The chief limitation of aluminum is its low melting temperature [6600C (12200F)], which
restricts the maximum temperature at which it can be used.
The mechanical strength of aluminum may be enhanced by cold work and by alloying; however,
both processes tend to decrease resistance to corrosion. Principal alloying elements include
copper, magnesium, silicon, manganese, and zinc. Non-heat treatable alloys consist of a single
phase, for which an increase in strength is achieved by solid-solution strengthening. Others are
rendered heat-treatable (capable of being precipitation hardened) as a result of alloying. In
several of these alloys, precipitation hardening is due to the precipitation of two elements other
than aluminum to form an intermetallic compound such as MgZn2.
3.2.1 Properties of aluminium and its alloys
3.2.1.1 Advantageous properties
Aluminium and its alloys have 5 major properties that make them useful for engineering
purposes:
1) Low specific gravity
Pure aluminium has a specific gravity of 2.7 as compared to 8.8 for copper and 7.8 for iron and
steel. It therefore becomes indispensable in applications where high strength to weight ratios is
important. Its alloys are hence extensively used in the aero-space industry, in automobile
manufacture (for components like connecting rods and pistons) and for structures like ladders
where weight is a prime consideration.
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2) Good electrical conductivity
Pure aluminium has a conductivity about 60% that of copper. But its light weight means it has a
much higher specific conductivity. It is therefore exclusively used for overhead transmission
cables (with steel reinforcement for strength).
3) Good thermal conductivity
Aluminium and its alloys have high thermal conductivities and are hence used for heat exchanger
components and in machine parts where rapid dissipation of heat is important e.g., motor engine
cylinder heads, gear boxes, etc.
4) Good corrosion resistance
Aluminium is resistant to corrosion due to the formation of a thin impervious layer of Al2O3
which forms on any aluminium article when exposed to oxygen (air). The high affinity of
aluminium for oxygen (see point 5 below) ensures the immediate formation of this layer which
then prevents further contact between the aluminium and oxygen.
When formed naturally, this layer is very thin. To improve corrosion resistance, the layer is made
thicker in a process known as anodizing. In this process, the article is made an anode in an
electrolytic cell containing oxalic acid (chromic and sulphuric acids are also used), the cathode
being lead. When current is passed, oxygen is evolved at the anode and combines with the
aluminium. This increases the thickness of the layer to approximately 0.015 mm, greatly
enhancing the corrosion resistance.
This property makes aluminium and its alloys useful in several situations:
a) In chemical plants handling nitric acid and other corrosive chemicals
b) For cooking pans and other holloware
c) As aluminium foil for food packaging (e.g., in oven foils, in cigarette packaging, etc.)
d) As aluminium paint
e) In building and marine applications.
The corrosion resistance is best in pure aluminium, followed by alloys of Mg, Mn, Mg/Si, Si and
worst in Al/Cu alloys.
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5) Affinity for oxygen
As noted in point 4, aluminium has a high affinity for oxygen. This is put to industrial use in:
i) Steel manufacture: aluminium is used as a de-oxidant in steels. Oxygen is a major impurity in
steel and hence in steel manufacture, aluminium is added to the steel melt. Its high affinity for
oxygen ensures that it forms oxides thus removing the impurity. A steel so treated is said to be
"killed".
ii) Thermit welding: the process of thermit welding is used to repair large iron or steel castings.
A mould is made around the part to be repaired and filled with thermit powder (a mixture of
powdered aluminium and iron oxide). When the mixture is fired, the following reaction takes
place:
Fe2O3 + 2Al ----> Al2O3 + 2 Fe.............................................................................. (3.1)
This reaction is exo-thermic and the heat generated melts the iron produced. The molten iron
flows into the broken part and fusses the two parts together, thus producing the weld.
3.2.1.2 Disadvantageous Properties
The following properties of aluminium work to its disadvantage:
1) high affinity for oxygen
Having a higher affinity for oxygen than the common reducing agents (e.g., carbon) means that
aluminium cannot be economically extracted from its ore by reduction. Neither can it be purified
by blowing air into the melt. If this is attempted, aluminium will be oxidized before the
impurities. Thus aluminium has to be extracted and purified by the expensive method of
electrolysis.
2) High thermal expansion
Aluminium has a high coefficient of thermal expansion. Thus when used in high temperature
applications (e.g., heat exchangers) adequate allowance has to be made for this expansion. If this
is not done, high thermal stresses will be produced.
3.2.2 Aluminium alloys
Pure annealed aluminium is relatively weak, having a UTS (Ultimate Tensile Stress) of about 90
MN/m2. It can therefore not be used for structural purposes. For structural applications,
aluminium is alloyed with one or more of the following elements: magnesium manganese, iron,
silicon and copper. Four main groups of alloys result:
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3.2.2.1 Wrought Alloys - not Heat Treatable
These contain between 1.4 and 9% mixture of the alloying elements mentioned above. They (the
alloys) have high ductility and corrosion resistance and are used for panels of automobiles and
marine superstructures i.e., in applications where corrosion resistance and ductility are of more
importance than strength. Their properties cannot be improved by heat-treatment but may be
improved by cold work into conditions known industrially as 1/4 hard, 1/2 hard and hard.
3.2.2.2 Heat Treatable Wrought Alloys
These are principally alloys of aluminium and copper though some may contain magnesium or
silicon. The heat treatment is given to these alloys is termed precipitation hardening. Any alloy
containing less than 5.7% Cu consists of two phases at room temperature: (solution of Cu in Al)
and (the intermetallic compound CuAl2). The mixture is however non-coherent -- the existing in
fairly large conglomerates which are ineffective in blocking dislocation movement. The alloy is
therefore fairly weak. In precipitation hardening, the alloy, X, is heated and all the copper is
dissolved in aluminium and a single phase results. This is then quenched in water -- the copper
has no time to diffuse out of solution and a supersaturated solution of Cu in Al results. If this is
now left to stand at room temperature, the excess copper precipitates CuAl2. Now however, the
precipitation starts simultaneously at many nucleation sites and many sub-microscopic
precipitates of form in a matrix. The coherent precipitates of alloy distort the lattice and hence
are capable of blocking dislocation movement - resulting in increased hardness of the alloy.
The longer the alloy stands, the harder it becomes and hence the process is also termed "age-
hardening". At room temperature, full hardness is achieved in about 6 days. The process can be
accelerated by heating to about 165°C - when it is completed in approximately 10 hours. Higher
temperatures and/or longer heating times must be avoided to prevent "over-aging" - loss of
hardness of the alloy due to coalescence of the precipitates into a non-coherent precipitate.
With appropriate treatment, these alloys can reach strengths of 650 MN/m2 or higher and are
used where high strength to weight ratio are important e.g., aircraft frameworks, connecting rods
in motor vehicle engines, ladders, etc.
3.2.2.3 Non-Heat Treatable Cast Alloys
These contain 9 - 13% silicon and are suitable for casting due to their proximity to the eutectic
composition. The castings however tend to be coarse grained and hence weak and brittle. This
can be corrected by a process known as "modification". Small amounts of sodium are added to
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the melt. This is thought to prevent crystallization by acting as an inoculator i.e., forms films on
the surface of the silicon (a non-metal) nuclei preventing them from acting as centres of
crystallization. This delays the start of precipitation (lowers the eutectic temperature to 564°C
from 577°C) and shifts the eutectic point to approximately 14% Si. This results in super-cooling
and when precipitation starts, many nucleation sites start operating simultaneously resulting in a
fine-grained cast (with a higher amount of silicon). The result is an increase in strength from
approximately 120 MN/m2 to 200 MN/m2 and an increase in ductility to approximately 15%.
These alloys are suitable for die and sand casting and are used in marine work (they have
excellent corrosion resistance), for manufacture of sumps, gear boxes, etc.
3.2.2.4 Heat Treatable Cast Alloys
These are alloys of aluminium and copper of eutectic composition with additions of approximately
2% nickel. They are heat treatable after casting by precipitation hardening (precipitates of CuAl2 and
NiAl3 formed). They are used for castings requiring high strength e.g., engine pistons, cylinder
heads, valve bodies, etc.
Generally, aluminum alloys are classified as either cast or wrought. Composition for both types
is designated by a four-digit number that indicates the principal impurities and, in some cases,
the purity level. For cast alloys, a decimal point is located between the last two digits. After these
digits is a hyphen and the basic temper designation—a letter and possibly a one- to three-digit
number, which indicates the mechanical and/or heat treatment to which the alloy has been
subjected. For example, F, H, and O represent, respectively, the as-fabricated, strain-hardened,
and annealed states. Table 3.1 presents the temper designation scheme for aluminum alloys.
Furthermore, compositions, properties, and applications of several wrought and cast alloys are
given in Table 3.2. Common applications of aluminum alloys include aircraft structural parts,
beverage cans, bus bodies, and automotive parts (engine blocks, pistons, and manifolds).
Recent attention has been given to alloys of aluminum and other low-density metals (e.g., Mg
and Ti) as engineering materials for transportation, to effect reductions in fuel consumption. An
important characteristic of these materials is specific strength, which is quantified by the tensile
strength–specific gravity ratio. Even though an alloy of one of these metals may have a tensile
strength that is inferior to that of a denser material (such as steel), on a weight basis it will be
able to sustain a larger load.
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A generation of new aluminum–lithium alloys have been developed recently for use by the
aircraft and aerospace industries. These materials have relatively low densities (between about
2.5 and 2.6 g/cm3), high specific moduli (elastic modulus– specific gravity ratios), and excellent
fatigue and low-temperature toughness properties. Furthermore, some of them may be
precipitation hardened. However, these materials are more costly to manufacture than the
conventional aluminum alloys because special processing techniques are required as a result of
lithium’s chemical reactivity.
Table 3.1 Temper Designation Scheme for Aluminum Alloys
a
Two additional digits may be added to denote degree of strain hardening.
b
Additional digits (the first of which cannot be zero) are used to denote variations of these 10
tempers.
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Table 3.2 Compositions, Mechanical Properties, and Typical Applications for Several Common
Aluminum Alloys
a
The balance of the composition is aluminum.
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Elements are added for:
Chromium: improves conductivity, refines grain structure.
Copper: increases strength, improves high temperature properties, improves machineability.
Iron: naturally occurring impurity in aluminum alloys, will increase strength and reduce hot
cracking.
Lead/bismuth: improves machineability
Lithium: reduces density.
Magnesium: improves strength by solid solution strengthening, with small amount of silicon
will precipitation hardening if at least 3% magnesium, difficult to cast aluminum alloys with
magnesium
Manganese: used with iron to improve castability, improves ductility and impact strength
Silicone: improves fluidity for casting and welding, reduces hot-cracking, improves corrosion
resistance
Titanium: grain refiner
Zinc: can be used with other elements to increase strength, but reduces castability.
The four digit scheme is followed by a temper designation (a letter followed by one to three digit
number):
xxxx – F As fabricated. Applied to products shaped by cold working, not hot working.
Also applied to castings which have no specific thermal treatment.
xxxx – O Annealed. Applied to wrought products that have been annealed to their lowest strength.
Applied to cast products that have been annealed to increase ductility and dimensional
stability for subsequent machining.
xxxx – W Solution heat-treated. This is applied to materials that naturally age over a period of days to
years. Alloys in the W condition are not yet precipitation hardened. In order to maintain the
W condition for extended time, the alloy may need to be stored at low temperature.
xxxx – H Strain hardened. Wrought products that have been strain hardened (cold worked) to increase
strength.
H1xy Strain hardened only, no subsequent heat treatment
H2xy strain hardened and partially annealed
H3xy Strain hardened and stabilized. Stabilizing improves ductility and eliminates age
softening at room temperature. Is applied only to alloys that over age at room
temperature.
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The “x” indicates the degree of strain hardening:
x=8 fully hard (as hard as the alloy can become due to strain
hardening)
x=6 three-quarters hard
x=4 half hard
x=2 quarter hard
The “y” indicates more subtle variations in properties than indicated by
the “x”
xxxx – T Thermally treated.
T1 Cooled from hot working temperature and naturally aged
T2 Cooled from hot working temperature, cold worked, naturally aged
T3 Solution heat treated, cold worked, naturally aged
T4 Solution heat treated, naturally aged
T5 Cooled from elevated temperature and artificially aged. Applied to materials that are
hot rolled (such as extrusions) or cast, then precipitation heat treated.
T6 Solution heat treated and artificially aged.
T7 Solution heat treated and overaged or stabilized. Applied to wrought products that have
been intentionally overaged to improve corrosion resistance (especially stress
corrosion cracking or exfoliation corrosion). Applied to cast products that are
artificially aged to improve dimensional and strength stability.
T8 Solution heat treated, cold worked, artificially aged. Products that are cold worked in
the “soft” solution heat treat condition to increase strength and then are artificially
aged to further increase strength or to provide dimensional stability
T9 Solution heat treated, artificially aged, cold worked. Applied to products that are cold
worked to increase strength after aging.
T10 Cooled from elevated temperature, cold worked, artificially aged. Products that are
shaped at elevated temperature (such as extrusions) are then cold worked to increase
strength, and then artificially aged to further improve mechanical properties.
The above temper designations are further refined. The “x” below refer to the above temper
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designations (1 through 10).
Tx51 Cold rolled bars, plates, rods that are stress relieved by stretching
Tx510 Extrusions that are stress relieved by stretching
Tx511 Stress relieved by stretching, then straightened
Tx52 Stress relieved by compression after solution heat treatment or after cooling from a
hot working process
Tx54 Die forgings that are stress relieved by restring old in the finish die.
3.3 Surface treatments of aluminum alloys
Anodizing – the electrochemical plating process applied to aluminum alloys to build up a
relatively thick protective oxide layer (Al2O3). The oxide is very hard and protects from wear and
improves corrosion. It may be colored to improve appearance. Alloys containing large amounts
of copper (>3%) or silicone (>5%) do not anodize well.
3.4 Common alloys and their applications:
Wrought:
3003-H14 or O, pressure vessels, chemical equipment
5052-H34 or O, truck and marine uses, hydraulic tubes, fuel and air lines
2024-T6 or O, aircraft structures requiring good fracture toughness, truck wheels
6061-T6 or O, widely used general purpose alloy
7075-T6, aircraft structures requiring high strength
Cast:
295.0-T4, aircraft wheels, flywheels
356.0-T6, pump parts, transmission cases, axle housings, truck wheels
332.0-T5, automotive pistons
413.0, large intricate castings
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