EXPERIMENT 2

Study of the specimens/slides/models and identification

with reasons: Bacteria, Oscillatoria, Spirogyra, Rhizopus,
Mushreem, Yeast, ti-fhentiverwWort, Moss, Fern, Pints;
Monocotyledonous and Dicotyledonous plant (one each)
and tichen.
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REQUIREMENTS
Prepared slidesor preserved specimens. pencil. record file and laboratory gu
PROCEDURE
1. Observethe permanent slides under a microscope and note down the ciiala
MICroorganisms like bacteria, algae. fungi canbe studied withthe help of microscope oniy.
2. Large sized specimens can be observed direct with unaided eye or with the help of a nand
lens.
3. Draw the well labelled diagrams of different specimens in your practical book.
4. Write classification of the specimen inyour practical book.
OBSERVATIONS

BACTERIA
Classification
Kingdom Monera
Group Eubacteria
Division
Order
Schizophyta
Eubacteriales
Identification Characteristics
Bacteria are identified on the basis of their colonycharacteristics, shapes and Gram staining.
General Characteristics
1. Bacteria were discovered by Antonyyon Leeuwenhoek and he named them animalcules.
2. lt is a prokaryotic, unicellular organism which can be seen by
microscope only.
3. These are of different shapes. ie. coccus (spherical), bacilus (rod-shaped), spirillum
(spiral-shaped), vibrio (comma-shaped) and filamentous.

Flagellum

Cocci Bacilli Spirillum

Vibrio

Fig. 2.1 Different shapes of bacteria

4. They possess rigid cell wall and do not bear true nucleus and membrane bound organelles
mesosomes are present.
Plasma membrane
Lipid globle
Mucilage
Glycogen rMesosome
Respiratory enzymes
Nuclear body
(Nucleoid) Pilus (Fimbria)

RNA
Polyribosome
-Filament

Ribosome Basal body flagellum

Cell wall
Cytoplasm
Fig. 2.2 An ultrastructure of bacterial cell

5. Acircular DNA as the hereditary material is present in the centre.

6. They reproduce by binary fission. Some of them form endospores during unfavourable
conditions.
7. Based on their Gram staining ability, bacteria are classified into Gram-positive bacteria and
Gram-negative bacteria.
 OSCILLATORIA

Classification
Kingdom Monera
Group Eubacteria
Division Cyanophyta
Class Cyanophyceae
Order Oscilatoriaceae
Family Nostocales
Genus Oscillatoria sp.
ldentification Characteristics
1. Prokaryotic cell structure, presenceof hormogonia is characteristic feature of Oscllatoria.
2. Filamentous thallus which is unbranched and multicellular.
General Characteristics
1. It isa blue-green algae, which is found in freshwater bodies, stagnant water, ponds, pools,etc.
2. Each cell has a definite cell wall.
3. Some cells of the filament may be dead and appear as blank spaces in the filament. These are
called dead cells.
4. Group of living cells lying between dead cellor necridia are called hormogonia, which are
responsible for reproduction.
5. Fresh specimen of the filaments show oscillatory movement 'and hence,named as Oscillatoria.
6. Each cellhas prokaryotic organisation lackingtrue nucleus.
7. Cytoplasm is differentiated into peripheral chromoplasm and central centroplasm.
8. Centroplasm contains circular, double-stranded DNA.

Cell wall
Atrichome (filament)

Dead cell (necridia)

Hormogonium

Fig. 2.3 An Oscillatoria filament (blue-green alga)

 |SPIROGYRA
Classification
Kingdom Plantae
Group Algae
Division
Chlorophyta (Green algae)
Class
Order
Chlorophyceae
Zygnematales
Family Zygnemataceae
Genus
Spirogyra sp.
Identification Characteristics
Spiral-shape chloroplast in the cellis characteristic feature of Spirogyra which is easily seen under
microscopic view.
General Characteristics
1. sheath.
It is a multicellular, filamentous, unbranched green algae, which is covered by mucilagenous
2. It occurs in stagnant freshwater bodies like ditches, ponds, lakes, etc. It is commonly called as
water silIk or pond scum because of silky and slippery touch of its thread-like filaments.
3. Each filament consists of cylindrical cells that are placed one above the other in a single row.
4. Cytoplasm lies in the periphery of the cell enclosing a single large vacuole.
5. It reproduces asexualy by fragmentation and sexually by conjugation.
6. Conjugation tubes are formed between the cells of two sanme (lateral conjugation) or different
(scalariform conjugation) filaments. These can also be seen during reproductive phase.
7. Cell wall is double layered made up of cellulose and pectin.

-Cell wall
2
-Oytoplasm 11th
Cytoplasmic strand
Class
-Ribbon-shaped chloroplast
Nucleus
BIOLOGY

Pyrenoid
Vacuole Manual

Laborator

Fig.2.4 Structure of a cellof Spirogyra

Note Specimens of Spirogyra are usually preserved in FAA(Formalin, Acetic acid and Alcohol mixture).
 RHIZOPUS (Bread mould)
Classification
Kingdom Fungi
Division Eumycophyta
Class Zygomycetes
Order Mucorales
Family Mucoraceae
Genus Rhizopus
Species stolonifer
ldentification Characteristics
1. The presenceof coenocytic hyphae(hyphae without septal wal).
2. The presence of sporangiophores bearingspores is seen.
General Characteristics
1. Rhizopus is also called as bread mould. Theygrowes on stale bread,decaying vegetables and
fruits They are saprophytic in their mode of nutrition.
2. It occurs in the form of interworen mass of very fine thread-like structures known as hyphae.
The hyphae together constitute mycelium or thallus of the plant body.
3. The hyphae of the mycelium are tubular, branched, aseptate and multinucleate (coenocytic
hyphae.)
4. Some hyphae are horizontal and grow paralel on the surface on the substratum. These are
called stoloniferous hyphae.
5. Some hyphae grow down into the substratum,and are called rhizoidal hyphae.
6. Erect, vertically growing hyphae are called sporangiophores.
7. Sporangiophore bears the capsule or sporangium, which is globular in outline.
8. Adome-shapedcolumella is found inside the cavity of sporangium. Numerous black spores fill
the cavity between columella and the sporangial wal.
9. Rhizoidal hyphae and sporangiophores arise from a common point in Rhizopus.
10. Reproduction is carried out asexually by spores and sexually by conjugation.
Sporangium
Spores
Columella

Sporangiophore

-Stoloniferous hyphae
Substratum

Rhizoidal hyphae
Fig. 2.5 Rhizopus stolonifer
 SACCHAROMYCES (Yeast)
Classification
Kingdom Fungi
Division Eumycota
Class Ascomycetes
Order Saccharomycetales
Family Endomycetaceae
Genus Saccharomyces
Species cerevisiae
ldentification Characteristics
Presence of thalloid, delicate, colourful plant body and ascocarps.
General Characteristics
1. It is asaprophytic fungus growing on fruit surfaces,nectar, cane juices, etc.
2. It is a unicellular fungus having single nucleus in each cell.
3. The cells of yeast are colourless,oval or spherical in shape with one large vacuole.

Various cell Bud cell

organelles Cell wall
-Nucleus
Buds

Cytoplasm
Vacuole

Mother cell

Glycogen

(a) Yeast cell granules (b) Yeast cells forming pseudomycelium by budding
Fig. 2.7 Yeast
4. Each cell has a distinct cell wall and cytoplasm contains a
single nucleus. It also contains
mitochondria and glycogen granules.
5. Reserve food is present in the cytoplasm in the form of
volutin granules and glycogen droplets.
6. Cells form chains of buds that help in
propagation Sexual
budding or by binary fission and sexual reproduction occurs by reproduction
forming
occurs mainly by
of meiotic cell division. ascospores as a result
7. It may form pseudomycelium by repeated budding.
 MAIZE (Monocotyledonous)
Classification
Kingdom Plantae
Division
Angiospermae
Class Monocotyledonae
Order Poales
Family Poaceae
Genus Zea
Species mays
IdentificationCharacteristics
1. Leaves show parallel venationwhich is unique feature of monocots.
2. Roots are adventitious in nature.
3. The plant body has soft, herbaceous stem that is unbranched.
General Characteristics
1. It is an annual, herbaceous plant.
2. The plant body is differentiated into roots, stem and leaves.
3. Roots are fibrous or adventitious.
gives the appearance of a
4. Stem is unbranched with distinct nodes and internodes and
bamboo Cone.
compound with parallel venation.
5. Leaves are grownfrom each nodes andare simple or
or seeds. These are called as kernels.
6. The leafy stalk produces ears that contain the grains
7. Female inflorescence or ears develop above tew
leaves in the midsection of plant, between
stem and leaf sheath.
on the apex of the stem.
8. The inflorescence of the male flower is found
9. Flowers appear in cluster. Each flower is trimerous,
i.e. every whorl is in 3's or multiples of 3 and
says, perianth is present.
there is no distinction between calyx or Corolla or we can
10. Ovules are situated inside the carpels.
 Tassel

Male

Leaf

Silk
Ears (female
inflorescence)
Nodes

-Brace root

-Fibrous root

Fig. 2.14 Maize (Zea mays) : A monocotyledonous plant

11. Seed has only one cotyledon and reserved food is present in the
endosperm.
12. Other examples of monocotyledonous plants are, wheat, rice,
grasses, Allium cepa (onion).
BRASSICA(Dicotyledonous)|
Classification
Kingdom Plantae
Division Spermatophyta
Class Dicotyledonae
Order Brassicales
Family Brassicaceae
Genus Brassica
Species campestris
Identification Characteristics
1. Plant is annual herbaceous in nature.
2. Leaves have reticulate
venation which is the characteristic of dicot plants.
3. Stem is unbranched, bears
4. Plant has tap root
leaves, fruits, flowers and seeds.
system.
General Characteristics
1. It is a cultivated
annual herb.
2. Plant body is
sporophyte (2n) and is differentiated into roots, stems and
Root The plant has tap root leaves.
system with branches on lateral side.
Stem The plant has soft green stem with
Leaves The plant bears sinmple, alternate distinct nodes and internodes.
leaves with lobed margin and reticulate
venation.
 Terminal bud
Flower

Fruit

Stem

-Internode Shoot system

-Axillarybud

Petiole
Node

-Primary root
Root system
-Secondary root

Fig. 2.15 Mustard plant (Brassica compestris): Adicotyledonous plant

3. Flowers are tetramerous or pentamerous, yellow coloured and are meant for sexual
reproduction. Each flower is bisexual and with cruciform corolla.
4. The fruits is an elongated capsule-like with a false septum (replum) called siligua.
5. Seeds are enclosed within the fruit that contains an embryo with two cotyledons. They are small
rounded and yellow or black-coloured.
6. Other examples of dicotyledons plants are pea, gram, Hibiscus, lady's finger, etc.

PRECAUTIONS
carefully.
Handle the specimens in separate specimen bottles
observe it.
Do not rush towards the specimen to
observe slides.
Be careful while using microscope to