Grade 12 Physics Notes
1. Newton’s Laws of Motion
• First Law (Law of Inertia): A body will
remain at rest or in uniform motion unless acted
upon by a net external force.
Example: A book remains stationary on a table
unless pushed.
• Second Law: The net force acting on
an object is equal to the product of its mass and
acceleration.
Formula: 
Example: A 10 kg object accelerating at 2 m/s²
experiences a force of 20 N.
• Third Law: For every action, there is
an equal and opposite reaction.
Example: When you jump o a boat, the boat
moves in the opposite direction.
2. Kinematics
• Equations of motion:
1. 
2. 
3. 
• De nitions:
• : Initial velocity, : Final velocity, :
Acceleration, : Displacement, : Time.
Example Problem: If a car starts from rest and
accelerates at 3 m/s² for 5 seconds, nd the
nal velocity and distance covered.
3. Work, Energy, and Power
• Work: Work is done when a force
causes displacement.
Formula: 
Example: A 50 N force moves an object 3 m in
the same direction. Work done = 150 J.
• Energy:
• Kinetic Energy (KE): 
• Potential Energy (PE): 
Example: A 2 kg object lifted 5 m has .
• Power: The rate at which work is
done.
Formula: 
Example: If 200 J of work is done in 4 seconds,
.
4. Electricity
• Ohm’s Law:  (Voltage = Current ×
Resistance).
• Electrical Power: .
Example: If a current of 2 A ows through a 10-
ohm resistor, .
• Series and Parallel Circuits:
• Series: Total resistance, .
• Parallel: .
5. Waves and Sound
• Wave Equation:  (velocity =
frequency × wavelength).
• Types of Waves:
1. Transverse: Particles move
perpendicular to wave direction (e.g., light).
2. Longitudinal: Particles move parallel
to wave direction (e.g., sound).
• Properties of Waves:
Wavelength (), Frequency (), Amplitude,
Speed ().
Example: A wave with a frequency of 50 Hz and
a wavelength of 2 m has speed .
6. Momentum
• Momentum:  (mass × velocity).
• Law of Conservation of Momentum:
Total momentum before collision = Total
momentum after collision.
Example: A 2 kg object moving at 3 m/s collides
with a 4 kg object at rest. Find the velocity after
collision if they stick together.
7. Optics
• Re ection: Angle of incidence = Angle
of re ection.
• Refraction: Bending of light as it
passes through di erent mediums.
Snell’s Law: .
• Lenses: Convex (converging) and
Concave (diverging).
Example: A convex lens focuses light to form an
image on the opposite side.
