University of Guyana

IRL 3208

Diplomacy and International Negotiations

Russia VS Ukraine

Group Members:

Lashauna Williams- 1028762

Fahima Vanvield- 1032385

Tonya Alleyne- 1032241

Background/ History/Context of the Conflict

The conflict between Russia and Ukraine, where many are of the view, started in 2014, has been
ongoing for some time. To grasp a better understanding of this conflict, one must go back to
before Ukraine gained its independence. Firstly, there was a period of time where Ukraine was
seen as an independent state (1918-1920), however this failed because of the domination of
Czechoslovakia, Romania and Poland in which, consequently they joined the Soviet Union and
became the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic1. Crimean Peninsula, where Crimea is located,
was gifted to Ukraine in 1954 by Supreme Soviet to celebrate their anniversary of 300 years of
the Treaty of Pereyaslav (1654)2. Years later, the Soviet Union began to crumble due to various
factors and it led to the full sovereignty of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. With this, the
independence of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic was announced in August 1991 and
they changed their name to Ukraine. After the fall of the Soviet Union, Ukraine assisted with the
creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) for their fellow member countries
who were apart of the Soviet Union3.

Russia, which occupies Northern Asia and Eastern Europe, is seen as the largest country in the
world. Before the name ‘Russia’, this country was known as a socialist state/federal union called
The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic / Russian Soviet Republic. This was from the
year 1917 to 1922, which was during the period of the Russian Revolution and the civil war. The
civil war, in which the Bolsheviks came out successfully, led to some changes; one of which The
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic changed to a communist party. This party
consisted, then, of both Russia and Ukraine, along with South Caucasus (Azerbaijan, modern
Georgia and Armenia) and was led by Valdimir Lenin. This communist party was called the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, commonly known as the USSR. What must be noted is that
years later, this party then consisted of 15 Soviet Socialist Republics4.
1
History.com Editors. (2021, January 25). Ukraine declares its independence. HISTORY.
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/ukraine-declares-its-independence
2
Calamur, K. C. (Ed.). (2014, February 27). Crimea: A Gift To Ukraine Becomes A Political Flash Point. NPR.
https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2014/02/27/283481587/crimea-a-gift-tohttps:/www.npr.org/sections/
parallels/2014/02/27/283481587/crimea-a-gift-to-ukraine-becomes-a-political-flash-point-ukraine-becomes-a-
political-flash-point
3
Zasenko, Oleksa Eliseyovich , Stebelsky, Ihor , Yerofeyev, Ivan Alekseyevich , Makuch, Andrij , Kryzhanivsky,
Stepan Andriyovich and Hajda, Lubomyr A.. "Ukraine". Encyclopedia Britannica, 29 Jun. 2021,
https://www.britannica.com/place/Ukraine. Accessed 1 July 2021.
4
History.com Editors. (2021b, April 27). Soviet Union. HISTORY.
https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.history.com/.amp/topics/russia/history-of-the-soviet-union
How did Russia become a part of this conflict?

Empress Catherine II commonly known as ‘Catherine the Great’ was seen as an enlightened ruler
in Russia. She instructed her armies to fight with modern day Turkey (the Ottoman Empire)
because she wanted full control of the Black Sea. The reason for this is that she wanted to gain
additional power by expanding her territory into Ukraine (specifically Western Ukraine) and
ensuring that her Russian legacy is extended within the Black Sea. An important point to note is
that Crimea was seen as bridge between Ukraine and Russia. The citizens of Crimea had a very
warish relationship with Russia because very often, they would enter Russia and take part in
human trafficking. This was even a better excuse for Catherine the Great to use for the
justification of the Russo-Turkish War which began in 1768. These acts decreased slowly as
Russians began to occupy Crimea during this period5.

Consequently, Russia won control of the key ports in Crimea, thanks to the 1774 Treaty of
Küçük Kaynarca. However, Crimea was left with nothing but nominal independence in which
even that they lost when they were formally annexed by Russia (1783). This annexation occurred
because Catherine the Great refused to settle the dispute and proceeded to achieve her “goals”. In
the process of doing so, she successfully contributed to the cease of Poland through the Russian
Partition. This resulted in modern Ukraine falling under their rule and they no longer had the
freedom they received by being under the Polish-Lithuanian rule6.

Since officially, as aforementioned, the jurisdiction of Crimea was shifted to Ukraine by Nikita
Khrushchev in 1954, the president of Russia was in agreement with Crimea being in Ukraine
when Ukraine gained its independence which led to the implementation of an agreement known
as the Budapest memorandum, signed by Russia, Ukraine and the US stating that Russia will
respect Ukraine’s Post-Soviet border and refrain from threat or use of force7; Russia’s
cooperation was on the grounds that their Black Sea Fleet will remain at Sevastopol, which of

5
Harris, C. (2014, March 4). When Catherine the Great Invaded the Crimea and Put the Rest of the World on Edge.
Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/when-catherine-great-invaded-crimea-and-put-
rest-world-edge-180949969/
6
Harris, C. (2014, March 4). When Catherine the Great Invaded the Crimea and Put the Rest of the World on Edge.
Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/when-catherine-great-invaded-crimea-and-put-
rest-world-edge-180949969/
7
Pifer, S. (2019, December 5). Why care about Ukraine and the Budapest Memorandum. Brookings.
https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2019/12/05/why-care-about-ukraine-and-the-budapest-
memorandum/
course will be under lease. In later years Russia and Ukraine’s relationship grew and the former
President Yanukovych extended their lease for operations in the black sea to 20428.

What caused the division between the East and West?

As mentioned before, Crimea was once Russian ruled before being gifted to Ukraine and
therefore a vast majority of its population speaks Russian and that posed some difficulties. West
of Ukraine was seen as the bread basket of the country and the official language became
Ukrainian post-independence. The challenge arose when Russian speakers in Ukraine were
unable to hold political rank, jobs in education or any senior roles in organizations and was
therefore at a disadvantage; a major economic crisis occurred in the early stages of Ukraine’s
independence and the unemployment rate was significantly high and those in the east were
affected greatly and felt persecuted for their lack of language skills; after major back lash from
the east, in the early 2000’s Russian was accepted as a semi-official language9.

Despite the changes made, the east and the west have always had a complex relationship and in
2014 conflict increased to its peak after the then President Yanukocvych signed an agreement
with the EU; the east passed a no confidence against the former government and protests and
attacks on government ministers began in the capital (Kiev); eventually overthrowing the
government. Russia took that opportunity to invade the Peninsula Parliament building, assigning
leaders to head the Russian rebels in Crimea and unanimously voting Russia as the head of the
region; a treaty drafted by Russian parliament was later signed to incorporate Crimea into the
Russian Federation.

8
BBC News. (2014, March 5). Ukraine crisis: Does Russia have a case? https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-
26415508
9
Communicaid Group Limited. (2015, March 9). Russia and Ukraine Conflict: Historical Context. Communicaid.Com.
https://www.communicaid.com/cross-cultural-training/blog/russia-ukraine-conflict-historical-context/
Map of Ukraine before Russia’s Annexation of Crimea

Map of Ukraine focusing on Crimea

Map showing Crimea now under Russian control
Parties involved in the conflict and their respective positions.

 Ukraine

 Russia

 United States

 NATO ( North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

 European Union

The United States Involvement

The United States has been a major party involved in the Russia vs Ukraine crisis due to their
strong relations with Ukraine dating back to 1991 after Ukraine would’ve gained independence
following the collapse of the Soviet Union. Just to give a brief history of the events that
would’ve let up to the US being such a strong ally to Ukraine; in 1991, Ukraine held the world’s
largest nuclear arsenal; comprising of 1900 nuclear war heads that armed 176 intercontinental
ballistic missiles and 45 strategic bombers, all designed to strike the US. After intense diplomatic
negotiations and assistance from the US funded Cooperative Threat Reduction Program, Ukraine
agreed to let go of the arsenal and have the missiles destroyed by transporting them to Russia.
They also pulled out of their agreement with Iran to assist in the construction of a nuclear power
plant in Bushehr Iran; which led to Russia who was also a part of that agreement left to find
another provider of turbine generators for the Iranian reactors10. These decisions along with
others made by Ukraine in the past were in the Interest of building relations with the US, hence
their partnership and the US support in times of a crisis. Russia’s annexation of Crimea was an
unlawful one, undermining Ukraine’s sovereignty and posing a threat to a major war. The US’s
position is clear “Penalize Russia through policy change,” the Budapest Memorandum agreement
was breeched and therefore Russia has to take responsibility for their actions. Sanctions were
issued by former President Donald Trump to impose assets freezes, travel bans and financial
restrictions on a number of Russians and Russian companies11. As expected Russia’s response to
the United States’ position was on the opposing side, which led to tensions between the two
10
Steven Pifer, 2014 (Ukraine, Russia and US Policy Response); para(s) 7&8;
https://www.brookings.edu/testimonies/ukraine-russia-and-the-u-s-policy-response/
nations and even a threat to a trade war. With a response from the foreign ministry stating “If the
US authorities prefer to break economic ties with Russia, it is their right, just as it is our right to
respond.”

Ukraine would’ve responded that they are “grateful for the full support of the United states in the
UN security council and continuation of the policy of sanctions against the Russian
Federation.”12 To further discuss the United States’ involvement in Ukraine, program reforms
have been established by US officials to transform their energy sources and widen their
efficiency which would eventually lead to reduce dependency on Russia and military aid has also
been considered by the US to strengthen defense in the Donbas and Crimea areas where Pro
Russian buildup has occurred in recent times13. Previously under the former Trump
administration, the state department approved the sale of lethal anti-tank weapons to build
Ukraine’s defense, this sale was estimated to cost US 2 Billion dollars; and now the US
continues to back Ukraine under the new Biden administration where the President, Joe Biden
reiterated their unwavering support in the standoff against the two nations. Sanctions recently
imposed by US officials is set for and I quote “a range of unacceptable behavior from Moscow
and to deter further acts while also signaling they are going to take a tougher line than the Trump
administration. While concerned arose about Russia and the US relationship; Biden would’ve
stated that they do not want a downward spiral in relations between the two nations but
emphasize their response is “resolute and proportionate.14”

NATO’s and the EU Involvement

11
Mike Eckel, 2018 (U.S. Imposes New Sanctions Over Ukraine Conflict); para 4; https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-
new-u-s-sanctions-ukraine/29000684.html

12
Mike Eckel, 2018(U.S. Imposes New Sanctions Over Ukraine Conflict); para(s)10-13
https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-new-u-s-sanctions-ukraine/29000684.html
13
Steven Pifer, 2014 (Ukraine, Russia and US Policy Response); https://www.brookings.edu/testimonies/ukraine-
russia-and-the-u-s-policy-response/
14
BBC World News, 2021(US imposes sanctions on Russia over cyber-attacks;
https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-56755484
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization is an alliance of 30 countries inclusive of the United
States, some members of the European Union, Canada and Turkey; their mission is to protect the
Rights and Freedom of its members and to deescalate any threats to war in Europe. NATO has
been front and center and a key player in the Russia-Ukraine conflict; their relationship with
Russia has in the past been somewhat difficult and therefore with the possibility of another war
brewing, their approach to Russia has been strict. The organization sees Russia as a threat and
their “aggressive actions a challenge to the vision of a whole, free and at peace Europe;” they
stand with Ukraine and express their support for their sovereignty and territorial integrity.
Defense and Dialogue, that’s NATO’s main focus in this situation; “NATO Secretary General
Jens Stoltenberg called on Russia to end its military build-up, stop its provocations and de-
escalate the situation. The Secretary General stressed that NATO Allies do not and will not
recognize Russia’s illegal and illegitimate annexation of Crimea, and condemn its military build-
up on the peninsula; they continue to call on Russia to abide by the Minsk Agreements, end its
support for the militants in eastern Ukraine, and withdraw its forces from Ukrainian territory.
Allies also continue to call on Russia to engage constructively at the OSCE on its military
activities while also commending Ukraine for the restraint shown in the face of Russia’s
provocations.15”

The European Union like NATO and the US is strongly against Russia’s actions and has been
imposing sanctions since 2014 which includes; restrictive measures against some 177 individuals
and 48 entities in respect to Ukraine’s sovereignty and territorial integrity, Diplomatic sanctions
that cancels Bilateral talks with Russia (EU-Russia Summit) and economic sanctions targeting
exchanges with Russia. The idea of a war in Europe could be detrimental to many member states
surrounding Ukraine and Russia.16

Russia’s Position

15
NATO News, 2021(NATO-Ukraine Commission addresses security situation in and around Ukraine);
https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_183015.htm

16
EU Council, 2021(EU restrictive measures in response to the crisis in
Ukraine);https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/sanctions/ukraine-crisis/
This has not been the first annexation of the Crimean region by Russia; the first invasion dated
back to world war two where disputes brewed about who controls the ports surrounding the
Black Sea. As we know, for many years prior to the establishment of the Soviet Union Crimea
was once governed by Russia; after the region was gifted to Ukraine and legally deemed
Ukrainian territory, a large percentage of the population is Russian cultured, meaning that they
speak the language and adapts Russian ethics17. Russia’s position seems to be to draw Ukraine
away from its ties to NATO and the US and closer to Russia seeing that they are a part of their
geopolitical orbit and Russia’s history; their intension was not to necessarily take over the
Crimea but to have a weak and compliant Ukraine that would depend on Moscow and if invading
the territory was a means of achieving same then so be it18. Russia is seeking to develop a
Eurasian Union (powerful economic and political bloc made up of like-minded former Soviet
States) and sees Ukraine as a key part of that plan due to their history. President Putin also
believes that it is their right to protect the human rights of its ‘people’ in Crimea, using that as a
justification for its actions. Another question you might ask is “what has happened since 2014?”
Russia continues to control the region; building a bridge linking the Peninsula to Moscow, daily
patrols of military troops has escalated in recent times, transportation of heavy duty military
equipment from Moscow has caused major tension and Russia continues to back separatist in the
Donbas region.

Ukraine’s Position

Ukraine has maintained a calm approach to the crisis, by accepting international assistance and
strengthening their defense while drawing closer to the EU and the US and even recently joining
NATO. Ukraine’s Military has taken position at their borders to combat any advances made by
Russia and to manage their activities in Crimea; they are urging the Kremlin to deescalate their
military buildup, desist from providing support to the Pro Russian separatist in Donbas and
evacuate the buildings they illegally occupied. Ukraine’s long ties and history with Russia might
be on the brink of collapsing after treats made to halt trade and increase prices. Ukraine is
basically depending on its allies to push for a solution to the conflict.

17
The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica, 2014(Crimea History); https://www.britannica.com/place/Crimea
18
Steven Pifer, 2014 (Ukraine, Russia and US Policy Response); https://www.brookings.edu/testimonies/ukraine-
russia-and-the-u-s-policy-response/
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)

The OSCE is an organization that seeks to intensify security in Europe and foster great
relationships between Europe and its neighbors through dialogue and cooperation. Their
relationship with Russia has in the past been strenuous, due to Russia’s actions that goes against
the aims and objectives to the organization. The Russia/Ukraine crisis has seen intervention from
the OSCE to combat the issue by high-level diplomacy and multilateral dialogue while
monitoring the security situation on the ground; promoting respect for human rights and
fundamental freedoms; and strengthening democratic institutions and practices between the
nations. The organization would’ve created a mission known as the ‘Special Monitoring Mission
of Ukraine (SMM)’ which gathers information and provides impartial fact-based reports on the
security situation on the ground along Ukraine’s borders, monitors and supports respect for
human rights commitments, and works to establish contacts and facilitate dialogue, with the aim
of reducing tensions; while over-all promoting the implementation of the Minsk Agreement.19

Current status/position of conflict & proposed ‘diplomatic’ solutions

Previous Attempts Made to Solve the Conflict

During the unrest in Ukraine between March and April 2014, there were some attempts made to
resolve the conflict. In March 2014, Russia was suspended from the Group of Eight (G8) which

19
OSCE News, 2021(The crisis in and around Ukraine);https://www.osce.org/ukrainecrisis
was an international group comprising of the eight top industrialized nations during a meeting in
which they came up with a Hague Declaration about Russia’s situation. Russia was faced with
such consequences because of their annexation of Crimea. The members of this meeting came to
the conclusion that harsher sanctions wouldn’t have been placed on Russia, only if they invaded
Ukraine20.

Other diplomatic actions that were taken in response to Russia’s activities, were the cancelling of
the EU-Russia Summit and negotiations about Russia joining OECD and the International
Energy Agency21. However, since the Russo-Ukrainian conflict continued and Russian links in
Ukraine started to cause havoc, many other sanctions were thrown at the Russian Federation and
even against some Ukrainian citizens who were involved in the uproar. The United States of
America and the European Union were among those who imposed the sanctions. Some sanctions
that the United States of America imposed on Russia were limited access to America’s financial
systems, they blocked entry from Russia into their country and they even have authority over
what is exported to Russia’s defense sector22. A few EU sanctions that were imposed on Russia
were also limited access to EU’s capital markets, the refraining from financially assisting Russia
and the prohibition of the exportation of any products that can be of use in the defense sector. As
recent as July 31 2021, the EU sanctions were still in effect23. However, these sanctions earned a
response from Russia, in which they also sanctioned the EU and the US, among other countries.
They banned the importation of food from those entities (countries that were banned were
NORWAY, CANADA, and AUSTRALIA)24.

Hence, these sanctions were not deemed as effective since consequently after, there was a
military clash between the Russian Military and Ukrainian Armed Forces. This resulted in the

20
Smale, A., & Shear, M. D. (2014, March 26). Russia Is Ousted From Group of 8 by U.S. and Allies. The New York
Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/25/world/europe/obama-russia-crimea.html
21
EU restrictive measures in response to the crisis in Ukraine. (2021, June 23). European Council.
https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/sanctions/ukraine-crisis/
22
Congressional Research Service. (2021, July). U.S. Sanctions on Russia: An Overview (IF 10779).
https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/IF10779.pdf
23
Russia: The EU prolongs economic sanctions for another six months. (2020, December 17). European Council.
https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2020/12/17/russia-the-eu-prolongs-economic-
sanctions-for-another-six-months/
24
U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2020, December). Russia Extended Food Import Ban Through End 2021 (No.
RS2020-0063). Global Agriculture Information Network.
https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/DownloadReportByFileName?fileName=Russia%20Extended
%20Food%20Import%20Ban%20Through%20End%202021_Moscow_Russian%20Federation_12-18-2020
constructing of an agreement between the government of Ukraine and Donetsk People’s
Republic (which is a part in Ukraine that is Russian backed) and a terrorist organization in
Ukraine which is called Luhansk People’s Republic. This organization is also controlled by
Russia. This agreement was signed by the entities mentioned inclusive of the Russian Federation
and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). In order to not get
confused, a point that needs to reiterate is the fact that there is a division in Ukraine where
Russian citizens mostly occupies Western Ukraine. This agreement which was signed on
September 2014 was a ceasefire agreement called the Minsk Agreement, which unfortunately
crumbled in January 201525. There was chaos among the same parties that signed the agreement
in September 2014 which led to a new ceasefire agreement being signed in February 2015
(Minsk 2 Agreement)26.

However, just like the previous attempts made to ease the conflict, this yet again failed. In
February 2015, Ukraine made an attempt to suspend diplomatic relations with Russia. Both
Ukraine and Russia followed up on this by trying to cut ties with each other day by day27.
Ukrainians were advised to ease any travelling to Russia or simply staying far away from their
borders. Ukraine even banned Russian TV channels, the entering of Russians, eliminating their
culture, et cetera. Even with this attempt to ease diplomatic relations with each other, this seemed
to be very unlikely since as recent as April 2021, there was an attempt made to come up with a
diplomatic solution between Russia and Ukraine. This also involved Germany, France and
Turkey

Nevertheless, they came to the conclusion that this resulted in no changes since the call was
executed to end the conflict between Russia and Ukraine. An agreement was established on the
call where both parties agreed to reach a common ground which included another cease-fire

25
Socor, V. (2020, July 29). New Ukraine Ceasefire Agreement Officializes Donetsk-Luhansk Militaries (Part One).
Jamestown. https://jamestown.org/program/new-ukraine-ceasefire-document-officializes-donetsk-luhansk-
militaries-part-one/
26
The Minsk-2 agreement. (2020, October 1). Chatham House – International Affairs Think Tank.
https://www.chathamhouse.org/2020/05/minsk-conundrum-western-policy-and-russias-war-eastern-ukraine-0/
minsk-2-agreement
27
RFE/RL’s Ukrainian Service. (2017, November 8). Ukrainian Lawmaker To Propose Cutting Diplomatic Ties With
Russia. RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. https://www.rferl.org/a/ukriane-vinnyk-russia-cutting-diplomatic-ties/
28842771.html
agreement28. So many diplomatic efforts and restrictive measures were put into place to combat
this conflict, however, they were deemed as ineffective. The parties involved in this Russo-
Ukrainian conflict are bottled with frustration because they are also affected, whether it be
economically, politically, or even socially.

Proposed Diplomatic Solutions

It was concluded that imposing more sanctions on Russia would still not be an effective solution
since Russia is seen as the largest country and they are well equipped with resources since there
are other countries outside of the United States and EU members that supply Russia with what
they need. Hence, what should be implemented is a clear policy that will cease Russia from
destabilizing Ukraine even further. The European Union and the United States, including other
countries or organizations that are affected by this conflict should host a conference in which
they can construct said policy.

And yet still, if Russia refuses to adhere to the policy, the parties hosting the conference should
consider forming an international coalition to confront Russia. Diplomatic measures were
exhausted to combat this issue, peacefully, so why not confront Russia? If these parties do not
want to use force to resolve this issue, then they can threaten Russia with this solution. This
should be a successful solution because no country would want a coalition of powerful nations
against them. Lastly, Ukraine was getting assistance from the U.S. and other parties but, they
may need more help to get themselves back on track economically. Ukraine needs to strengthen
their economy and their borders in order to further protect themselves from Russia, which may
also include strengthening their military force in the event of further attacks. Therefore, nations
and organizations interested in assisting Ukraine financially should form a meeting whereby they
can come up with ways in which they can come to their aid. A point to be noted is that Ukraine
has the resources needed to become independent within the energy sector, so one of the solutions
to help their financial crisis would be to assist them in becoming successful at such. Hence, this
may also be a solution to further financial issues they may incur.

28
R. (2021, April 20). EU Warns Russian Military Buildup Could “Spark” Conflict As Ukraine Talks Yield Few Results.
RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. https://www.rferl.org/a/ukraine-france-germany-russia-discuss-leaders-summit/
31210897.html
 REFERENCES

1. History.com Editors. (2021, January 25). Ukraine declares its independence. HISTORY.
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/ukraine-declares-its-independence

2. Calamur, K. C. (Ed.). (2014, February 27). Crimea: A Gift To Ukraine Becomes A

Political Flash Point. NPR.
https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2014/02/27/283481587/crimea-a-gift-tohttps:/
 www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2014/02/27/283481587/crimea-a-gift-to-ukraine-
becomes-a-political-flash-point-ukraine-becomes-a-political-flash-point

3. Zasenko, Oleksa Eliseyovich , Stebelsky, Ihor , Yerofeyev, Ivan Alekseyevich , Makuch,

Andrij , Kryzhanivsky, Stepan Andriyovich and Hajda, Lubomyr A.. "Ukraine".
Encyclopedia Britannica, 29 Jun. 2021, https://www.britannica.com/place/Ukraine.
Accessed 1 July 2021.

4. History.com Editors. (2021b, April 27). Soviet Union. HISTORY.

https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.history.com/.amp/topics/russia/history-of-the-
soviet-union

5. Harris, C. (2014, March 4). When Catherine the Great Invaded the Crimea and Put the
Rest of the World on Edge. Smithsonian Magazine.
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/when-catherine-great-invaded-crimea-and-put-
rest-world-edge-180949969/

6. Pifer, S. (2019, December 5). Why care about Ukraine and the Budapest Memorandum.
Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2019/12/05/why-care-
about-ukraine-and-the-budapest-memorandum/

7. BBC News. (2014, March 5). Ukraine crisis: Does Russia have a case?
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-26415508

8. Communicaid Group Limited. (2015, March 9). Russia and Ukraine Conflict: Historical
Context. Communicaid.Com.
https://www.communicaid.com/cross-cultural-training/blog/russia-ukraine-conflict-
historical-context/

9. Steven Pifer, 2014 (Ukraine, Russia and US Policy Response); para(s) 7&8;
https://www.brookings.edu/testimonies/ukraine-russia-and-the-u-s-policy-response/

10. Mike Eckel, 2018 (U.S. Imposes New Sanctions Over Ukraine Conflict); para 4;
https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-new-u-s-sanctions-ukraine/29000684.html

11. BBC World News, 2021(US imposes sanctions on Russia over cyber-attacks;
https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-56755484
12. NATO News, 2021(NATO-Ukraine Commission addresses security situation in and
around Ukraine); https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_183015.htm

13. EU Council, 2021(EU restrictive measures in response to the crisis in

Ukraine);https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/sanctions/ukraine-crisis/

14. OSCE News, 2021(The crisis in and around Ukraine);https://www.osce.org/ukrainecrisis

15. Smale, A., & Shear, M. D. (2014, March 26). Russia Is Ousted From Group of 8 by U.S.
and Allies. The New York Times.
https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/25/world/europe/obama-russia-crimea.html

16. Congressional Research Service. (2021, July). U.S. Sanctions on Russia: An Overview (IF
10779). https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/IF10779.pdf

17. Russia: The EU prolongs economic sanctions for another six months. (2020, December
17). European Council.
https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2020/12/17/russia-the-eu-
prolongs-economic-sanctions-for-another-six-months/

18. U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2020, December). Russia Extended Food Import Ban
Through End 2021 (No. RS2020-0063). Global Agriculture Information Network

19. Socor, V. (2020, July 29). New Ukraine Ceasefire Agreement Officializes Donetsk-
Luhansk Militaries (Part One). Jamestown. https://jamestown.org/program/new-ukraine-
ceasefire-document-officializes-donetsk-luhansk-militaries-part-one/

20. The Minsk-2 agreement. (2020, October 1). Chatham House – International Affairs Think
Tank. https://www.chathamhouse.org/2020/05/minsk-conundrum-western-policy-and-
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