WEEK ONE DATE………………………

TOPIC: BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

CONTENT

 Definition and Branches of Ecology

 Ecological Terms ( Environment, Biosphere, Habitat, Ecological Niche, Population,
Community, Ecological System, Biome)

 Components of an Ecosystem
BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

DEFINITION OF ECOLOGY

Ecology is the study of plant and animals (as well as microorganism) in relation to their environment. As
a practical science, ecological studies involve:-

 Studying the distribution of living organisms

 Finding out how living organisms depend on themselves and their non-living
environment for survival.
 Measuring factors affecting the environment.

BRANCHES OF ECOLOGY

Depending on whether the organisms are studied alone or in groups, ecology is divided into two:

i. AUTECOLOGY: This is the study of an individual organism or a single species of organism

and its environment e.g. the study of a student and his school environment.
ii. SYNECOLOGY: This involves studying the inter-relationships between groups of
organisms or different species of organism living together in an area e.g. study of fish,
crabs, seaweeds, etc in a pond.

EVALUATION

1. Define ecology.
2. Differentiate between the two branches of ecology.

ECOLOGICAL TERMS

The various concepts closely associated with ecology include;

a. ENVIRONMENT
This includes external and internal factors, living or nonliving which affects an organism or a group of
organisms. These include the habitat (with its peculiar physical conditions e.g. light, food, water, air), the
animals preying on other animals or the diseases affecting the organism.

b. BIOSPHERE (ECOSPHERE)

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This is the zone of the earth occupied by living organisms so as to carry out their biochemical activities.

The ecosphere consists of 3 major portions:-

-Lithosphere:- this is the solid portion (the outer-most zone) of the earth which is made
up of rocks and minerals. This zone forms 30% of the earth surface and it is the basis of
human settlement.
- Hydrosphere:- this is the liquid (aquatic) part of the biosphere. It covers about 70% of
the earth’s crust. It consist of water in various forms; solid, liquid or gas (water vapour),
hydrosphere includes lakes, pools, spring, oceans, ponds, rivers, etc.
- Atmosphere: - this is the gaseous portion of the earth. It consists of three main gases;
nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%) and carbon (iv) oxide (0.03%). There are also 0.77% rare
gases.
c. HABITAT
This is a place where an organism is naturally found. Habitat is always affected by environmental factors.
Habitat can be divided into three:-

- Aquatic habitat: this is where plants and animals (as well as micro organisms) live in
water e.g. Sea, ocean, lagoons, streams, etc.
- Terrestrial habitat: this is where the organisms live on land e.g. forests, grassland,
(savanna), desert etc.
- Arboreal habitat: These include tree trunks and tree tops where some organisms
(usually animals) are naturally found.
d. ECOLOGICAL NICHE
This refers to the habitat and the entire habit (behavioural, feeding, breeding) of an organism. It is the
physical space occupied by an organism and its functional role in the community.

e. POPULATION
This is the total number of organisms of the same species living together in a habitat e.g. population of
cockroaches in Biology laboratory.

f. COMMUNITY
This is made up of all the populations of living organisms that exists together in a habitat e.g. a
community of decomposer, insects and birds on a decaying log of wood.

g. ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM (ECOSYSTEM)

This refers to the basic functional unit in nature, which consists of all living factors and their interaction
with non-living factors of the environment. An ecosystem can be natural or artificial.

h. BIOMES
This is a large natural terrestrial ecosystem. It is a plant and animal community produced and maintained
by the climate.

EVALUATION

1. Define the following A. Community B. Population C. Ecosystem

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 2. Differentiate between Biosphere and Ecosystem.

COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Biosphere comprises of various ecosystems. There are two main components of the ecosystem, the
abiotic and the biotic components.

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS

These are non-living components and they are basic elements and compounds of the environment in
which an organism lives.

Abiotic components include organic substances (e.g. carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins), inorganic
substances (e.g. CO2, H2O), climatic factors (e.g. light, temperature, rainfall) as well as edaphic factors
(e.g. soil types, texture, topography etc).

BIOTIC COMPONENTS

These are the living things in the ecosystem. These include the producers, the consumers and the
decomposers.

a. Producer: These are autotrophs in that they synthesize their food from simple inorganic
substances e. g. green plants, protophytes and chemosynthetic bacteria.
b. Consumers: These are heterotrophs which feed on the producers or one another. They
may be primary, secondary or tertiary consumers e.g. non-green plants, animals
protozoa and some bacteria
c. Decomposers: These are saprophytes. They break down remains of plants and animals
and release usable nutrients to the soil. These nutrients are used by plants to make food
e.g. fungi and some bacteria
Generally living things influence other living things in many ways such as in feeding (parasitism), shading
from sunlight, pollination and dispersal of seeds, competition. Some of these factors are favourable
while others are unfavourable.

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISIONAL QUESTIONS

1. Write a short note on ecosphere.

2. Differentiate between a habitat and ecological niche.
3. With two example each, state three subdivisions of habitat.
4. What is a population?
5. How is population related to the community?
6. Differentiate between ecosystem and biomes.
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 7. State the two major components of an ecosystem with two examples each.

READING ASSIGNMENT

College Biology, chapter 23, 496 – 499

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Which of the following is not classified as a terrestrial habitat? A. forest B. guinea savanna
C. literal zone D. desert
2. The activities of an organism which affect the survival of another organism in a habitat can be
described as A. biotic factors. B. Abiotic factors C. climatic factor D. edaphic factors.
3. The number of individuals of the same species interacting in a habitat at a particular time is best
described as A. community B. ecosystem C. population D. biome.
4. A biotic community with its physical environment (abiotic factors) defines A. ecosystem B.
population C. habitat D. biosphere.
5. The most abundant gas in the atmosphere is A. oxygen B. nitrogen C. carbon dioxide D.
a rare gas.

THEORY

1. Define i) Biotic community ii) habitat iii) an ecosystem

2. Write short notes on the three major portions of ecosphere.

WEEK TWO DATE ………………………

TOPIC: BIOMES

Biomes are large natural terrestrial ecosystem, identified by their dominant vegetation. They are
terrestrial because plants form the bulk of the community in any ecosystem e.g. a forest biome has
densely packed tall trees while grasses and few scattered shrubs are found in a savanna biome. Climatic
factors determine the type of vegetation in a biome. These factors may include rainfall, relative humidity,
temperature, wind and light.

EVALUATION

1. What is a biome?
2. Mention four factors that determine the vegetation of a biome.

LOCAL BIOMES

The local biomes particular to Nigeria include the following:

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 - mangrove swamp
- tropical rain forest
- savanna (northern and southern Guinea savanna, Sudan savanna and sahel savanna)
a. MANGROVE SWAMPS
These are found in the tropics along coastal region and river mouths. Mangrove swamps are forest of
small, evergreen, broad-leaved trees growing in shallow, brackish water or wet soil. Many mangrove
trees have pop roots and breathing roots called pneumatophores. The climate here is hot and wet, with
total annual rain fall of above 250cm and temperature of about 260c. In Nigeria, mangrove swamps are
found in the delta region of Lagos, Delta, Rivers, Bayelsa and Cross rivers states.

b. TROPICAL RAIN FOREST:

This occurs in the region that is between the equator and latitude 50-100N and S. It has the following
characteristics:

- The forest are mainly lowland.

- The climate is hot and wet.
- It consists of broad leaved trees that are mostly ever green; the leaves are gradually
shed throughout the year and replaced by new ones.
- The trees form canopy strata with their interior having low light intensity, high
humidity and damp floor.
- The trees possess thin bark.
- The forest is rich in epiphytes and wood climbers.
- The annual rainfall and temperature are 200cm and 270c respectively.
In Nigeria, tropical rainfall is found in Edo, Delta, Ondo, Imo, Lagos, Rivers state e.t.c.

c. SAVANNA
These are tropical grassland in Africa. They are usually flat for miles at a stretch and made up mainly of
grasses. The savanna region has a hot and wet seasons (290c) which alternate with a cool and dry season
(180c). The total annual rainfall around 50cm-150cm. During the dry season, the grasses are usually dry
and brown and bush fire is common occurrences.

South Guinea savanna (the largest of all the biomes in Nigeria) has tall grasses with scattered, deciduous
trees. It is found in Enugu, Kogi, Benue, Kwara, Oyo, Osun, Ekiti State etc.

Northern Guinea Savanna has scattered, deciduous trees, sometimes with thorns and tick barks. Grasses
are short and numerous. it is found in plateau, Kaduna, Bauchi, Niger, Kano, Adamawa states etc.

Sudan savanna has the shorter grasses fewer trees which are more scattered. It is found in Kano and
parts of Borno, Sokoto, Niger, Bauchi states e.t.c

Sahel savanna has high temperature and low rainfall with short and scanty grasses as well as

short and tough shrubs or trees. The plants are drought-resistant. It is found in Borno, Kastina, Sokoto,
Yobe, Kano, Jigawa states etc.

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EVALUATION

1. In a tabular form, distinguish between the three major biomes in Nigeria using the
following
a. Total annual rainfall
b. Temperature
c. Regions found
2. List five characteristics of savanna.

WORLD BIOMES

Of all abiotic factors affecting ecological system, temperature and rainfall determine the world biomes.
The biomes include: tropical rain forest, temperate forest, coniferous forest, temperate shrubland,
savanna, temperate grassland, desert, and tundra and mountain vegetation.

a. TEMPERATE FORESTS
These are forests with the following characteristics they are

- Mainly of broad leaved deciduous trees which shed their leaves during winter.
- Possession of moderately wet climate with a dry or cold season.
b. CONIFEROUS FORESTS
These are characterized by

- Needle-leaved evergreen conifers such as pines, firs.

- Possessing few trees.
- Possessing tall tree forming upper storey.
- The forest floor being covered with a thick layer or conifer needles.
- Possessing cool temperature climate with light rainfall and snow.
c. TEMPERATE SHRUBLAND
This is forest with the following characteristics

- It consists of drought-resistant shrub plants and dwarf trees, often fire-resistant e.g. marquis.
- It has temperate climate with low rainfall.
d. TEMPERATE GRASSLAND
This is characterized by:

- perennial grasses grow on very fertile soil to support herds of grazing mammals
- It has moderately dry climate with a cold winter and a hot summer
e. SAVANNA
This is a tropical grassland with:

- scattered trees and often infertile soil

- moderately dry climate with a warm dry season and a hot rainy season
f. DESERT
This has:

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 - very sparse vegetation, with succulent perennials that have deep root systems.
- tropical temperate and afro-alpine regions with less than 25 cm annual rainfall.
g. TUNDRA
This is characterized by:

- treeless marshy vegetation composed mainly of dwarf shrubs, grasses, lichen and moss
with very few plant trees.
- cold climate with long icy winter and very short summer with an average temperature of
100c.
h. MOUNTANE VEGETATION
This has:

- evergreen rainforest on slopes of mountain, these forest are less luxuriant than the
tropical rainforest.
- Afro alpine vegetation occurs at heights above 3000m on mountain, vegetation consists
mainly of heath, grasses and sedges.

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISIONAL QUESTIONS

1. What do you understand by the term biome?

2. State the local biomes found in Nigeria.
3. State the four savannas present in Nigeria.
4. What are the two factors that determine the world biomes?
5. State four of the world biomes with two characteristics each.
6. Using their characteristics, differentiate between savanna and desert.

READING ASSIGNMENT

College Biology, chapter 23, page 499 - 504

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. How is savanna plants protected from bush fires? They have A. sunken stomata B. thorn
bark C. thick barks D. soft leaves
2. Which of the following limiting resources is competed for by organisms in the desert?
A. Light B. oxygen C. temperature D. water
3. Which of these is not a true characteristic of the tropical rain forest? A. Vegetation
consists predominantly of tall tree with thick canopy B. forest is rich in epiphytes and
climbers C. annual rainfall is less than 100 cm D. annual temperature is 27 0c
4. Which of the following does not describe the coniferous forest? A. needle leaved
evergreen conifers B. broad leaved evergreen conifers C. possessing few trees
D. possessing cool temperate climate

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 5. Montane vegetation is described by the following except A. treeless marshy vegetation
B. evergreen rainforest on slopes of mountain C. forest are less luxuriant than tropical
rain forest D. afro alpine vegetation at heights above 300m on mountain

THEORY

1. Outline the properties of the savanna as a world biome.

2. State four characteristic features of vegetation found in A. savanna B. tropical
rainforest C. desert.

WEEK THREE DATE ……………………

TOPIC: POPULATION STUDIES

CONTENT

 Population Characteristics
 Population Studies
 Factors that Affect Population
 Simple Measurement of Ecological Factors.
POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS

These include population size, density, frequency, percentage cover and distribution.

a. Population size: - this is the number of organisms of the same species living together in
a given area at a particular time.
b. Population density: - this is the number of a particular species per unit area or volume of
the habitat. Therefore
Population density = population size / area of habitat.
c. Population frequency: - this is the number of times an organism occurs within a given
area or habitat.
d. Percentage cover: - this refers to how much space or area an organism occupies its
habitat.
e. Population growth rate: - this refers to the net result of the influence of natality (birth
rate) and mortality (death rate) of organism in a given habitat.
f. Population distribution: - this refers to the ways in which individuals of the same species
are arranged in a given habitat, either randomly, evenly or clumped.

EVALUATION

1. Define the following terms: (i) Percentage cover (ii) Population size (iii) Population
frequency (iv) Population density.
2. Mention two methods of determining population size.

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POPULATION STUDIES

a. Choose the habitat.

b. Select the sampling method to be used.
c. Collect, count and record the different types of organisms present. Sampling using a
quadrant or transcent using a tape can be adopted.
d. Identify the dominant species i. e. the species that has greater influence on the other
members of the community.
e. Repeat the population studies at intervals.
f. Determine the population characteristics.

EVALUATION

1. How do you determine the population density of insect on a piece of land?

2. How do you determine the population of grasses in a piece of land?

FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION

a. Natality; Ability of organisms to reproduce to increase its population

b. Mortality; Death rate.
c. Immigration; Movement of organisms from different habitats into a new habitat and
this increases the population of the new area, decreasing the population of the former
habitat.
d. Emigration; Movement of organisms out of a habitat due to unfavourable conditions
e.g. food scarcity etc. This reduces the population of the habitat.
e. Availability of food; Animals tend to migrate to where there is plenty of food, thereby
increasing the population of such places.
f. Seasonal climatic changes; whether the change is favourable or not determines the stay
or migration of organisms into or out of a habitat.
g. Breeding season; some organisms move out of their habitats during this season (e.g.
fishes); hence the population drops.
h. Natural disasters; Like fire, drought, floods, earthquakes etc lead to a decrease in
population through the death of organisms out of such habitat

MEASUREMENT OF ECOLOGICAL FACTORS

These factors can be measured using some instruments as shown below.

INSTRUMENTS USES

a. Photometer Light intensity

b. Hydrometer Light intensity in water

c. Wind vane Direction of wind

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 d. Anemometer Speed of wind

e. Rainguage Amount of rainfall

f. Hygrometer Relative humidity

g. Barometer Pressure

h. Glass thermometer Temperature

i. Colorimeter or pH scale Acidity / Alkalinity

j. Secchi disc Turbidity

k. Sweep insect net Catching insects

EVALUATION

1. State three factors that: a) increase the population of a habitat b) decrease the
population of a habitat.
2. Explain the effect of bush burning on the population.
3. List five ecological instruments and their uses

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISIONAL QUESTIONS

1. State the two components of an ecosystem

2. With two examples each, discuss the various biotic components in an ecosystem
3. State three factors that: a) increase the population of a habitat b) decrease the population of a
habitat.
4. State five effects of over population in a community
5. State two Abiotic factors unique to: a) aquatic habitat b) terrestrial habitat.
6. List five measurable ecological factors.
7. State the ecological instruments used in measuring the factors listed above.

READING ASSIGNMENT

College Biology, chapter 23, page 530 - 532

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Climatic factors in an ecosystem include the following except

A. light B. wind C. temperature D. Oxygen.
2. Organic part of abiotic component of an ecosystem includes the following except
A. water B. carbohydrate C. Protein d) Lipids

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 3. The ratio of population size to the area of the habitat is called A. population size
B. population density C. population frequency D. population cover.
4. Habitat factors include all the following except A. biotic B. abiotic C. edaphic D. nature.
5. The total number of organisms of the same species in a habitat at a particular time is
called A. population B. community C. census D. all of the above

THEORY

1. List five ecological instruments and state their uses.

2. State five factors affecting a population size.

WEEK FOUR DATE: …………

TOPIC: FUNCTIONING ECOSYSTEM

CONTENT

 Feeding Relationship
 Trophic Levels
 Food Chain and Food Web
 Energy Flow and Ecological Pyramids
 Energy Transformation in Nature
 Laws of Thermodynamics
FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS

Since all living organisms must obtain energy and nutrients from the environment in order to remain
alive, they are into feeding relationships. This makes an ecosystem a functional unit. All organisms fall
into one of the three major groups of biotic community, namely: producers (autotrophs), consumer
(heterotrophs) and decomposers

a. The autotrophs provide food for other organism in the habitat. In terrestrial habitat,
they include grasses, trees and shrubs while aquatic autotrophs include phytoplankton,
seaweeds etc
b. The heterotrophic include: (i) herbivores (called primary consumers) feeding on plants,
carnivores (called secondary consumers) feeding on primary consumers and omnivores
is other animals called (tertiary consumers) that feed on secondary consumer or on
both. Terrestrial heterotrophs include cow, dog, lion, man etc while water fleas,
tadpoles, larvae of insect and fishes are aquatic heterotrophs
c. Decomposers like termites, larvae of housefly (maggot), bacteria and fungi break down
dead organic matter to release simple chemical compounds which can be absorb and
use again.
Of all the three biotic groups, consumers have better chance of survival than any other in an ecosystem.

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EVALUATION

1. State two examples each of the following in both terrestrial and aquatic habitat
A. Autotrophs B. heterotrophs C. Decomposers.
2. How do the three groups of organisms in one above relate?

TROPHIC LEVELS

In an ecosystem, energy and nutrients are transferred step by step among organisms along a feeding
path way. The feeding pathway in all ecosystems follows a similar pattern which is as

follows:

a. It begins with a producer e.g green plant like grass.

b. The producer is eaten by a primary consumer e.g Zebra , goat.
c. The primary consumer is eaten by a secondary consumer e.g. lion.
d. Decomposers convert the remains of dead producers and consumers into simple
inorganic substance which return to the non –living environment. The difference in the
feeding pathways within an ecosystem or between different ecosystems is the
termination of the pathway. Some may end at the primary consumer step or may go on
to secondary consumer, tertiary consumer etc.

Trophic (feeding) level: is each step along a feeding pathway. The order in which the trophic levels are
arranged gives the path of energy (food) flow among the functional groups of organisms. The trophic
levels are numbered in ascending order, starting from one to indicate the path of energy flow.

Trophic level 1 always consists of producers or autotrophs, trophic level 2 always consists of primary
consumers. Above trophic level 2, consumers could be carnivores, parasitic organisms and scavengers.
The final consumers eventually die and are fed upon by decomposers.

EVALUATION

1. Describe the pattern that feeding pathway follow in all ecosystems.

2. What do you understand by feeding level?

FOOD CHAIN FOOD WEB

This is the feeding relationship involving the transfer of energy through food from producers to
consumers in a linear form.

Examples of food chain in terrestrial habitats are:

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Grass zebra lion

(Producer) (Primary consumer) (Secondary consumer)

Guinea grass grasshopper toad snake hawk

(producer) (primary consumer) (secondary consumer) (tertiary consumer)

In aquatic habitats are:

Spirogyra tadpoles crabs kingfish

(producer) (primary consumer) (secondary consumer) (tertiary consumer)

Diatoms mosquito larva Tilapia fish whale

(producer) (primary consumer) (secondary consumer) (tertiary consumer)

Therefore, in a food chain, food energy is transferred from one organism to another in a linear form.
Most food chains begin with producers but few of them start with dead plants or animals e.g

Humus earthworm domestic fowl man

Numerous food chains present in an ecosystem produce a food web.

FOOD WEB: - is a complex feeding relationship among organisms in the same environment with two or
more interrelated food chains. Food webs therefore contain more organisms than food chains. A single
plant could be fed upon by more than one or two organisms

In an ecosystem, a consumer has a better chance of survival because it feeds on different types of plants
or animals in a food web.

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EVALUATION

1. What is a food chain?

2. Draw a food chain involving four trophic levels in a A. marine B. terrestrial habitat.

ENERGY FLOW AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID

Pyramids are diagrammatic representations used in ecology. They include pyramid of number, pyramid
of energy and pyramid of biomass.

1. PYRAMID OF NUMBER: this refers to the numbers of individual organisms at each trophic
level, decreasing from the first to the last level in a food chain.

HAWKS
2
Decre
LIZARDS 5 asing
numb
GRASSHOPPERS 12 er of
ograni
GRASSES 40 sms

Pyramid of number has the following defects: The individual organisms is given the same status, though
they varied greatly in size e. g. grass and trees grouped together as producer and is not drawn to scale.

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2. PYRAMID OF ENERGY: This is the amount of energy present in the living organisms at
different trophic level of a food chain, which decreases from the first to the last i. e. from
the base of the pyramid to the apex.
3. PYRAMID OF BIOMASS: Biomass refers to the size and numbers of living organisms. It
represents the total wet or dry mass of the organisms in each trophic level. This gives a
more accurate picture of the relationship between the organisms at various trophic levels in
a food chain than the pyramid of numbers.

WEEK FIVE

TOPIC:ENERGY TRANSFORMATION IN NATURE

Energy is the ability to do work. All living organisms obtain energy from the food they eat. The food is
produced by green plants and other organisms depend on them. As energy is passed from one organism
to another along the food chain, it is progressively lost due to respiration (energy used for various
metabolic activities) and as heat. In most ecosystems, only about 1 - 10% of the solar energy may be
available to photosynthetic producers.

EVALUATION

1. What is a pyramid? State three types of ecological pyramids.

2. State the similarities between pyramid of numbers and pyramid of energy.

LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamics simply means heat change. Heat as a form of energy that is subject to change in living
organisms is governed by two laws

a. First law of thermodynamics which states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, although it can be changed from one form to another. E.g. chemical energy
in food is converted to kinetic energy and heat energy in our muscles when we walk or
run.
b. Second law of thermodynamics which state that in any conversion of energy from one
form to another, there is always a decrease in the amount of useful energy i. e. no
transformation of energy from one state to another is ever 100 percent efficient.
During metabolic activities, some chemical energy is constantly lost as heat energy from the body of an
organism. As energy is converted from one form to another, there will always be a loss.

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FOOD CHAIN AND LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

(i) Using the first law: in a food chain, energy from the sun is transferred from the
producer to the final consumer and the sum total of the energy remains constant.
(ii) Using the second law: as the energy is transformed from one trophic level to
another, part of it is converted into heat it is lost, among a progressive drop in
energy in successive trophic levels.

PYRAMID OF ENERGY & LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

(i) Using the first law: The energy of the producers at the base of the pyramid is higher and it is
gradually transformed to other trophic levels.

(ii) Using the second law: As energy is transferred from one trophic level to another, part of the
energy is converted to heat.

ENERGY FLOW AND LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

(i) Using the first law: Energy flows from producers to 1 0 consumers, then to 20 consumers and
finally to 30 consumers in a food chain. The energy flow in a food chain is therefore in one
direction only.

(ii) Using the Second law: Energy transfer between trophic levels is not 100%. Successive levels have
less useful energy and so can only support fewer organisms. Produce (green plants) have the
highest amount of energy. When herbivores feed on the plants, the energy level is reduced.
When carnivores consume the herbivores, the energy level is reduced.

EVALUATION

1. State the laws of thermodynamics and explain.

2. Explain pyramid of energy and food chain using the laws of thermodynamics.

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. What is a food chain?

2. Explain the role of the following in a food chain (i) Producer (ii) Consumer (iii)
Decomposer.
3. A.Draw a food chain involving four trophic levels in a marine habitat.
B.Explain (i) the flow of energy through the food chain drawn in 3C
(ii) how energy in the chain is lost to the environment.

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READING ASSIGNMENT

College Biology chapter 23, page 544 – 551

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. The ultimate source of energy in nature is A. green plants B. moon C. star D. sun
2. The usable form of energy in animals is A. chemical energy B. kinetic energy
C. potential energy D. ATP
3. Available to photosynthetic plants is ________ of the solar energy. A. 1-5% B. 2-5%
C. 5-15% D. 1-10%
4. The study of the relationship between heat energy and other forms of energy is
called_____________. A. thermodynamics B. thermocouple C. thermosetting D. all of
the above
5. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can only be changed from one form to
another This refers to the A. first law of thermodynamics B. second law of
thermodynamics C. third law of thermodynamics D. none of the above

THEORY

1. State the first and second law of thermodynamics.

2. In a tabular format, state four differences between food chain and food web.

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WEEK SIX DATE: …………………

TOPIC: ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT

CONTENT

 Types of Association
 Features by organism of an association
TYPES OF ASSOCIATIONS AND THEIR FEATURES
SYMBIOSIS OR MUTUALISM (+ +)
Definition: When both population benefit and at least one of them is so dependent upon the
other for some critical resource or function that it cannot survive in the given
environment without the other species is referred to as mutualism or symbiosis.
Symbiosis is a beneficial association and each member is called a symbiont.

Examples and features of organisms in Symbiotic Association

a) Lichen: This result from mutualistic association between an alga and a fungus. The alga
carries out photosynthesis through it tallus while the fungus absorbs rain water through
its tangled network of mycelia which the alga uses to photosynthesize its food. The
fungus gets ready-made food from the alga.
b) Protozoa in the digestive tract of termites: The protozoa help the termite to digest the
cellulose in the food while protozoa are protected by the termites.
c) Nitrogen fixing bacteria in the root nodules of leguminous plants: A bacterium called
Rhizobium leguminosarium living in the root nodules of leguminous plant grow and
multiply or reproduce there. In return, the rhizobium (bacterium) fixes nitrogen directly
into the plant from the atmosphere, thereby increasing the nitrogen requirement of
leguminous plants.
d) Micro-organisms in the intestinal tract of ruminants: Bacteria and other protozoa in
the rumen of ruminant animal like cattle, sheep and goat help the ruminant to digest
cellulose to sugars, synthesize amino acids and vitamins from other substances while
the ruminant in turn provides food and shelter for the bacteria.
e) Flower and insects: Insects obtain food from flowers in the form of pollen and nectars
while in return, the insects bring about cross-pollination in the plant they visit, thus
enabling plants to reproduce sexually.

PROTOCOOPERATION (+ +)
Definition: Protocooperation is an association between organisms of different species in which
both are mutually benefited but they can also survive individually of each other.
Unlike mutualism, the association in protocooperation is not obligatory.
Example and features of organisms in protocooperative association
a) Sea anemone and hermit crab: The sea anemone attaches itself to the shell of the
hermit crab. The sea anemone provides camouflage protection to the hermit crab
against predators while the hermit crab helps to transport the sea anemone to a feeding
ground. It helps the sea anemone obtain food during its movement.

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 b) Plover and crocodile: Plover (Pluvianus aegyptius), a crocodile bird, enters into the
mouth of the crocodile to feed on parasitic leeches. As it obtains food from the mouth
of the crocodile it also gets rid of the harmful leeches.
c) Cattle and egret: The bird, egret, feeds on the parasite on the body of cattle. As the
cattle benefits from the removal of parasites from it body, the egret benefits because it
obtains food from the association.
COMMENSALISM (+ 0)
Definition: Commensalism is an association between two organisms living together in which
only one (commensal) benefits from the association while the other neither
benefits nor is harmed.
Examples and features of organisms in Commensalism
a) Shark and Remora fish: The remora fish attaches itself o the body of a shark, whereas
the shark is neither harmed nor benefits as a result of the presence of the remora fish.
b) Oyster and crabs: The habitation of a crab is in the oyster shell in which case the crab is
not protected and no harm is done to the oyster.
c) Man and intestinal bacteria: Some bacteria in the large intestine of man feed on
digested food there. The bacteria receive food and protection from the man whereas
the man neither gains nor suffer any disadvantages from the presence of the bacteria.

EVALUATION
1. What are symbiosis and commensalism?
2. Explain two examples of symbiosis and commensalism.

AMENSALISM (- 0)
Definition: Amensalism is an association between two organisms of different species where one
species is inhibited or killed and the other is unaffected. In amensalism, one does not allow the
organism to live or grow near it. This relationship is also called antibiosis. The species affected is
called amensal while the species causing the effect is called the inhibitor. This inhibiton is done
by the release of chemicals known as allochemics or allelopathic substances.
Examples of amensalism
a) Penicillium notatum and bacteria: Penicillium releases antibiotics known as penicillin
which inhibits the growth of bacteria.
b) Streptomyces griseus and bacteria: Like Penicillium, Streptomyces also secretes
chemicals that inhibit the growth of bacteria.

PARASITISM (- +)
Definition: Parasitism is a close association between two organisms in which one, known as the
parasite, lives in or on and feeds at the expense of the other organism which is known as the
host. The parasite benefits from the association while the host usually suffers harm or may die.

Examples and Features of Organisms in Parasitism.

a) Man and tapeworm: The tapeworm is a parasite the lives in the small intestine of man
where it derives the benefits of a habitat, protection and food. The tape worm attaches

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 itself to the small intestine of man by means of hook and sucker. In the wall of the small
intestine, absorption of digesters food takes place from which the tapeworm benefits.
The man who is the host suffers because he loses to the tapeworm part of the food he
has eaten and digested.
b) Mistletoe and flowering plant: The mistletoe is a plant parasite that lives on other
larger flowering plants. The mistletoe benefits because it is raised up to a position from
which it can receive sunlight. The parasite also absorbs water and mineral salts from the
host while the host suffers harm by losing to the parasite part of the water and mineral
salts that it has absorbed.

PREDATION (- +)
Definition: Predation is a type of association between two organisms in which the predator kills
the other called the prey and directly feeds on it. The predator which is usually larger in size
and always stronger than the prey is completely eliminated.
Examples of Predation
a) The hawk and chicks of domestic fowls: The hawk is the predator that catches, kills and eats
the prey (young chicks) of domestic fowls. The hawk benefits while the chicks are
completely eliminated.
b) The lion and goat: The lion is the predator that catches, kills and eats the prey (goat). The
lion is stronger and bigger than the goat. The lion benefits while the goat is completely
eliminated.

REVISIONAL QUESTIONS

1. Define parasitism and predation.

2. Give two examples of parasitism and predation.
3. State the differences between parasitism and amensalism.
4. Mention two growth hormones each in plants and animals.
5. Discuss the stages involved in mitotic cell division.
6. Outline four life processes involving mitosis.

READING ASSIGNMENT

College Biology by Idodo Umeh. Chapter 23, page 556

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. A ____ relationship is one in which one member of the association benefits A. parasitic B.
symbiotic C. saprophytic D. mutualistic
2. Tick feeds on A. blood B. water C. skin D. body
3. The word commensal means A. sharing B. dividing C. scattering D. loving
4. Chemicals secreted by inhibitors is called ____ A. biotics B. inhibitors C. amensal
D. allochemics

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 5. ____ consists of algae and fungi A. Lichen B. Bacteria C. Virus D. Fungi

THEORY

1. What is A. symbiosis B. commensalism C. predation?

2. Mention three examples each of the following above.

WEEKS 9

TOPIC:ADAPTATION.

Adaptation is defined as any features or characteristics possessed by an organism that enhance its
fitness and survival in its environment OR Adaptation is the ability of an organism to survive in any given
environment or features which may be structural, physiological or behavioural shown by organism
enabling them to live successfully.

Adaptation of Animals to Aquatic Environment.

1. Possession of stream lined body that reduce friction during

movement in water e.g. fishes.

2. Possession of dense, water proof features that keep cold water

away from bird’s skin and prevent wetting of feather e.g. birds.

3. Possession of webbed feet, formed from their skin between the

digits that walk like paddles e.g. duck.

4. Possession of gills in fishes and tadpoles for gaseous exchange.

6. Possession of hook, sucker, sticky under surface by stationary organism for attachment to
the rock surface e.g. snail.

7. Possession of swim bladder to aid buoyancy in water e.g. Tilapia fish.

Adaptation of Animals to Terrestrial Habitat.

1. Possession of lungs by vertebrates and trachea by insects for

gaseous exchange.

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 2. Possession of strong limbs that perform various functions like
running, walking, climbing and burrowing e.g. vertebrate.
3. Possession of sweat gland for excretion and cooling on hot days
e.g. Mammals.
4. Possession of hair and fur on the skin of mammals and feathers in
birds that insulate the body against heat loss.
5. Possession of keen senses and well developed system for
movement and rapid escape from predator’s e.g. insects.
6. Possession of ability to use camouflage to blend with their back
ground mimic inedible objects like twigs and birds’ droppings to
avoid predators e.g. chameleon and grasshopper.

Plant Adaptation.

Adaptation of plants to aquatic habitat: A hydrophyte is a plant that grows in water or in water logged
soil with submerged storage organs and perennating buds resting below the water level. Their adaptive
features are:

1. Possession of large air cavities called aerenchyma that serve as

a means of buoyancy and storing of gasses for respiration.

2. Possession of photosynthetic and chloroplast that make use of

less light in the water for photosynthesis.

3. Possession of breathing roots by some hydrophytes, which

grows above the water level to have enough oxygen for
respiration.

4. Possession of hairy leaves and thin waxy cuticle to repel rain

water as they do not need it.

5. Surface plants that float on water have broad leaves that

contain numerous stomata on the upper side of the leaf which
trap maximum light for photosynthesis. Examples are water
lily, water hyacinth, water weeds, duck weed, and water
cabbage.

• Adaptation of plant to terrestrial habitat:Mesophytes: These are terrestrial

plants which grow in moist habitat and require well aerated soil. They moderate

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 humidity and grow neither in water logged soil nor in soil with abundance of
salts, do they lose drought condition their adaptive features are:

1. Possession of well-developed root

system.

2. Possession of stems that is generally

aerial and profusely branched.

3. Possession of longer, thinner leaves with

high number of stomata on the underside
of leaves.

4. Possession of mesophyll layer that is

well differentiated with many
intercellular spaces. Examples include:
hibiscus and cassava plants.

• Xerophytes: These are plants that are adapted to dry or desert habitat including
dry rocky mountain tops where water supply is extremely scarce their adaptive
features are:

1. Reduction in the number of stomata to ensure fewer pores are

exposed to water loss through transpiration.

2. Possession of thick, waxy cuticle to reduces water loss through

transpiration.

3. Possession of extensive, deep root system that extend to the water

table beneath the soil which aid in absorption of large amount of
water.

4. Possession of modified leaves, spines/thorn like structures to

reduce the area exposed to transpiration.

5. Possession of superficial roots that form large extension on the

surface of the earth, which aid to absorb torrential rain.

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 6. Possession of hairy leaves that trap water vapour in between them
to lower the diffusion gradients to reduce water loss.

7. Shedding off their leaves during the dry season to prevent water
loss through transpiration.

8. Possession of ability to fold their leaves during the day to

decrease the number of stomata thus reducing the rate of
transpiration. Examples are: cactus, Euphorbia and Acacia.

• Halophyte: these are salt resistant organisms. They may be plant or animals.
Examples of such plants are white mangrove and red mangrove. Examples of
animals are all marine animals such as Sharks, Whales e.t.c.

Structural Adaptation of Tadpoles and Fishes to Aquatic Life.

Fishes:

1. Possession of streamlined body enhances

movement in water.

2. Possession of water proof scales with

mucous covering the entire body which
reduces water tension.

3. Possession of fins at the sides and at

posterior end adapted for fast swimming.

4. Possession of gills on the lateral sides,

which serves as the respiratory organs
capable of oxygen uptake from water.

5. Possession of a tail, which functions like a

rudder and helps in changing direction
while swimming.

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 6. Possession of thin walled air- filled bladder
which aids in respiration, sound production
and stability during fluctuation in pressure.

Tadpole:

1. Possession of streamlined body without neck that enhances movement in

water.
2. Possession of a tail fin which aid in changing of direction during
swimming.
3. Possession of external gills, which serve as the respiratory organ used
for oxygen uptake in water.

Structural adaptation of birds:

1. Seed- eating birds have beaks adapted for picking and conical beaks adapted for
cracking seeds or nuts.
2. Birds of prey like hawk, eagle and owls have sharp, curved beaks forbearing flesh
and strong claw feet for capturing and killing their prey.
3. Aquatic birds like duck sea quills have long, flat beaks adapted for straining or
shifting plants and animals from the water and for gripping fish and sieving
muddy water for food.
4. They also have webbed feet adapted for swimming.
5. Birds that eat insect like wood peckers have beaks that are long and chisel like for
boring into wood to eat insect.
6. Some birds like crows have multipurpose beaks that are adapted to eat fruits,
seeds, insect, fishes and other animals.
7. Presence of feathers which enclose a layer of air and thus keeping the bird warm.
8. Possession of scales on the leg and feet to reduce heat loss.
9. Presence of wings for flight.
10. Presence of keen sight for seeing their prey a far off e.g. Vulture.
11. Possession of light weight e.g. sun bird which help them to feed nectar.

Structural adaptation of Toad:

1. Presence of long sticky tongue for catching its prey.

2. Presence of long hind limbs for hopping.
3. Presence of bulging eyes to see in water.
4. Presence of stout fore limbs for landing.

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Structural adaptation of Lizard:

1. Possession of scales to reduce desiccation.

2. Lizard has ability to regenerate its lost tail when attacked and this helps the
animals to escape from danger.
3. Possession of protective colouration for defence against enemies and to attract
the opposite sex.
4. Possession of sharp claws for climbing.
5. Long neck which enable them to move their heads independent of their body.

Structural adaptation of Snail:

1. Presence of hard calcareous shells to prevent desiccation.

2. Secretions of shiny mucus to survive period of unfavourable condition such as
dryness or drought.
3. This process is called aestivation which is a long period of dryness.
4. Possession of muscular foot for movement.
5. Presence of ovuliferous tentacles for sight and sensitivity.

Assignment:

1. Salt resistant organisms are referred to as…………. (a) hydrophyte (b) halophyte (c)
xerophyte (d) Mesophytes
2. The modification in an organism which enables………… (a) adaptation (b) completion
(c) hibernation (d) succession
3. The following the adaptations are associated the flight of birds except………… (a)
reduced body weight (b) streamlined shape (c) presence of powerful muscles (d) clawed
digits
4. State five structural adaptations of lizard

Objective Questions.

1. The association in which one member benefits and the other is relatively unaffected by
the interaction is termed………….. (a) symbiosis (b) parasitism (c) commensalism (d)
mutualism
2. When an animal has a dark-coloured dorsal surface and a light- coloured ventral surface,
this is an adaptation called………….. (a) concealment colouration (b) countershading (c)
colour blending (d) disruptive colouration
3. One of the following is an example of commensals. (a) mistletoe (b) remora fish and
shark (c) mosses and ferns (d) legumes and nitromonas
4. Reptiles are able to survive a hot environment due to…………… (a) long tail (b)
presence of gular fold (c) presence of claws (d) presence of tough body covered with
scales

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 5. One of the following is not a terrestrial adaptation. (a) poorly developed roots (b) lungs
for respiration (c) presence of sweat gland (d) possession of hairs
6. Hydrophytes possess all these characteristics except………… (a) broad leaves (b) well-
developed stomata (c) poorly developed roots (d) presence of air sac

WEEKS 10

TOPIC:POLLUTION.

Pollution is defined as release of harmful or toxic substances into the environment either by natural
forces, or activities of man and other animal to an extent that cause biological damage to man and his
environment.

OR

It Is the release of harmful substances into the environment such as water, air, in a quantity that is
harmful to man, animals and plants.

Types of Pollution.

1. Air pollution.
2. Noise pollution.
3. Land pollution.
4. Water pollution.

Air pollutants.

1. Oxide of carbon (CO): This is release into the air as a result of burning of fume in car
and other combustion engine and some industrial processes.
Effects of CO:

1. It causes suffocation because it combines with haemoglobin and reduces its ability to
carry oxygen which may result to death.

2. Oxide of sulphur. Sulphur (iv) Oxide:- it is released to the air by burning of vehicle
exhaust mining and cement particles.

Effects of Sulphur (iv) Oxide:

1. It causes ill health e.g. irritation of eyes, lungs, skin, cough and other respiratory disease.
2. It causes acid rain.
3. Oxide of Nitrogen (NO): They can be released into the air by electrical discharge in air
and industrial processes.

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Effects of NO2:

1. It may cause acid rain which corrodes metallic objects.

2. It irritates the skin and respiratory system.
3. Smoke and soot: these are released into the air by burning of substances from industries,
machines and coal.

Effects of smoke and soot:

1. The particles can damage the lungs.

2. The particles of soot can cover the leaves of plant thereby reduces photosynthesis.
3. It reduces visibility.
4. It blackens paint on the building.
5. Dust particles: from mining, quarries, machines, industrial processes.

Effects of Dust particle:

1. It irritates respiratory system and causes respiratory diseases such as catarrh and cough.
2. It reduces visibility.
3. Dust containing pollen grain can affect the lungs which may result to asthma.
4. Radioactive rays: These are industrial process such as electric that uses radioactive
substances.

Effects of Radioactive rays:

1. It can alter the nature of gene i.e. mutation.

5. Chlorofluorocarbon(CFCs): The increasing depletion of ozone layer, a layer that shields
the hazardous ultra-violet rays of the sun is due to severe environmental contamination
caused by the release of CFCs into the atmosphere. Depletion of the ozone layer could
result in fatal consequences to the environment and its inhabitants.

Effects:

1. Increasing number of skin cancers and cataract of the eye

2. Decline in immune system’s ability to respond to infections
3. Decline in the growth of ocean’s phytoplankton, the producers in the marine food chain
which could lead to disruption of the ecological balance in the ocean.
4. Increase in the level of atmosphere carbondioxide due to decline in the population of
photosynthetic organisms that could break down carbondioxide during photosynthesis,
resulting in global warming.

Control of air pollution.

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 1. Industries should be sited away from residential area.
2. Tall factory chimneys should be built i.e. for the discharge of industrial wastes.
3. Industrial waste should be passing through filter and absorbers.
4. Legislation should be made against indiscriminate burning that will bring smoke.
5. Use of lead and free fuel should be avoided.
6. Avoid driving cars that are not maintained.
7. There should be public enlightenment about air pollution.

Noise pollution.

Noise is unwanted utterance.

Sources of noise pollution.

1. Factory or industrial noise.

2. Aero plane/ Aviation noise.
3. Locomotive/ Railway Engine noise.
4. Car Horn and sirens.
5. High pitch musical sound from loud speaker or drumming.
6. Noise from heavy guns.
7. Noise from thunder
8. Noise from generator.

Effects of Noise Pollution.

1. It can cause loss of hearing or deafness.

2. Noise can cause emotional disorder, anxiety or lack of concentration.
3. It can cause high blood pressure or hypertension.
4. Noise may cause general irritation.
5. It may cause damage in behaviour.

Control of Noise Pollution.

1. There should be reduction of noise from loud speaker and car siren.
2. Legislation against the use of loud speaker in public places.
3. There should be a ban on the use of heavy gun.
4. Railway and airport should be located far away from residential areas.
5. There should be installation of sound proof in industries and in generator.

Land /Soil Pollution.

It is a condition in which the top thin layers of fertile top soil are damaged. Soil is very important for the
proper function of terrestrial ecosystem because it is the major source of essential mineral nutrient and
water for plant. In a balanced ecosystem, this layer is continually pre- maintained by various nutrient
cycle and activities of decomposer and soil system.

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Causes of Soil Pollution.

1. Erosion: this may be due to careless farming method

2. Agricultural waste: such as pesticide, herbicide and fertilizers which may bring about the
killing of useful organism that bring about decay or soil animal that aerate the soil.
3. Industrial activity such as mining and deforestation may devastate the land and stripping
it off vegetation and top soil.
4. Dumping of garbage on the soil.
5. Crude oil spillage through oil drilling, loading and off- loading of oil tankers may render
the soil infertile and destroy plant and animal life.

Effects.

1. Poor crop yield.

2. It can poison a whole community
3. Dumping of refuse may cause eye sore.
4. Refuse dumping can encourage breeding of pest.

Control.

1. Effort should be made on recycling of waste.

2. People should be educated on effect of land pollution.
3. Incessant dumping of waste should be discouraged.
4. The government should have a policy of land protection.
5. Refuse should be burnt in incinerators.
6. Oil pipeline should be maintained and check regularly.
7. Pesticide and fertilizers should be applied as instructed.

Water Pollution.

It may arise by indiscriminate dumping of waste into the body of water. In addition, pollutants in air, or
vegetation and soil are drained into water bodies via rainfall.

Causes.

1. Refuse and sewage

2. Industrial wastes
3. Agricultural waste such as pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers.
4. Crude oil spillage.
5. Heavy metals such as Lead and Mercury

Effects.

1. Sewage contaminated drinking water may make water unfit for drinking.
2. It destroys aquatic plants and animals
3. Chemical like gamaline 20 will bring about the killing of aquatic animals.

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 4. Food chain is affected.
5. It produces unpleasant odour.
6. It can lead to epidemic diseases like Cholera and diarrhoea.
7. Ingested plant poisoned with Lead may accumulate in the liver, kidney and bones
leading to Lead poisoning.
8. Indiscriminate disposal of untreated mercury- containing effluents into oceans, seas and
water usually result in mercury–poisoning of aquatic food like shellfish, fishes and with
fatal consequence for the consumers.

Control.

1. Task force to the monitor water pollution should be set up.

2. There should be an efficient and proper sewage disposal system.
3. Industries should be sited away from water bodies.
4. There should be public enlightenment on waste disposal.
5. Industrial effluents should be recycled.

Assignment.

1. One the followings pollutants affect the green chlorophyll of plants. (a) nitrogen dioxide
(b) carbon monoxide (c) Sulphur dioxide (d) carbon dioxide

2. Which of the following is not a pollutant of the air? (a) dust (b) heat (c) smoke (d)
moisture

3. Oil spillage can be controlled by…………. (a) applying biochemical oxygen demand (b)
by littering water oil (c) by applying detergent (d) by removing oil with herbicide

4. Mention four ways of preventing water pollution in an environment.

5. Which of the following is not a renewable natural resource? (a)soil (b) water (c) Gold (d)
air

6. The fumes of motor cars have in its constituents a very serious pollutant as…………. (a)
carbon(ii)oxide (b) nitrous oxide (c) carbon(iv)oxide (d) lead oxide

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 7. All of the following are pollutants except……….. (a) carbon(ii)oxide (b) sulphur dioxide
(c) lead oxide (d) oxygen

8. The tapeworm is a very successful organism because………. (a) good locomotory organs
(b) sharp sight (c) a well-developed brain (d) a good reproductive system

Essay.

9. (a) What are the causes of air pollutant?

(b) Describe the effects of carbon monoxide and smoke or soot on humans.

10. (a) Name two pollutants of water.

© State two effects of water pollution on organism.

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WEEK 11

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES.

Conversation is the planning and management of natural resources in order to secure their wise use and
continuity of supply while maintaining and enhancing their value, quality and diversity. Natural resources
can be renewable or non-renewable. Renewable Natural resources are recoverable. E.g. animals, plants,
water, air, food, and soil. Non- renewable Natural resources are natural resources which when get
exhausted cannot be replaced or recovered. E.g. mineral such as coal, petroleum, gold deposit, tin,
copper, crude oil.

Reasons for Conversation.

1. To preserve rare and valuable specie of plant and animal for future generation.

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 2. To prevent destruction of natural environment or to allow for continued use of natural
resources for man’s benefit.
3. Prevent the natural beauty of the environment.
4. To promote the recycling of some scare mineral resources.
5. Forest which provides medicinal material is conserved to ensure easy availability and
continued existence.
6. Natural resources such as wild- life, forest and minerals are conserved for research
processes.

Method of Conserving Water.

1. By irrigation.
2. Dams and reservoir construction.
3. Adequate control of use of ground water.
4. Control of water pollution.

Conservation of Forest.

1. By reforestation.
2. Adequate forest management approach,
3. Maintenance of forest reserve.
4. Having strict law guiding forest management.
5. Constituent soil conservation to encourage adequate forestation.
6. By encouraging industry to use other materials aside from wood in furniture making.

Wild life Conservation Method.

1. Hunting is to be limited.
2. Having strict law governing wild life.
3. Establishment of more National Park.
4. Having artificial stock.
5. By adopting game farming.

Conservation of Soil.

1. By prevention of overgrazing as this may cause soil erosion.

2. By prevention of indiscriminate felling of trees or deforestation which may expose the
soil to erosion.
3. Adoption of better farming practices e.g. crop rotation so as to prevent erosion, leaching,
water logging and acidity.
4. Prevention of pollution of land so as not to destroy useful soil organism.
5. Avoiding of clean clearing which may expose the soil to erosion.
6. Prevention of bush burning which may expose the soil to erosion.

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Ways of ensuring conservation of natural resources.

1. Establishment of agencies for conservation to ensure that these natural resources are
conserved e.g. Preservation of wild life, forest resources, water resources, air, soil and
mineral resources.
2. Establishment of games reserve or national park for protection of wild life, rear or
endanger specie and for recreational purpose. E.g. of games reserve in Nigeria:
(a) Yankari games reserves in Bauchi state,
(b) Borgu games reserves in Niger state.
(c) Shasha river forest in Ogun state.
(d) Olomu forest reserve in Kwara state.
( e). Mamu forest reserves in Anambra state.

( f) Zamfara forest reserve in Zamfara state

3. Making of conservation laws, edict or decree.

4. There should be enlightenment of conservation education.
5. They must set standard for pollution.

Agencies responsible for conservation.

1. Nigeria Conservation Fund (NCF).

2. Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA).
3. International Union of Conservation and National Resources (IUCNR).
4. World Wide life Fund (WWF).
5. Ministry of Agriculture.
6. Department of Wild life conservation.
7. River Basin Development of Authority (RBDA).

Problem Encountered in Conservation.

1. Poor public education and management.

2. Problem of subsistence farming method e.g. bush burning.
3. Insufficient finance.
4. Over grazing.
5. Constant cropping and fishing.
6. Short supply of land.
7. Problem of oil spillage.
8. Occurrence of natural disaster e.g. flood & earthquake.

Assignment.

1. State two that can be derived from forests and name two forest reserves in Nigeria.
2. List four natural resources that can be conserved apart from forest.
3. List four agencies responsible for conservation
4. (a) List four natural resources that can be conserved apart from forest.

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 (c) How would you ensure the conservation of non- renewable resources?

© How is wild life conserved in your country?

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