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SS3 Chemistry First Term E-Note

SS3 Chemistry First

Term E-Note

SS3 Chemistry First Term E-Note

ALKANOIC ACIDS
ALKANOATES
FATS AND OILS
AMINO ACIDS
NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
CARBOHYDRATES
METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
CALCIUM AND ALUMINIUM

···

TIN AND COPPER

IRON

Week: 1

Topic: Alkanoic Acids

Alkanoic acids are also known as carboxylic

acids. A carboxylic acid can he identiHed
from the carboxyl functional group and the ‘-
oic’ name ending.

longest C-C
functional
Formula carbon single Na
group
chain bonds

m
C1 : -COOH ac
HCOOH -an-
meth (oic acid) (fo
ac

et
-COOH ac
CH3COOH C2 : eth -an-
(oic acid) (a
ac

pr
C3 : -COOH ac
C2H5COOH -an-
prop (oic acid) (p
ac

bu
-COOH ac
C3H7COOH C4 : but -an-
(oic acid) (b
ac

pe
C5 : -COOH ac
C4H9COOH -an-
pent (oic acid) (v
ac

General formula of carboxylic (alkanoic

acids) : CnH2n+1COOH or R-COOH

Examples of Carboxylic (Alkanoic) Acids

Structural Examples of carboxylic acids

Nomenclature (Naming Alkanoic Acids)

Alkanoic acids are named as follows:

·The number of carbon atoms in the longest

carbon atom chain is noted

·The corresponding alkane is then named

·Finally, the name of this corresponding

alkane is modiHed by removing the ane and
replacing it with alkanoic acid

For example:

thylpentanoic acid ,

2-ethylpentanoic acid ,

benzoic acid

Preparation of ethanoic acid

The Complete Oxidation of Ethanol to

Ethanoic Acid by acidiHed sodium
heptaoxochromate(VI) solution. Ethanol
undergoes oxidation Hrst to ethanal and then
to ethanoic acid.

···

The reaction of sodium dichromate(VI)

solution with ethanol gives a carboxylic acid,
ethanoic acid, a dilute solution of which is
sold as vinegar.

Ethanoic acid can also be prepared by

distilling anhydrous sodium ethanoate,

CH3COONa with concentrated H2SO4
or boiling methyl cyanide CH3CN with an acid

CH3COONa(aq)+ H2SO4(aq) → CH3COOH(g) +

NaHSO4 (aq)

CH3CN(aq) + HCl(aq) → CH3COOH(g) +

NH4Cl(aq)

Physical Properties

1. Ethanoic acid is usually a colourless

liquid with a characteristics sharp and
pungent smell

2. It is soluble in water and a dilute

solution has the usual sour taste of acid

3. It has a boiling point of 1180C

4. Pure anhydrous ethanoic acid freezes

into ice-like crystals at temperature below
170C

5. It turns blue litmus paper red

1. Dilute solution has a sour taste

Chemical Properties of Carboxylic

(Alkanoic) Acids

1. Carboxylic (alkanoic) acids are weak

acids, the acid dissociation constant, Ka, is
small.

···

2. Soluble carboxylic (alkanoic) acids

dissociate slightly in water.

Neutralization Reactions

Neutralization: acid + base → salt + water

Carboxylic (alkanoic) acid + base → salt

(metal alkanoate) + water

RCOOH + MOH → RCOO–M+ + H2O

e.g. CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COO–Na+ +

H2O

Ethanoic acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium

ethanoate + water

Soluble salts of long-chain (fatty) acids

are soaps

e.g. C17H35COOH + NaOH → C17H35COO–

Na+ + H2O

Stearic acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium

stearate + water

Reaction with Carbonates

acid + carbonate → salt + carbon dioxide

gas + water

Carboxylic (alkanoic) acid + metal carbonate

→ metal alkanoate + carbon dioxide + water

e.g. 2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COO–

Na+ + CO2 + H2O

Ethanoic acid + sodium carbonate →

sodium ethanoate + carbon dioxide + water

e.g. CH3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COO–Na+ +

CO2 + H2O

Ethanoic acid + sodium bicarbonate →

sodium ethanoate + carbon dioxide + water

Reaction with Active Metals

Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen gas

Carboxylic (alkanoic) acid + metal → metal

alkanoate + hydrogen

e.g. 2CH3COOH + 2Na(s) → 2CH3COO–

Na+ + H2(g)

Ethanoic acid + sodium → sodium

ethanoate + hydrogen

EsteriHcation Reactions

Esters are produced in a condensation

reaction between a carboxylic (alkanoic)
acid and an alkanol (alcohol).

This is known as an esteriHcation reaction.

carboxylic (alkanoic) acid + alkanol

(alcohol) ester + water

e.g. 2CH3COOH + CH3OH CH3COOCH3 +

H2O

Ethanoic acid + methanol methyl ethanoate

+ water

Uses

1. It can be used as a solvent

2. It is used in food industries as vinegar

for preserving and cavouring food

3. It is used In the manufacture of cellulose

ethanoate which is used for making
synthetic Hbres, such as rayon

1. It is used in making compounds like ethyl

ethanoate, ethanoic anhydride (used in
aspirin), cellulose ethanoate (used for
packing), propanone etc

Assessment

1. Ethanoic acid is usually a colourless liquid

with a characteristics sharp and ……. smell
a. pungent
b. annoying
c. foul
d. dirty
2. Esters are produced in a condensation
reaction between a carboxylic (alkanoic) acid
and an alkanol (alcohol) known as …….
a. Polymerization
b. EsteriHcation
c. Dehydration
d. Hydrolysis
3. Ethanoic acid reacts with active metal to give
off ……….. gas
a. Oxygen
b. Hydrogen
c. Carbon
d. OH
4. Boiling point of Ethanoic acid is …….
a. 1170C
b. 1190C
c. 1180C
d. 1200C
5. It is used in food industries as vinegar for
preserving and cavouring food. True/False

[mediator_tech]

Week 2

Topic: Alkanoates

Alkanoates or Esters

Ethyl Ethanoates

All esters are similar chemically although

they may vary in degree of reactivity. Ethyl
ethanoate is one of the simple esters. Its
molecular formula is CH3COOC2H2.

Properties

Ethyl ethanoate is prepared by the

esteriHcation between ethanol and glacial
ethanoic acid at 150oC in the presence of
concentrated tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid.

C2H5OH(aq) + CH3COOH(l) = CH3COOC2H5(l) +

H2O(l)

Preparation of Alkanoates

1. Acylation. Esters are prepared by the acylation

of alcohols or phenols. The acylating agents
can be any of the following:

Carboxylic acid / H 2SO 4 or Acyl chloride or

Acid anhydride

(i) Condensation of alcohols with carboxylic

acid This reaction involves esteriHcation of
alkanols by alkanoic acid

(ii) EsteriIcation through acid derivatives

1. By Reaction of Acids with Diazomethane.

Acids on being treated with ethereal solution
of diazomethane yield methyl esters.

RCOOH + CH2N2 à RCOOCH3 + N2

Acid Diazo Ester

methane

1. By Tischenko Reaction. When aldehydes

containing a-hydrogen atoms are treated with
aluminium ethoxide. They undergo
condensation to produce esters.

Physical Properties of Alkanoates

1. Physical state. Esters are colourless, volatile

and oily liquids with a characteristic fruity
smell. The smell of the most of the cowers
and fruits is due to esters present in them. The
characteristic tastes and smells of different
esters Hnd applications in the manufacture of
artiHcial cavouring and perfuming agents. The
cavours of some of the esters are given below:

Ester Flavour
Ester Flavour

n-Pentyl ethanoate Banana Amyl

but)’rate Apricot

Octyl ethanoate Orange

Isobutyl Raspberry

Ethyl butanoate Pineapple

Benzyl ethanoate Jasmine

1. Solubility. Esters are sparingly soluble in water

but are quite miscible in organic solvents like
alcohols and ethers. In fact, most of the esters
are themselves very good solvents for plastics
and nitrocellulose.
2. Boiling points. The boiling points of esters are
always less than the corresponding carboxylic
acids because esters do not form hydrogen
bonds.

Chemical Properties

1. Hydrolysis.Esters are hydrolysed slowly by

water at boiling temperature. The reaction is
catalysed by small amount of acid or base.
The basic hydrolysis is also known as
saponiHcation. It is because of the fact that
the esters with high molecular mass acids
(C12-C17) give soap on hydrolysis with a base.
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of
carboxylic acids with high molecular mass
(C12-C17).
Ethyl ethanoate can be hydrolyzed by water
into its component acid and alkanol again. The
reaction is catalyzed by hydrogen or hydroxide
ions i.e dilute acid or alkaliCH3COOC2H5(l) +
H2O(l) → C2H5OH(aq) + CH3COOH(l)
2. Reduction. Esters are reduced to alcohols by
the reducing agents like (sodium/ethanol) or
(lithium aluminium hydride).
3. Reaction with Ammonia. Esters on treatment
with alcoholic ammonia yield acid amides.
This reaction is known as ammonolysis of
esters.
4. Reaction with Phosphorus Pentachloride.
Esters are converted into acid chlorides and
alkyl halides by heating with phosphorus
pentachloride.

RCOOR’ + PC15 → RCOCl + R’Cl +

POC13

C6H5COOC2H5 + PCl → C6H5 COCl +

C2H2OH

Ethyl benzoate Benzoyl

chloride

···

1. Alcoholysis. An ester on recuxing with a large

excess of an alcohol in the presence of a little
acid or alkali, undergoes exchange of alcohol
residues, i.e., alkoxy parts as shown below:

This reaction is known as alcoholysis or

trans-esteriHcation.

Uses of Esters

They are mainly used as solvents for

cellulose nitrate and quick drying
substances like paints, nail varnishes,
lacquer and adhesives. The commonly
known thinner water is a mixture of esters.
Esters are used in perfumes and cosmetics
and artiHcial cavouring for foods. Certain
volatile esters are used as solvents for
lacquers, paints, and varnishes; for this
purpose, large quantities of ethyl acetate
and butyl acetate are commercially
produced.

1. Esters that are have fragrant odours are used

as a constituent of perfumes, essential oils,
food cavourings, cosmetics, etc
2. Esters are used as an organic solvent
3. Natural esters are found in pheromones
4. Naturally occurring fats and oils are fatty acid
esters of glycerol
5. Phospoesters form the backbone of DNA
molecules
p. Nitrate esters, such as nitroglycerin, are known
for their explosive properties
7. Polyesters are used to make plastics
q. Esters are used to make surfactants E.g. soap,
detergents

ASSESSMENT

1. How is Ethyl ethanoate prepared?

2. What are some of the uses of Esters?

···
 3. What are the chemical properties of Esters?
[mediator_tech]

Week: 3

Topic: Fats and Oils

Fats and oils are naturally-

occurring esters of three long carboxylic
acids called fatty acid with a special type
of alcohol called glycerol ( propane- 1,2,3-
triol). Glycerol has three carbon atoms, each
with an –OH group on. These fats and oils
belong to a group of compounds called
lipids.

Fats are solid at room temperature, whereas

oils are liquids. Animals and plants produce
oils and fats as an energy store. Fats and
oils are the most abundant lipids in nature.
They provide energy for living organisms,
insulate body organs, and transport fat-
soluble vitamins through the blood.

Structures of Fats and Oils

Fats and oils are called triglycerides

because they are esters composed of three
fatty acid units joined to glycerol, a
trihydroxyl alcohol:

Saturated and Unsaturated Fats and oils

Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated

The saturated fatty acids have single bond in

their hydrocarbons while the unsaturated
ones have double bonds. Esters produced
from saturated fatty acids are usually solids
at room temperature and they are called fats
while the esters produced from unsaturated
fatty acids are liquids at room temperature
and are called oils.

Sources of Fats and Oils

Animal sources generally provide fats, for

example, dripping from beef, lard from pork
and tallow from lamb. These fats are solid at
room temperature and only become liquid
when heated.
Vegetable sources generally provide oils. Ester
oils can be obtained from olives and seeds
such as corn seed, suncower seed, peanuts
and soya beans, liquids at room temperature.
Marine sources can provide both fats and oils,
Sea mammals providing fats and oils being
obtained from Hsh.

Properties of Fats and Oils

1. Both fats and oils are insoluble in water

and they decompose at temperature above
300oC.

2. Since they are esters their main

reactions are saponiHcation and hydrolysis.

Uses of Fats and Oil

1. Fats and oils are used as essential

ingredients of food

2. Sometimes they are used in natural form

such as groundnut oil, palm oil for such
industrial products as margarine

3. They are used as raw materials for

making soap e.g. palm oil and coconut oil

4. They are used in making paint, candles

and varnishers

Hydrolysis of Fats and Oils

Fats and oils contain ester links formed

when glycerol has reacted with fatty acids.
These ester links can be broken when they
react with water, splitting the molecule back
into an acid and an alcohol.

This process is known as hydrolysis of an

ester. It can be described using the following
word equation:

ester + water → acid + alcohol

Hydrogenation of Oils

The hydrogenation of oils is also known as

hardening of oil. This is done by passing
hydrogen into unsaturated oil at about
180oC and 5 atmosphere of pressure and in
the presence of Hnely divided nickel as
catalyst. In the process, the unsaturated part
of the oil is saturated and the oil becomes
hardening into fat.

Margarine is made by mixing such hardening

oils with vitamins, salt, skimmed milk and
colouring materials.

···

Formation of Soap (SaponiIcation)

SaponiHcation is a process by which

triglycerides are reacted with sodium or
potassium hydroxide to produce glycerol
and a fatty acid salt, called ‘soap’. In other
word, SaponiHcation is the alkaline
hydrolysis of the fatty acid esters.

Natural soaps are sodium or potassium

salts of fatty acids, originally made by
boiling lard or other animal fat together with
lye or potash (potassium hydroxide).
Hydrolysis of the fats and oils occurs,
yielding glycerol and crude soap.

In the industrial manufacture of soap, tallow

(fat from animals such as cattle and sheep)
or vegetable fat is heated with sodium
hydroxide. Once the saponiHcation reaction
is complete, sodium chloride is added to
precipitate the soap. The water layer is
drawn off the top of the mixture and the
glycerol is recovered using vacuum
distillation. Dyes, perfumes and
disinfectants are added as required before
the soap is passes into bars.

Detergents

Detergents are substances which act with

water to make things clean. The can be
conveniently classiHed into two main types
– soapy and soapless detergents

Soapy Detergents: are detergents made

from soap. They are made by heating
vegetable oils like palm oil with a strong
alkali like sodium hydroxide. Soap is also
biodegradable, i.e. it can easily be
decomposed by bacteria into simple
inorganic substances.

Soapless Detergents: Most of the soapless

detergents are made from petroleum
fractions. Usually the hydrocarbon is reacted
with sulphuric acid, and the product
neutralized with sodium hydroxide to obtain
the soapless detergent. They are non-
biodegradable and so create water pollution
problems when their forms clog up
waterways.

Detergent helps to remove dirt in different

ways:

1.) They help water to spread out and

completely soak a surface. They are good
wetting agents.

2.) They form an emulsion with the dirt.

They are emulsifying agents.

3.) As a wetting agent, detergent help to

reduce the surface tension of water, which
tends to pull water molecules together and
making water itself to be a bad wetting
agent.

As an Emulsifying Agent

Detergent has two main parts;

1. A long hydrocarbon chain which is soluble in

the grease or oil of the dirt. This part is not
soluble in water and described as hydrophobic

···

2. An ionic or polar part which in not soluble in

the dirt but is soluble in water. This part is
described as hydrophilic, COO– Na+ or COO–
K+

Mode of Action

When detergent is added to grease, the

grease soluble hydrophobic tail dissolve in
the grease and the hydrophilic parts that
bring along with a negative charge are
insoluble in the grease and so they remain
outside. The surface of the grease becomes
negatively charge, and if stirring is applied,
very large of colloidal particles of grease
and detergent are formed. They are held in
aqueous solution by the attraction of the
hydrophilic parts for the water molecules,
but are prevented from coming together
because similarly charged on surface of the
particles cause repulsion between each
other. Thus they form an emulsion of dirty
water.

Differences between Soaps and Soapless

Detergent

1) Soap from scum with hard water (which

contains dissolve calcium or magnesium
ions), while soapless detergent is not
affected.

2) Soaps are made from edible animal or

vegetable oils while soapless detergents are
made from petroleum, which is cheaper and
edible.

Assessment

1. ……… is a process by which triglycerides are

reacted with sodium or potassium hydroxide
to produce glycerol and a fatty acid salt, called
‘soap’.
2. Fats are ……. at room temperature.
3. ……… are substances which act with water to
make things clean
4. Mention 4 sources of fats and oil.
[mediator_tech]

Week: 4

Topic: Amino Acids

Amino acids are the basic structural units of

proteins. Amino acids are organic
compounds which contain both an amino
group and a carboxyl group, that is, any of a
group of organic molecules that consist of a
basic amino group (−NH2), an acidic
carboxyl group (−COOH).
Each molecule contains a central carbon (C)
atom, termed the α-carbon, to which both an
amino and a carboxyl group are attached.
The remaining two bonds of the α-carbon
atom are generally satisHed by
a hydrogen (H) atom and the R group. The
formula of a general amino acid is:

···

The amino acids differ from each other in

the particular chemical structure of
their R group.

There are 20 naturally occurring amino acids

of biological importance. The human body
can synthesize all of the amino acids
necessary to build proteins except for the
ten called the “essential amino acids”. They
can be supplied by a combination of cereal
grains (wheat, corn, rice, etc.) and legumes
(beans, peanuts, etc.). The 10 amino acids
that we can produce are alanine, asparagine,
aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid,
glutamine, glycine, proline, serine and
tyrosine. Tyrosine is produced from
phenylalanine, so if the diet is deHcient in
phenylalanine, tyrosine will be required as
well. The essential amino acids (that we
cannot produce internally) are arginine
(required for the young, but not for adults),
histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine,
methionine, phenylalanine, threonine,
tryptophan, and valine. These amino acids
are required in the diet. Plants, of course,
must be able to make all the amino acids.
Humans, on the other hand, do not have all
the enzymes required for the biosynthesis of
all of the amino acids.”

Peptides

Peptides are amides formed by the

interaction between amino groups and
carboxyl groups. The bond joining the α –
amino group of one amino acid and the α –
carboxyl group of another amino acid is
called peptide bond. Two amino acids react
to form a dipeptide, three to form a
tripeptide etc. If a numbe of amino acids are
linked by peptide bonnds, a polypeptide is
formed. A polypeptide chain has an amino
acid end and a carboxyl end. It consists of a
regular repeating part or main chain and a
variable part. or side chain.

Proteins

Proteins are highly complex substance that

is present in all living organisms. Proteins
are of great nutritional value and are directly
involved in the chemical processes essential
for life. A protein molecule is very large
compared with molecules of sugar or salt
and consists of many amino acids joined
together to form long chains, much as beads
are arranged on a string. There are about 20
different amino acids that occur naturally in
proteins. Proteins of similar function have
similar amino acid composition and
sequence. When proteins are eaten, they are
hydrolysed in the stomach to give a large
variety of amino acids, which are then
carried by the blood stream to all parts of
the body. Some are used to build cell
proteins in the growing body or repair
damaged cells. Proteins are made up of
polypeptide chains. The amino acid
sequence in the polypeptide chain of a
protein is speciHed by genes.

Glycine and alanine can combine together

with the elimination of a molecule of water
to produce a dipeptide.

In each case, the linkage shown in blue in

the structure of the dipeptide is known as
a peptide link.

If you joined three amino acids together, you

would get a tripeptide. If you joined lots and
lots together (as in a protein chain), you get
a polypeptide.

Occurrence

Proteins are found in all living systems as

structural components and as biologically
important substances such as hormones,
enzymes and pigments. Proteins in our food
can be divided into Hrst class and second
class proteins. First class proteins contain
essential amino acids and they are mainly of
animal origin. Examples are lean meat, Hsh,
eggs, milk and cheese. Second class
proteins are mainly vegetable proteins such
as beans and peas.
The relationship between amino acid side
chains and protein conformation

The deHning feature of an amino acid is its

side chain (at top, blue circle; below, all
colored circles). When connected together
by a series of peptide bonds, amino acids
form a polypeptide, another word for protein.
The polypeptide will then fold into a speciHc
conformation depending on the interactions
(dashed lines) between its amino acid side
chains.

Some important proteins are:

···

1. Insulin (a hormone)

2. Haemoglobin (Oxygen-carrying pigment

in the blood).

3. Ribonuclease (an enzyme)

4. Collagen (a muscle protein)

The hydrolysis is catalysed by an acid or

base. The amino acids obtained on
hydrolysis can be separated and identiHed
by using paper chromatography.

Test for Proteins

1. Biuret Test: If copper (II) tetraoxosulphate

(VI) is added to a solution of a protein and
the resulting solution made alkaline with
sodium hydroxide solution, a violet colour
develops.

2. Million’s Reagent Test: Add a drop or two

of million’s reagent to some egg – white
solution in a test tube. The formation of a
white precipitate which turns brick red on
heating indicates the presence of protein.

3. Trioxonitrate (V) acid Test: Add three or

four drops of concentrated trioxonitrate (V)
acid to 2cm3 of egg-white solution. The
formation of an intense yellow colour
indicates the presence of proteins.

Properties

Denaturation – Proteins usually form

colloidal solutions. When such solutions are
heated, the proteins precipitate or coagulate.
This is due to the irreversible changes in the
molecular shapes of the proteins, and the
proteins are said to have been denatured.
Proteins are easily denatured by

temperatures above 40C

certain organic solvents and chemical
reagents
variations in pH

Hydrolysis

···

Proteins can be hydrolyzed to give amino

acids by boiling them with solutions of
hydrochloric acid. Hydrolysis is carried out
using suitable enzymes.

Assessment

Explain the denaturation of protein.

Mention 3 examples of proteins.

[mediator_tech]

Week: 5

Topic: Polymers

Polymers are giant molecules which are

formed by joining together a large number of
much smaller molecules thus, forming a
long chain. The smaller molecule, which is
the starting material, is known as monomer
(meaning one unit). The molecular size of a
given polymer is not Hxed.

There are two types of polymers: synthetic

and natural.

Synthetic polymers: are derived from

petroleum oil, and made by scientists and
engineers. Examples of synthetic polymers
include nylon, polyethylene, polyester, Tecon,
and epoxy.

Natural polymers: occur in nature and can be

extracted. They are often water-based.
Examples of naturally occurring polymers
are silk, wool, DNA, cellulose and proteins.
Rubber and many resins are also natural
polymers found in plants.Polymerization
is any process in which relatively small
molecules, called monomers, combine
chemically to produce a very large chain-like
or network molecule, called a polymer. The
monomer molecules may be all alike, or they
may represent two, three, or more different
compounds. Usually at least 100 monomer
molecules must be combined to make a
product that has certain unique physical
properties—such as elasticity, high tensile
strength, or the ability to form Hbres. The
formation of stable covalent chemical bonds
between the monomers sets polymerization
apart from other processes, such as
crystallization, in which large numbers of
molecules aggregate under the incuence of
weak intermolecular forces.

Two classes of polymerization usually are

condensation and addition polymerization.

Condensation polymerization is the process

whereby two or more monomers link
together to form the polymer with the
elimination of a small molecule.
In condensation polymerization, each step
of the process is accompanied by formation
of a molecule of some simple compound,
often water. Two most important
condensation polymers are nylon and
terylene.

Addition polymerization is the process

whereby two or more of the same
monomers link together to form the polymer
without elimination of any small molecules.
In addition polymerization, monomers react
to form a polymer without the formation of
by-products. Addition polymerizations
usually are carried out in the presence
of catalysts, which in certain cases exert
control over structural details that have
important effects on the properties of the
polymer. Addition polymers include
poly(ethene), poly(chloroethene), perspex,
etc.

Other Terms

Linear polymers: which are composed of

chain-like molecules, may be viscous liquids
or solids with varying degrees of
crystallinity. A number of them can be
dissolved in certain liquids, and they soften
or melt upon heating.

···

Cross-linked polymers: in which the

molecular structure is a network, are
thermosetting resins (i.e., they form under
the incuence of heat but, once formed, do
not melt or soften upon reheating) that do
not dissolve in solvents.

Note: Both linear and cross-linked polymers

can be made by either addition or
condensation polymerization.

Plastics

Plastics are natural/synthetic materials.

They are produced by chemically modifying
natural substances or are synthesized from
inorganic and organic raw materials. They
are giant molecules which are products of
polymerization of simple unsaturated
compounds like ethene, propene or
substituted unsaturated compounds like
styrene (phenylethene) and vinyl chloride
chloroethene. Plastics also include synthetic
Hbres like nylon and terylene. Plastics are
either:

Thermoplastic: This can soften upon heating

and return to their original form. They are
easily molded and extruded into Hlms, Hbers
and packaging. Examples include
polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and
polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

Thermoset or thermosetting plastics: Once

cooled and hardened, these plastics retain
their shapes and cannot return to their
original form. They are hard and durable.
Thermosets can be used for auto parts,
aircraft parts and tires. Examples include
polyurethanes, polyesters, epoxy resins and
phenolic resins.

Polyethylene, LDPE and HDPE: The most

common polymer in plastics is polyethylene,
which is made from ethylene monomers
(CH2=CH2). The Hrst polyethylene was
made in 1934. Today, we call it low-density
polyethylene (LDPE) because it will coat in a
mixture of alcohol and water. In LDPE, the
polymer strands are entangled and loosely
organized, so it’s soft and cexible. It was
Hrst used to insulate electrical wires, but
today it’s used in Hlms, wraps, bottles,
disposable gloves and garbage bags.

In the 1950s, Karl Ziegler polymerized

ethylene in the presence of various metals.
The resulting polyethylene polymer was
composed of mostly linear polymers. This
linear form produced tighter, denser, more
organized structures and is now called high-
density polyethylene (HDPE). HDPE is a
harder plastic with a higher melting point
than LDPE, and it sinks in an alcohol-water
mixture. HDPE was Hrst introduced in the
hula hoop, but today it’s mostly used in
containers.

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): PVC is a

thermoplastic that is formed when vinyl
chloride (CH2=CH-Cl) polymerizes. When
made, it’s brittle, so manufacturers add a
plasticizer liquid to make it soft and
moldable. PVC is commonly used for pipes
and plumbing because it’s durable, can’t be
corroded and is cheaper than metal pipes.
Over long periods of time, however, the
plasticizer may leach out of it, rendering it
brittle and breakable.

Polystyrene (Styrofoam): Polystyrene is

formed by styrene molecules. The double
bond between the CH2 and CH parts of the
molecule rearranges to form a bond with
adjacent styrene molecules, thereby
producing polystyrene. It can form a hard
impact-resistant plastic for furniture,
cabinets (for computer monitors and TVs),
glasses and utensils. When polystyrene is
heated and air blown through the mixture, it
forms Styrofoam. Styrofoam is lightweight,
moldable and an excellent insulator.

Polypropylene (PP): In 1953, Karl Ziegler and

Giulio Natta, working independently,
prepared polypropylene from propylene
monomers (CH2=CHCH3) and received the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1963.
The various forms of polypropylene have
different melting points and hardnesses.
Polypropylene is used in car trim, battery
cases, bottles, tubes, Hlaments and bags.

Nylon: Nylon Hbre is obtained by heating

hexane dioc acid (adipic acid) with hexane
1,6 diamine. Nylon was originally developed
as a textile but is available in many forms
with vastly different properties. Engineering
nylon grades are easy to machine with good
resistance to biological attack.
Unfortunately nylons can absorb moisture
from the atmosphere and can degrade in
strong sunlight (they are unstable in
ultraviolet light) unless a stabilizing
chemical is added at the initial manufacture
of the plastic. Nylons are easy to mould.
Nylons also have a natural ‘oily’ surface that
can act as a natural lubricant. Nylons are
used for everything from clothes through to
gears and bearings. It is also slippery and
can be used to make washers, spacers and
bushes.

EpoxyResin: is a thermosetting polymer

formed from reaction of an epoxide resin
with polyamine hardener. The resin consists
of monomers or short chain polymers with
an epoxide group at either end. Most
common epoxy resins are produced from a
reaction between epichlorohydrin and
bisphenol A. Epoxy resin has various uses
such as; the resins that are cured through
exposure with ultra violet light are normally
used in optoelectronics, Hbre optic and
dentistry. Industrial tooling applications
normally use resin to make laminates,
Hxtures, castings and moulds. In the
electronic world, epoxy resin is used to make
transformer, insulator, switch gear and
generators.

Terylene: This is a polyester that is also

known as Dacron in the U.S.A. It is formed
by the condensation of benzene- 1,4-
dicarboxylic acid (terephthalic acid) and
ethane- 1,2- diol (ethylene glycol), using an
acid catalyst.

···

Terylene is another synthetic Hbre which is

mainly used in the manufacture of synthetic
textiles. Terylene is mostly used for clothing,
ropes, sheets, sails and many others.

Natural Rubber

Rubber is obtained from the rubber

tree, Hevea brasiliensis. When the bark of
the tree is cut, a thick white liquid called
latex oozes out. if the latex is collected and
heated, it changes into an elastic solid called
rubber. This rubber is of little use because it
is soft and sticky. Chemically, it consists of
2-methyl buta-1,3-diene monomers known
previously as isoprene. When the monomers
polymerize, they form a long polymeric
chains which have only a limited number of
cross-links between them. By adding sulphur
and heating, the soft rubber becomes hard.

Vulcanization is chemical process by which

the physical properties of natural
or synthetic rubber are improved. In its
simplest form, vulcanization is brought
about by heating rubber with sulfur. Finished
rubber has higher tensile strength and
resistance to swelling and abrasion, and is
elastic over a greater range of temperatures.

Synthetic Rubber

1,3-Butadiene is an important industrial

chemical used as a monomer in the
production of synthetic rubber. Buta-1,3-
diene co-polymerize with phenylethene to
form the tyre of synthetic rubber known as
bunas or styrene butadiene rubber (SBR).

Assessment

1. ……… are giant molecules which are formed by

joining together a large number of much
smaller molecules thus, forming a long chain.
2. Explain Epoxyresin.
3. What do you understand by Polystyrene?
[mediator_tech]

Week: 6

Topic: Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates (saccharides) – Molecules

consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
atoms. It is a major food source and a key
form of energy for most organisms. When
combined together to form polymers,
carbohydrates can function as long term
food storage molecules, as protective
membranes for organisms and cells, and as
the main structural support for plants and
constituents of many cells and their
contents. Carbohydrates are naturally
occurring organic compounds. The general
molecular formular is Cx(H2O) y.

Types of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates can be classiHed into two i.e.

simple and complex sugars.

1. Simple carbohydrates: These are also

called simple sugars. They are crystalline,
soluble in water and have a sweet taste.
Structurally, they can be further divided into
monosaccharides e.g. glucose, and
disaccharides e.g. sucrose

2. Complex carbohydrates: These are also

called polysaccharides. They are non-
crystalline, insoluble and tasteless
substances, e.g. starch and cellulose.
Starches include grain products, such as
bread, crackers, pasta, and rice.

Monosaccharides

A monosaccharide or simple sugar has a

formula that is some multiple of CH2O. For
instance, glucose (the most common
monosaccharide) has a formula of C6H12O6.
This is the smallest possible sugar unit.
Examples include glucose, galactose or
fructose. Monosaccharides cannot be split
into smaller units by the action of dilute
acids. Monosaccharides are classiHed
according to the number of carbon atoms
they possess: trioses have three carbon
atoms; tetroses, four; pentoses, Hve;
hexoses, six; etc. Each of these is further
divided into aldoses and ketoses, depending
on whether the molecule contains an
aldehyde group (–CHO) or a ketone group (–
CO–). For example glucose, having six
carbon atoms and an aldehyde group, is an
aldohexose whereas fructose is a
ketohexose. These aldehyde and ketone
groups confer reducing properties on
monosaccharides: they can be oxidized to
yield sugar acids.

Glucose

Glucose commonly known as grape sugar or

dextrose is present in fruits such as grapes,
honey and also sap of plants. It is the main
source of energy for mineral tissues and its
present in the blood of animals.

Preparation

Glucose can be prepared from the

hydrolysis of starch with dilute acid.

(C6H10O5)n + nH2O → nC6H12O6

Properties

If Glucose is heated with concentrated

teteraoxosulphate(vi) acid, it will be
dehydrated to form a black residue of
carbon.

Disaccharides

A disaccharide is a derived or condensed

from two molecules of monosaccharides by
the elimination of one molecule of water.

monosaccharide + monosaccharide ↔
dissacharide + water

···

Sucrose

Sucrose or cane sugar is the common

granulated sugar which we use to sweeten
food. It occurs naturally in many plants and
fruits. e.g. pineapple, carrots, sorghum and
sap of sugar maple tree.

Preparation

Sucrose is prepared from juices of sugar

cane and sugar beet. The cane or beet is
shredded and crushed between rollers and
the juice is extracted with water warmed to
about 800C. The solution is then puriHed by
treatment with slaked lime and carbon(iv)
oxide. The puriHed solution is concentrated
by distillation under reduced pressure. On
cooling, the concentrated solution, brown
crystals of sugar separate out. The
remaining liquid called molasses still
contains a reasonable amount of sugar and
is used in ethanol production. The brown
sugar obtained is impure. It is reHned by
treatment with slaked lime and carbon (iv)
oxide, and decolorized with animal charcoal.

Properties

Sucrose is a colourless crystalline solid. It

has a very sweet taste and dissolves readily
in water but not alkanol.
Sucrose chars on strong heating or warming
with concentrated tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid.
If sucrose is heated to a temperature of
about 210 celcius which is above melting
point but below its charring temperature, a
yellowish – brown substance known as
caramel. Caramel is used for cavouring and
in confectionery.

sucrose + water ↔ glucose + fructose

Sucrose is used to sweeten food and

beverages, and for preserving food. It is also
used to produce ethanol by fermentation.

Polysaccharides

Preparation of Starch

The raw material to be used is peeled

cassava tubers which should be washed and
ground into pulp. Water is then added to the
pulp to extract starch. It forms suspension
and this can stay for sometime before the
water above is decanted and starch residue
is allowed to dry.

Physical Properties of Starch

1. Starch is a white odourless, tasteless

powder with the formula (C6H10O5)n

2. It is insoluble in cold water but soluble in

hot water forming a viscous solution which
sets into a jelly on cooling

Chemical Properties of Starch

···

1. Starch gives the familiar characteristics

deep blue colour with iodine solution

2. Hot dilute acids hydrolyse starch into

maltose and glucose

3. It does not reduce Fehling’s solution

4. It decomposes on heating in the

presence of the enzyme diastase to form
maltose sugar.

Test for Starch

Add a few drops of iodine to some boiled

starch, a dark blue colouration which
disappears on cooling results.

Uses of Starch

1. It is used for stiffening linen

2. It is used to produce ethanol and

glucose

3. It is used mainly as food

Cellulose

Cellulose is the highest of the

polysaccharides. It is the main component
of plant cell walls and plant Hbres. The
principal industrial sources are cotton and
wood each of which contains about 50% of
cellulose. Other sources of cellulose for
textile purposes are coxi china grass, hemp
and jute.

Physical Properties of Cellulose

1. It forms transparent Hbres when it is pure

···

2. It is insoluble in water and in most

organic solvents

Chemical Properties of Cellulose

1. Cellulose can be completely hydrolysed

to glucose by hot acids

2. Hydrolysis of cellulose can also be carried

out readily by the enzyme cellulose which is
produced by micro organisms present in the
digestive system of termites and
herbivorous animals.

Uses of Cellulose

1. It is used in the manufacture of

explosives, surface coatings, paper, textiles
and ropes

2. In the manufacture of gum, cotton and

explosives

Assessment

1. Chemical formular for starch is ………

a. (C5H10O5)n
b. (C6H12O5)n
c. (C6H10O5)n
d. (C6H11O5)n
2. A …………… is derived or condensed from two
molecules of single sugar by the elimination of
one molecule of water.
a. Disaccharide
b. Monosaccharide
c. Polysaccharide
d. Starch
3. Carbohydrates consists of ……
a. C, H, N
b. C, H, O
c. C and H
d. C and O
4. sucrose + water ↔ glucose + ………
a. glucose
b. galactose
c. fructose
d. maltose
5. Test for starch -Add a few drops of iodine to
some boiled starch, a ……….. colouration which
disappears on cooling results
a. Blue
b. Bluish-green
c. Dark green
d. Dark blue

Week 7 [mediator_tech]

Topic: Metals and Their Compounds

Metals

Physical Properties of Metals

The physical properties of elements are

dependent on

the arrangement of their atoms or molecules

in crystal lattices when in solid state
the bonds that bind the atoms or molecules in
the solid, liquid or gaseous state.

Most metals are solid at room temperature

and exist as crystal lattices in which their
atoms are held together by strong metallic
bonds. metals have the following physical
properties

1. High melting and boiling points

2. Characteristic lustre
3. Malleability – can be hammered into sheets
4. Ductility – can be drawn into a thin wire
5. Sonorousity – give off a note when hit
p. Hard but not brittle with great tensile strength
[mediator_tech]
7. Relatively high densities
q. Good conductors of heat and electricity

Some metals do not exhibit all the above

properties e.g

···

Mercury is a liquid with a melting point of

-39oC. Sodium and potassium are light, soft
metals with low melting points of 97oC and
63oC respectively.

Chemical Properties
 1. ionization behaviour – metallic ions have few
valence electrons and so have a great
tendency to form positive ions by losing
electrons. i.e. they are electropositive
2. reducing and oxidizing agents – metals are
reducing agents because they donate
electrons readily during chemical reactions.
3. reaction with acids – a metal is more
electropositive than hydrogen readily displaces
the hydrogen ion from an acid. This is a redox
reaction with the metallic ions donating
electrons to form metallic ions and the
hydrogen ions accepting electrons to form
gaseous hydrogen.
4. nature of oxides – most metals react with
oxygen to form basic oxides which are mainly
ionic compounds.Soluble basic oxides form
alkalis. Some metals like aluminium and zinc
form amphoteric oxides.

Occurrence of Metals

Element which have low chemical reactivity

generally occur native or free or metallic
state. Eg. Au, Pt, noble gas etc. element
which are chemically reactive, generally
occur in the combined state. Eg. Halogen,
chalcogens etc. the natural materials in
which the metals occur in the earth are
called minerals. The minerals from which
the metals is conveniently and economically
extracted is called an ore. All the ores are
minerals but all ores cannot be ores. Ores
may be divided into four groups.

Metallic core (siderophile) of the earth crust

contains (Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Ru, Rb, Pd, Ag, Re,
Os, Ir, Pt, Au). Entire composition of metals in
the earth crust may be given as, Au(8.3%);
Ca(3.6%); Na(2.8%); K(2.6%); Mg(2.1%);
Ti(0.4%); Mn(0.1%); Fe(5.1%) other metals
(0.1%).
Native ores: These ores contains metals in
free state, e.g. silver, gold, platinum, mercury,
copper, etc. These are found usually
associated with rock or alluvial materials like
clay, sand, etc. sometime lumps of pure
metals are also found. These are termed
nuggets. Irons is found in free state are
meteorites which also have 20 to 30% nickel.
Sulphurised and arsenical ores: these ores
consist of sulphides and arsenides in simple
and complex forms of metals. Some or ores
are:

Metal Name of the

ore Compositions

Pb Galena
Pbs

Zn Zinc blender
Zns

Ag Cinnabar
Hgs

Fe iron pyrites
Fes2

Ni Kufer nickel
NiAs

Cu Copper pyrites
Cu2s

III. Oxidized ores: In these ores, metals are

present as their oxides or oxysalts such as
carbonates, nitrates, sulphates, phosphates,
silicates, etc.

Important ores of this groups are listed

below,

Oxides

Haemalite Fe2O3

Magnetite Fe2O4

Limonite
Fe2O3.3H2O

Bauxite
Al2O3.2H2O

Corundum Al2O3

Diaspore
Al2O3.H2O

Chromite
FeO.Cr2O3

Chromeochre
FeO.Cr2O3

Tinstone (Cassiterite) Cr2O3

···

Chrysoberyl
BeO.Al2O3

Cuprite (Rubby copper) Cu2O

Pyrolusite MnO2

Zincite Zno

Rutile TiO2

Llmenite FeO.TIO2

Carbonates

Magnesite MgcO3

Lime stone CaCO3

Dolomite
CaCO3.MgCO3

Calamine ZnCO3

Malachite
CuCO3.Cu(OH)2

Azurite
Cu(OH)2.2CuCO3

Cerussite PbCO3

Siderite FeCO3

Nitrates

Chile saltpeter NaNO3

Salt petre KNO3

Sulphates

Epsom salt
MgSO4.7H2O

Barites BasO4

Gypsum
CaSO4.2H2O

Glauber’s salt
Na2SO4.10H2O

Anglesite PbSO4

Schonite
K2SO4.MgSO4.6H2O

Polyhalite
K2SO4.MgSO4.CaSO$.2H2O

Phosphates and Silicates

Lepidolite (Li, Na,

K)2Al2(SiO3)(F,OH)2

Petalite
liAl(Si2O5)2

Triphylite (Li,
Na)3PO4,(Fe, Mn)3(PO4)2

···

Halide ores : Metallic halides are few in nature,

chlorides are most common . for example,

Comman salt NaCl.

Extraction of Metals

General Principles

Metals found in combined forms exist as

positive ions. During extraction, the metallic
ions can be reduced to their corresponding
metal atoms. This can be done
electrolytically or by chemical and thermal
methods. The method chosen depends on
the stability of the ore which in turn depends
on the position of the metal in the activity
series.

1. Mining of ore containing rock

The composition of rock around the world

varies greatly and locations with metal
bearing ore have been sought ever since
man was able to extract metals. Nowadays
the search is still going on for important
deposits of rock with high percentages of
the mineral in question. This search is now
taking place under the sea and in other
inhospitable environments.

Recently, for example, rock containing an

appreciable percentage of rare earth
elements has been discovered under the
paciHc ocean. This is a particularly
important discovery as virtually 99% of
known working deposits are in china and
rare earths are essential in the manufacture
of the strong neodymium magnets needed
for the computer industry

1. Separation, puriHcation or preparation of

useful ore

Very few metal ores occur in a pure enough

form to be used directly in the extraction
process. The Hrst stage is to separate the
useful ore from the rock. This may not be
necessary in some cases, for example, the
extraction of iron, but essential in the
extraction of aluminium. [mediator_tech]

This separation may be physical, such as

coatation, or chemical such as digestion of
the required compound in a strong base or
acid followed by re-precipitation and
Hltration.

Most ores are either oxides or sulHdes. The

sulHdes are usually converted to oxides by
roasting in air. This tends to release sulfur in
the form of sulfur(IV) oxide, a pollutant and
acidic gas. However, it is also a useful gas in
that it is used for the manufacture of sulfuric
acid by the contact process.

1. Extraction of metal from ore

Metals are all electropositive and need to be

reduced to become metallic elements.
Hence, all extraction processes use
reduction. For the less reactive metals
chemical reduction su~ces, but for the more
reactive metals electrochemical reduction is
needed.

1. PuriHcation of metal

Metals that are extracted by reductive

processes usually need to be further
processed to make them industrially useful.

Uses of Metals

Metals are very useful to people. They are

used to make tools because they can be
strong and easy to shape. Iron and steel
have been used to make bridges, buildings,
or ships.

Some metals are used to make items like

coins because they are hard and will not
wear away quickly. For example copper
(which is shiny and red in color), aluminium
(which is shiny and white), gold (which is
yellow and shiny), and silver and nickel (also
white and shiny).

Some metals, like steel, can be made sharp

and stay sharp, so they can be used to make
knives, axes or razors.

Rare metals with high value, like gold, silver

and platinum are often used to make
jewellery. Metals are also used to make
fasteners and screws. Pots used for cooking
can be made from copper, aluminium, steel
or iron. Lead is very heavy and dense and
can be used as ballast in boats to stop them
from turning over, or to protect people from
ionizing radiation.

Assessment

1. Most metals exist in nature as

a. crusts
b. alloys
c. ores
d. felspar
2. Most metals are malleable with high densities
and have high boiling points except
a. Zn
b. K
c. Sn
d. Ca
3. Method adopted in extracting a particular
metal from its ore depends on
a. the fragile nature of the metal
b. the location of the ore in the earth’s crust
c. the stability of the ore which depends on the
position of the ore in E.C.S
d. the availability of power in the country
4. Metals found in combined forms exist as ………
ions
a. positive
b. negative
c. neutral
d. none of the above

Week 8

Topic: Calcium and Aluminium

Calcium

Calcium is too reactive to occur as a free

metal in nature. It occurs abundantly in the
combined state as calcium trioxocarbonate
(iv) in limestone, marble, chalk, aragonite,
calcite, coral, dolomite, calcium cuoride. etc
In Nigeria, limestone is found at Nkalagu in
Ebonyi, Ewekoro at Abeokuta and Ukpilla in
Delta state.

···

Extraction

Since calcium are very stable, metallic

calcium is commonly extracted
electrolytically from fused calcium chloride a
byproduct of solvay process. Some calcium
chloride is usually added to the fused
calcium chloride to lower the melting point
from 850oC to about 650oC. The mixture is
placed in a large crucible lined on the inside
with graphite which serves as the anode of
the cell. The cathode consists of iron rod
which just touches the surface of the
electrolyte. As electrolysis proceeds metallic
calcium collects on the cathode which is
gradually raised so that an irregular stick of
calcium is formed on it. Chlorine is liberated
at the cathode.

Chemistry of the Reaction

At the cathode – the calcium ions receive

two electrons each to become reduced to
the metal.

At the anode – two chloride ions give up an

electron each to become atomic chlorine.
The two atoms then combine to become
liberated as a gaseous molecule.

Cl– → Cl– + e–

Cl + Cl → Cl2

Overall electrolytic reaction

Ca2(l) + 2Cl–(l) → Ca(s) + Cl2(g)

Physical Properties of Calcium

1. Appearance – Silvery grey solid

2. Relative density is 1.55
3. Calcium is malleable and ductile
4. It has relatively low tensile strength
5. Melting point is 850oC
p. Calcium is a good conductor of heat and
electricity

Chemical Properties of Calcium

Reaction with air – Calcium is a very

electropositive and reactive metal. On
exposure to air, it rapidly tarnishes ad loses
its metallic lustre due to the formation of
white Hlm of calcium oxide or quick lime on
the surface of the metal. When calcium is
heated in air, it burns with a brick red came
to form calcium oxide

2Ca(s) + O2(g) → 2CaO(s)

CaO(s) + H2O(l)→ Ca(OH)2(g)

Reaction with non-metals – on heating,

calcium combines directly with nitrogen,
chlorine, Sulphur and hydrogen

3Ca(s) + N2(g) → Ca3N2(s)

Ca(s) + Cl2(g) → CaCl2(s)

Reaction with water – Calcium reacts slowly

with cold water and rapidly with warm water
to form calcium hydroxide and hydrogen

Ca(s) + 2H2O(g) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Reaction with Ammonia – if ammonia is

passed over heated calcium, it reacts as
follows

3Ca(s) + 2NH3(g) → Ca3N2(s) + 3H2(g)

Test for calcium ions

Flame test – calcium compounds give an

orange – red colour to a non-luminous
came. Moisten the unknown compound with
a few drops of concentrated hydrochloric
acid. Dip the tip of a clean platinum wire into
the mixture and hold it in a non-luminous
Bunsen came. If a bright brick red came
through a blue glass is produced, the
unknown ions of the compound are calcium
ions.

With sodium hydroxide – Add a few drops of

NaOH solution to an unknown salt. The
formation of white precipitate which is
insoluble in excess sodium hydroxide
indicate the presence of calcium ions

Uses of Calcium

1. Calcium is used as a deoxidant in steel

castings and copper alloys.
2. It is also used in the manufacture of calcium
cuoride and calcium hydride.
3. It is used in the extraction of uranium
4. It is needed in the diet of young children for
development of strong bones and teeth
5. Calcium metal is used as a reducing agent in
preparing other metals such as thorium and
uranium. It is also used as an alloying agent
for aluminium, beryllium, copper, lead and
magnesium alloys.
p. Calcium compounds are widely used. There
are vast deposits of limestone (calcium
carbonate) used directly as a building stone
and indirectly for cement.
7. Gypsum (calcium sulfate) is used by builders
as a plaster and by nurses for setting bones,
as ‘plaster of Paris’.

Aluminium

Aluminium is the most common metal in the

Earth’s crust, making up 7.5% by mass. Its
main ore is bauxite-a clay mineral which you
can think of as impure aluminium oxide. It is
the most important element in group III.

Extraction of Aluminium
Aluminium is obtained largely from the ore
bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O). Its production is a
two-step process: the puriHcation of bauxite
and extraction by electrolysis.

Purifying the bauxite (aluminium oxide) –

the Bayer Process

Crushed bauxite is treated with moderately

concentrated sodium hydroxide solution.
The concentration, temperature and
pressure used depend on the source of the
bauxite and exactly what form of aluminium
oxide it contains. Temperatures are typically
from 140°C to 240°C; pressures can be up to
about 35 atmospheres.

High pressures are necessary to keep the

water in the sodium hydroxide solution liquid
at temperatures above 100°C. The higher the
temperature, the higher the pressure needed.

With hot concentrated sodium hydroxide

solution, aluminium oxide reacts to give a
solution of sodium aluminate (III)
(NaAl(OH)4).

···

Extraction of Aluminium by Electrolysis

After puriHcation, aluminium oxide is mixed

with cryolite (sodium aluminium cuoride)
Na3AlF6 to lower the melting point from
2000º to 1000º, which saves money. This
mixture is heated and the molten liquid used
as the electrolyte. Both electrodes are made
of graphite (carbon). The anode (+ve) is
graphite and the cathode (-ve) is a graphite
lining to a steel case.

The anode disintegrates. The hot oxygen

produced here reacts with the hot carbon
anode to give carbon dioxide. Hence it must
be replaced regularly.

Aluminium ions are attracted to the cathode

(the negative electrode) and are reduced to
aluminium by gaining electrons.

Al3+ (l) + 3e– → Al (l)

The molten aluminium produced sinks to the

bottom of the cell.

The oxide ions are attracted to the anode

and lose electrons to form oxygen gas.

2O2- (l) → O2 (g) + 4e–

Note: The extraction of aluminium is an

expensive process because the large
amount of electricity needed to keep the
electrolytes molten is expensive. Hence
using cryolite saves energy and money, as it
acts as a solvent for the aluminium oxide
and melts at a much lower temperature.

Physical Properties of Aluminium

1. Aluminium is a silvery white metal which is

comparatively soft
2. It is a strong, malleable metal element.
3. It has a low density.
4. It is resistant to corrosion
5. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
p. It can be polished to give a highly recective
surface.

Chemical Properties of Aluminium

Action with air: Aluminium burns in air at high

temperature to form the oxide and the nitride

4Al (s) + 3O2 (g) ——> 2Al2O3 (s)

Reaction with non-metals: On heating,

aluminium combines directly with non-metals
like the halogens, sulphur, nitrogen,
phosphorus and carbon with evolution of heat

2Al (s) + 3Cl2 ——> 2AlCl3 (s)

Action with acids: Aluminium reacts more

 rapidly with the concentrated hydrochloric acid
to displace hydrogen but more slowly with
dilute one

2Al (s) + 6HCl (aq) ——> 2AlCl3 (aq) +

3H2 (g)

Reaction with alkalis: Aluminium reacts with

both sodium and potassium hydrogen
solutions giving hydrogen gas and soluble
tetrahydroxoaluminate (III)

2Al (s) + 2NaOH (aq) + 6H2O (l) ——>

2NaAl(OH)4 (aq) + 3H2 (g)

Reaction with Iron (III) oxide: Aluminium

reduces iron (III) oxide to molten iron. The
reaction is used in thermit process and it gives
out a great deal of energy

2Al (s) + Fe2O3 (s) ——> Al2O3 (s) + 2Fe (s)

Uses

1. Low density and strength make aluminium

ideal for construction of aircraft, lightweight
vehicles, and ladders.
2. An alloy of aluminium called duralumin is often
used instead of pure aluminium because of its
improved properties.
3. Easy shaping and corrosion resistance make
aluminium a good material for drink cans and
rooHng materials.
4. Corrosion resistance and low density leads to
its use for greenhouses and window frames.
5. Good conduction of heat leads to its use for
boilers, cookers and cookware.
p. Good conduction of electricity leads to its use
for overhead power cables hung from pylons
(low density gives it an advantage over
copper).
7. High recectivity makes aluminium ideal for
mirrors, recectors and heat resistant clothing
for Hre Hghting.

Assessment

Explain the method of extraction of

Aluminium in few lines and bullet points.

Mention 3 uses of Calcium

Week 9

Topic: Tin and Copper

Tin

Tin does not occur naturally as a free

element. The main source is the mineral
cassiterite or tin stone, SnO2. In Nigeria was
mined in 1930 at Jos Plateau.

Extraction from its Ores

Tin ore is crushed and washed with water.

This is called the concentration of the ore.
The tin ore is roasted in air to remove
impurities, such as arsenic and antimony as
volatile oxides. The product is mixed with
powdered charcoal and heated to 1300oC. to
reduce the oxide. Molten tin is tapped off.
Iron compounds, which might be present as
impurities are removed by electromagnetic
separation.

The metal is extracted from its ore by

carbon reduction. The concentrated ore is
mixed with coke and heated in a furnace.

SnO2(s) + 2C(s) → Sn(l) + 2CO(g)

The tin obtained is puriHed. It is separated

from copper, iron and any other element
present as impurities by either thermal -
heating beyond it melting point of 232 K, and
running off the molten tin, leaving behind
any less fusible impurities – or by
electrolytic means.

Much purer tin is obtained by the electrolysis

of aqueous solution of tin(II) chloride,
SnCl2 – the impure tin is made anode, while
the cathode is pure tin.

Test for Tin ions

Hydrogen Sulphide – Pass hydrogen

sulphide into a solution of the unknown salt
acidiHed with dilute hydrochloric acid. Tin(ii)
ions are present if a brown precipitate which
dissolves in yellow ammonium sulphide and
in hot concentrated hydrochloric acid is
obtained

Mercury (ii) chloride- The formation of a

white precipitate of mercury(i) chloride
would indicate the presence of tin(ii) ions.

Physical Properties of Tin

1. Tin is solid, with silvery white appearance with

lustre.
2. It’s melting point is 232oC.
3. It is malleable and soft (enough to be cut with
a knife).
4. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
5. It exists in three different forms. These are
grey tin of density 5.76 g/cm3; white tin of
density 7.28 g/cm3; and rhombic tin of density
6.6 g/cm3. These allotropes (the different
forms) can be converted from one to another
by changes in temperature.

grey white rhombic

···

Grey 13.2oC White 161oC Rhombic

1. Tin is not ductile enough to be drawn into

wires.

Chemical properties of Tin

1. Reaction with Oxygen – it does not react with

oxygen, except at temperature above 1300oC.

Sn(s) + O2(g) → SnO2(s) at temperatures

greater than 1300oC

Hence, It does not corrode or explode in air.

1. With nitrogen and carbon – no reaction

occurs.
2. With non metals, example, chlorine – it reacts
when heated with chlorine to form tin(IV)
chloride.

Sn(s) + 2Cl2(g) → SnCl4(s)

1. With acids – it reacts with acids to different

degrees at different concentrations and
temperatures. With dilute HCl – no reaction
occurs.

With Concentrated HCl the reaction is rapid,

producing tin(II) chloride.

Sn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → SnCl2(s) + H2(g)

With dilute H2SO4 – no reaction occurs. With

hot concentrated H2SO4 a reaction occurs to
release SO2.

Sn(s) + 2H2SO2 → SnSO4(aq) + SO2(g) +

2H2O(g)

With dilute HNO3 – tin reacts with dilute

HNO3, forming Sn(NO3)2 and hydrogen.

With conc. HNO3 – tin reacts with conc.

HNO3 , forming SnO2.

1. With alkalis – it forms trioxostannate(IV) salts

and hydrogen with conc. solutions of alkalis.

Sn(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + H2O(l) → Na2SnO3(aq) +

2H2(g)

Uses of Tin [mediator_tech]

There are a number of ways tin can be used.

These include:

1. For coating steel – the coating is done by

electrolytic method. Tin prevents corrosion in
steel, such may be used to can food and
drinks.
2. For making alloys together with lead, antimony
and copper. Alloys of tin are important, such
as soft solder, pewter, bronze and phosphor
bronze. A niobium-tin alloy is used for
superconducting magnets.
3. Due to its resistance to atmospheric corrosion
and low melting point, it can be used to make
sheet glass.
4. The most important tin salt used is tin(II)
chloride, which is used as a reducing agent
and as a mordant for dyeing calico and silk.
Tin(IV) oxide is used for ceramics and gas
sensors. Zinc stannate (Zn2SnO4) is a Hre-
retardant used in plastics.
5. Some tin compounds have been used as anti-
fouling paint for ships and boats, to prevent
barnacles. However, even at low levels these
compounds are deadly to marine life,
especially oysters. Its use has now been
banned in most countries.
p. A very important application of tin is tin-
plating. Tin-plating is the process by which a
thin coat of tin is placed on the surface of
steel, iron, or another metal. Tin is not affected
by air, oxygen, water, acids, and bases to the
extent that steel, iron, and other metals are. So
the tin coating acts as a protective layer.
7. Another tin alloy is Babbitt metal. Babbitt
metal is a soft alloy made of any number of
metals, including arsenic, cadmium, lead, or
tin. Babbitt metal is used to make ball bearings
for large industrial machinery. The Babbitt
metal is laid down as a thin coating on heavier
metal, such as iron or steel. The Babbitt metal
retains a thin layer of lubricating oil more
e~ciently than iron or steel.

Copper

Copper was one of the Hrst metals

discovered and used by man. It is a stable
metal readily obtained from its compounds.
Copper ores are widely found around the
world. The main ores are copper pyrites
(CuFeS2), malachite (CuCO3.Cu (OH)2),
chalcocite (CuS2) and cuprite (CuO).

Extracting copper from its ores

The method used to extract copper from its

ores depends on the nature of the ore.
Sulphide ores such as chalcopyrite (copper
pyrites) are converted to copper by a
different method from silicate, carbonate or
sulphate ores.

The process:

The concentrated ore is heated strongly with

silicon dioxide (silica) and air or oxygen in a
furnace or series of furnaces.

The copper(II) ions in the chalcopyrite are

reduced to copper(I) sulphide (which is
reduced further to copper metal in the Hnal
stage).
The iron in the chalcopyrite ends up converted
into an iron(II) silicate slag which is removed.
Most of the sulphur in the chalcopyrite turns
into sulphur dioxide gas. This is used to make
sulphuric acid via the Contact Process.

An overall equation for this series of steps

is:

The end product of this is called blister

copper – a porous brittle form of copper,
about 98 – 99.5% pure.

PuriHcation of copper

When copper is made from sulphide ores by

the Hrst method above, it is impure. The
blister copper is Hrst treated to remove any
remaining sulphur (trapped as bubbles of
sulphur dioxide in the copper – hence
“blister copper”) and then cast into anodes
for reHning using electrolysis.

Electrolytic reHning

The puriHcation uses an electrolyte of

copper(II) sulphate solution, impure copper
anodes, and strips of high purity copper for
the cathodes.

The diagram shows a very simpliHed view of

a cell.

For every copper ion that is deposited at the

cathode, in principle another one goes into
solution at the anode. The concentration of
the solution should stay the same.

All that happens is that there is a transfer of

copper from the anode to the cathode. The
cathode gets bigger as more and more pure
copper is deposited; the anode gradually
disappears.

In practice, it isn’t quite as simple as that

because of the impurities involved.

Physical properties of copper

1. Copper is a heavy, reddish-brown metal

2. It is very malleable and ductile
3. It has a density of 8.95 g cm-1
4. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity
5. It has a high melting point of 1083oC
p. It has a boiling point of 2300oC
7. It also forms alloys very readily

Chemical properties of Copper

Reaction with Air: It is resistant to pure dry air,

but over a long period of time in a moist,
impure atmosphere, it becomes coated with
green, basic copper(II) tetraoxosulphate (VI)
CuSO4.3Cu(OH)2 and trioxocarbonate (IV).

On heating in air or oxygen, copper is readily

oxidized to give black copper (II)oxide

2Cu(s) + O2(g) ——–> 2CuO(s)

Effect of Acids: Copper is lower than hydrogen

in the electrochemical series, hence, it is not
capable of displacing hydrogen from dilute
acids. It is however attacked by oxidizing acids
like trioxonitrate (V) acid and tetraoxosulphate
(VI) acids

3Cu(s) + 8HNO3(aq) ——> 3Cu(NO3)2(s) +

4H2O(l) 2NO(g)

Displacement Reaction: Because of its low

position in the activity and electrochemical
series, copper is easily displaced from its
compound

CuSO4(aq) + Fe(s) ——-> FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

Hydrogen gas reduces copper oxides to the

metal

CuO(s) + H2(g) ——> Cu(s) + H2O(l)

Test For Copper(II) Ions

With sodium hydroxide: Add a few drops of

sodium hydroxide solution to a solution of
copper salt. The formation of a blue
precipitate which is insoluble in excess
sodium hydroxide conHrms the presence of
copper(II) ions

Cu2+(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ——-> Cu(OH)2(s) +

Na+(aq)

Uses of Copper

Amongst other things copper is used for:

1. Electrical wiring. It is a very good conductor of

electricity and is easily drawn out into wires.
2. Domestic plumbing. It doesn’t react with water,
and is easily bent into shape.
3. Boilers and heat exchangers. It is a good
conductor of heat and doesn’t react with
water.
4. Baking brass. Brass is a copper-zinc alloy.
Alloying produces a metal harder than either
copper or zinc individually. Bronze is another
copper alloy – this time with tin.
5. Coinage. In the UK, as well as the more
obvious copper-coloured coins, “silver” coins
are also copper alloys – this time with nickel.
These are known as cupronickel alloys. UK
pound coins and the gold-coloured bits of euro
coins are copper-zinc-nickel alloys.

···

Assessment

1. Tin exists in 3 different forms. Mention them?

2. How can Tin be extracted?
3. The method of extraction of copper depends
on what?
4. Mention 4 uses of copper

Week 10

Topic: Iron

Iron

Iron is the most important element in the

industry. It is the second most abundant
element on the earth crust after aluminium,
but often occurs as a free metal.

The common ores are haematite found in

united states, Australia and USSR. It can
also occur as impure iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3),
Magnetite or magnetic iron ore (Fe3O4) is
found in Sweden and in North America.

Siderite or spathic iron ore, (FeCO3), found in

Great Britain. Iron also occurs as iron pyrites
(FeS2) and limonite (Fe2O3.3H2O).

Iron is widely present as trioxosilicate (IV) in

clay soils. Iron ore is available in Itakpe,
Ajaokuta, Jebba and Lokoja all in Kwara
State (Nigeria).

Extraction of Iron

The extraction of iron from iron ore

(haematite), using coke, limestone and air in
a blast furnace

Haematite is basically iron oxide, and the

oxygen must be removed to leave the iron
behind. Reactions in which oxygen is
removed are called reduction
reactions. Since carbon is more reactive
than iron, it can displace the iron from its
oxide. Hence the method for extraction of
iron is called ‘reduction by carbon’.

···

Coke is impure carbon, and it burns in the

hot air blast to form carbon dioxide. This is a
strongly exothermic reaction which makes it
an important reaction, as it helps heat up the
blast furnace. The iron ore, coke and
limestone enter the blast furnace at the top.
The hot waste gases at the top of the
furnace are piped away and used to heat the
air blast at the bottom.

C (s) + O2 (g) ——> CO2 (g)

At high temperatures in the furnace, the

carbon dioxide is reduced by more carbon to
give carbon monoxide.

CO2 (g) + C (s) ——> 2CO (g)

It is the carbon monoxide which is the main

reducing agent in the furnace-especially in
the cooler parts.

Assuming that the iron ore is haematite,

Fe2O3:

Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) ——> 2Fe (l) + 3CO2 (g)

Due to the high temperatures, the iron

produced melts and cows to the bottom of
the furnace, where it can be tapped off.

In the hotter parts of the furnace, some of

the iron oxide is also reduced by carbon
itself.

Fe2O3 (s) + 3C (s) ——> 2Fe (l) + 3CO (g)

Notice that carbon monoxide is formed,

rather than carbon dioxide, at these
temperatures.

However some use this equation instead:

iron oxide + carbon → iron + carbon

dioxide

2Fe2O3 + 3C → 4Fe + 3CO2

The limestone is added to the furnace to

remove impurities in the ore which would
otherwise clog the furnace with solid
material.

The furnace is hot enough for the limestone

(calcium carbonate) to undergo thermal
decomposition. It splits up into calcium
oxide and carbon dioxide. This is an
endothermic reaction (it absorbs heat) and it
is important not to add too much limestone
to avoid cooling the furnace.

CaCO3 (s) ——> CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

Calcium oxide is a basic oxide, and its

function is to react with acidic oxides such
as silicon dioxide, SiO2. Silicon dioxide is the
main constituent of sand, and is typical of
the sort of impurities that need to be
removed from the furnace.

CaO (s) + SiO2 (s) —–> CaSiO3 (l)

The product is calcium silicate. This melts

and trickles to the bottom of the furnace as
a molten slag, which coats on top of the
molten iron as it is less dense, and can be
tapped off separately. Slag is used

Uses of iron

Cast iron

Molten iron straight from the furnace can be

cooled rapidly and solidiHed by running it
into sand moulds. This is known as pig iron.
If the pig iron is remelted and cooled under
controlled conditions, cast iron is formed.
This is very impure iron, containing about 4%
carbon as its main impurity. Although cast
iron is very hard, it is also very brittle and
tends to shatter if it is hit hard. It is used for
things like manhole covers, gutterings and
drainpipes, and cylinder blocks in car
engines.

Mild steel

Mild steel is iron containing up to about

0.25% carbon. This small amount of carbon
increases the hardness and strength of the
iron. It is used for (among other things) wire,
nails, car bodies, ship building, girders and
bridges.

Wrought iron

This is pure iron. It was once used to make

decorative gates and railings but has now
been largely replaced by mild steel. The
purity of the iron makes it very easy to work
because it is fairly soft, but the softness and
lack of strength mean that it isn’t useful for
structural purposes.

High-carbon steel

High carbon steel is iron containing up to

1.5% carbon. Increases the carbon content
makes the iron harder, but at the same time
it gets more brittle. High-carbon steel is
used for cutting tools and masonry nails.
Masonry nails are designed to be hammered
into concrete blocks or brickwork where a
mild steel nail would bend. If you miss-hit a
masonry nail, it tends to break into two bits
because of its increased brittleness.

Stainless steel

···
 Stainless steel is an alloy of iron with
chromium and nickel. Chromium and nickel
form strong oxide layers in the same way as
aluminium, and these oxide layers protect
the iron as well. Stainless steel is therefore
very resistance to corrosion.

Obvious uses include kitchen sinks,

saucepans, knives and forks, and gardening
tools. But there are also major uses for it in
the brewing, dairy and chemical industries
where corrosion- resistant vessels are
essential

Iron
Types of
mixed Some uses
iron
with

Decorative work
Wrought
(pure iron) such as gates
iron
and railings

Up to Nails, car
Mild
0.25% bodies, ship
steel
carbon building, girders

High-
0.25-1.5% Cutting tools,
carbon
carbon masonry nails
steel

Manhole covers,
About 4%
Cast iron guttering,
carbon
engine blocks

Cutlery, cooking
Stainless Chromium
utensils, kitchen
steel and nickel
sinks

Physical Properties of Iron

1. Pure iron is a grey metal with density 7.8g cm-3

2. It melts at 1535oC and boils at 2800oC
3. It is very malleable and ductile
4. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity
[mediator_tech]
5. It can easily be magnetized

Chemical Properties of Iron

Reaction With Air: It burns in air to form

reddish hydrated iron (III) oxide of variable
composition

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + 2xH2O(l) ——->

2Fe2O3.xH2O

When Hnely divided iron is heated in air it

burns at high temperature to form magnetic
iron oxide, which behaves like a compound
oxide

3Fe(s) + 2O2 (g) ——> Fe3O4 (s)

Reaction With Steam: When steam is passed

over red-hot iron Hlings, tri iron tetraoxide and
hydrogen are produced and the reaction is
reversible

Fe(s) + 4H20 <——> Fe3O4(s) + 4H2 (g)

Order of Method of
Symbol
reactivity Extraction

Potassium K Electrolysis

The metal compound is:

1. Melted, then
2. Has electricity passed through it

Assessment

1. What are the uses of the following Iron

– Cast Iron
– Stainless steel
– Wrought Iron
2. Stainless steel is an alloy of iron with ………. and
………
3. Mention 2 common ores of iron ……… and ………

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