1

Physics lab manual

Class :xii
Name :
[Link]. :
NOTE: While writing in the record, strictly follow the below; (if any doubt,
confirm with teacher and then proceed)

LEFT HAND SIDE( PLANE PAGE) – 1. Circuit Diagram / Ray Diagram

- 2 . Observation and Observation

Tables
- 3. Calculation

RIGHT HAND SIDE (RULED PAGE) – 1. Aim, [Link] Required, 3.

Fromula, 4. Model Graph (if any), 5. Procedure, 6. Result, 7. Precautions,
and 8. Sources of error

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Experiment -1 Date :

Determination of resistance of the wire using Ohms law

AIM
To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for potential difference
versus current.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
A wire of unknown resistance, battery eliminator, voltmeter , ammeter,
rheostat, plug key, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
FORMULA
V
Resistance of the given wire, R=
I
V- potential difference across the wire
I – current flowing through the wire
 The specific resistance or resistivity of the material of the given wire is
2
Rπ D
ρ=
4L
R- resistance of the wire
L – length of the wire
D – Diameter of the wire

MODEL GRAPH

From the graph, resistance of the given wire is,

Resistance per unit length of given wire is,

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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PROCEDURE
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with the help of sand paper in order to remove any
insulating coating on them.
2. Connect various components - resistance, rheostat, battery, key, voltmeter and ammeter as
shown in circuit diagram.
3. Note whether pointers in ammeter and voltmeter coincide with the zero mark on the measuring
scale. If it is not so, adjust the pointer to coincide with the zero mark by adjusting the screw
provided near the base of the needle using a screw driver.
4. Note the range and least count of the given voltmeter and ammeter.
5. Insert the key K and slide the rheostat contact to one of its extreme ends, so that current
passing through the resistance
6. Note the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
7. Remove the key K and allow the wire to cool, if heated. Again insert the key. Shift the
rheostat contact slightly to increase the applied voltage. Note the ammeter and voltmeter reading.
8. Repeat step 7 for four different settings of the rheostat. Record your observations in a tabular
form. Repeat the same for other material.

OBSERVATIONS

Range of ammeter =
Least count of ammeter =
Range of voltmeter =
Least count of voltmeter =
Length of the given wire, l =

TABLE :1 To find unknown resistance

Materia Volt meter Readings Ammeter Readings Resistance,

l S. No.
V I R=V/I

(ohm)

I 1
2
3
4
5

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II 1
2
3
4
5

Mean R =

To find the diameter of the given wire:

Number of divisions in the head scale, N =

Pitcℎ
Least count =
No of divisions∈tℎe ℎead scale

Least count of the screw gauge (LC) =…….. mm

Zero correction of the screw gauge (Z) = ……. mm

S PSR HSR=HSC x LC Total Reading, d = (PSR+ HSR)± Z

HSC
No. (mm) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3
4
5

Length of the wire, L =

Diameter of the wire, D =

CALCULATIONS

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RESULT
1. The potential difference across the given wire varies linearly with the current.
2. The resistance of the given wires
a)Material I =.................Ω
b) Material II= .................Ω

3. The resistivity of the given wires

a)Material I =.................Ω m-1
b) Material II= .................Ω m-1
PRECAUTIONS
1. Connections should be made neat and clean and as in the circuit diagram.
2. The wire used should be having uniform area of cross-section.
3. Zero error in measuring instruments (voltmeter, ammeter, metre scale) should be corrected.
4. The key should be inserted only while taking observations, as excessive flow of current causes
unnecessary heating of the wire.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Connections may not be correct
2. The wire used may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
3. The Ammeter or Voltmeter may have zero error.

Experiment -2 Date :

Meter Bridge -Determination of resistance

AIM
To determine the resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
Metre bridge, a wire about 1m long (of material whose specific resistance is to be determined), a
resistance box, a rheostat, galvanometer, a jockey, one-way key, a cell or battery eliminator,
thick connecting wires, sand paper, screw gauge.

FORMULAE

R ( 100 −l )
 Unknown resistance X of the wire, X =
l
R - resistance in the resistance box
l - balancing length

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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PROCEDURE
(i) Draw the circuit diagram given above and make the connections according to the circuit
diagram.
(ii) Remove the insulations from the ends of the connecting wires with the help of sand paper
and make neat, clean and tight connections.
(iii) Make sure that the resistance in the resistance box is of same order of magnitude as the
unknown resistance X.
(iv) To check whether the connections of the circuit are correct, Touch the jockey gently, first at
the left and then at the right end of the metre bridge wire. If the deflections in the galvanometer
are in opposite directions, the connections are correct.
(v) Now choose an appropriate resistance R from the resistance box. Slide the jockey on the
metre bridge wire gently by touching and lifting it again and again till the galvanometer reads
zero nearly in the middle of the wire.
(vi) Record the lengths of both parts of the wire in the observation table.
(vii) Repeat the above steps two times more by selecting the suitable values of R for getting null
point between 30 cm and 70 cm.
(viii) Now cut the resistance wire X at the points where it leaves binding terminals. Straighten it
by stretching and remove 3 kinks.
(ix) Measure the diameter of the wire by a screw gauge atleast the different points. At each point,
the diameter should be measured in two mutually perpendicular directions.

OBSERVATION

To find the resistance of the given wire:

Resistance R ( 100 −l )
Balancing length, AB =l Length, BC =(100-l)
[Link] R X= Ω
(cm) (cm) l
(ohm)
1
2
3

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4
5
Mean resistance, X = .................. Ω
CALCULATIONS

RESULT
The resistance of the material of the given wire is ……….. ohm

PRECAUTIONS
1. Connections should be made tight, neat and clean and as in the circuit diagram.
2. The meterbridge wire used should be having uniform area of cross-section.
3. The key should be inserted only while taking observations, as excessive flow of current causes
unnecessary heating of the wire.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Connections may not be correct
2. The meterbridge wire used may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
[Link] key may not be plugged in properly.

Experiment. No.3 Date:

POTENTIOMETER - COMPARISION OF emf OF CELLS

AIM
To compare the emf’s of the two given primary cells using potentiometer.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Potentiometer, Daniel cell, Leclanche cell, Jockey, Battery eliminator, Resistance box,
Galvanometer, One way key, Two way key, Rheostat, Ammeter, Connecting wires, etc
FORMULA

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E1 – emf of Leclanche cell, E2 – emf of Daniel cell

l 1 - balancing length for Leclanche cell l 2 - balancing length for Daniel cell

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
Arrange the required materials on a table and make the connections as per the connection
diagram. Tight the plugs of the resistance box. Note the reading on the ammeter.
To test the connection, insert plug in the one way key k1 and also in between the terminals a and
c of the two way key. Introduce a sufficiently high resistance on the resistance box (R.B). Place
the jockey at the two end points of the wire. Press the jockey at both end of the potentiometer
wire and note the deflection in galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows opposite deflection, the
connections are correct. Now, gently slide the jockey along the potentiometer wire and stop
when null point is obtained. Measure the length l1 between this point and the end P of the
potentiometer. It is the balancing length for the cell E1.
Disconnect the cell E1 by removing the plug from the gap ac of the two way key and connect the
cell E2 by inserting plug into the gap bc of the two way key.
Again slide the jockey along the potentiometer wire to obtain the null point. Measure the new
balancing length C for the cell E2 based on this point.
Make sure that the reading on the ammeter is constant throughout the observation.
Repeat the experiment by increasing the current by adjusting the rheostat and record the
observations.
Each time, the ratio between the emf’s of the given cells can be calculated using the relation,

Balancing length when leclanche Balancing length when Daniel

S No. cell in the circuit l 1 cell in the circuit l 2
(cm) (cm)

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6
CALCULATIONS

RESULT
The emf’s of the two given primary cells are compared.
The ratio of emf’s of the two given primary cells, E1/E2 = ..............

PRECAUTIONS
1. Connections should be made tight, neat and clean and as in the circuit diagram.
2. The POTENTIOMETER wire used should be having uniform area of cross-section.
3. The key should be inserted only while taking observations, as excessive flow of current causes
unnecessary heating of the wire.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Connections may not be correct
2. The POTENTIOMETER wire used may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
[Link] key may not be plugged in properly.

Experiment . No.4 Date

GALVANOMETER - FIGURE OF MERIT AND RESISTANCE BY HALF
DEFLECTION METHOD
AIM
To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and find it’s figure of
merit

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APPARATUS REQUIRED
Galvanometer, A battery eliminator (0 - 6 V), resistance box, one way keys, voltmeter,
connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
FORMULAE
Resistance of galvanometer G by half deflection method is,
RS
G=
R−S
R – high resistance in the resistance box
S – shunt resistance which reduces the deflection to θ/2
Figure of merit, K= ( E 1
)
R+G θ
E – emf of the cell
θ- deflection in the galvanometer
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
1. Clean the connecting wires with sand paper and make neat and tight connections as per the
circuit diagram.
2. From the high resistance box (RBOX 1) (1-10 kΩ), remove 5 kΩkey and then close the key
K1. Adjust the resistance R from this resistance box to get full scale deflection on the
galvanometer dial.
Record the values of resistance, R and deflection θ.
3. Insert the key K2 and keep R fixed. Adjust the value of shunt resistance S to get the deflection
in the galvanometer which is exactly half of θ. Note down S. Remove plug K2 after noting down
the value of shunt resistance, S.

4. Take five sets of observations by repeating steps 2 and 3 so that θ is even number of divisions
and record the observations for R, S, θ and θ/2 in tabular form.

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5. Calculate the galvanometer resistance G and figure of merit k of galvanometer respectively.

OBSERVATION

E mf of the battery E = ... V

CALCULATIONS

RESULT
1. Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method, G = ... Ω
2. Figure of merit of galvanometer, k = ...ampere/division

PRECAUTIONS
1. Connections should be made tight, neat and clean and as in the circuit diagram.
2. The keys should be plugged in properly.
[Link] of the battery should be constant.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Connections may not be correct

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[Link] keys may not be plugged in properly.

[Link] of the battery may not be constant.

Experiment -5 Date:
Convex lens - Focal length by plotting graphs between u and v and between 1/u and 1/v
AIM
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u and
1/v.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
An optical bench, two sharp-edged needle (pins), convex lens, three uprights (with clamps),index
needle (may be a knitting needle), metre scale and spirit level.
FORMULA
Focal length of the given convex lens is,

u- object distance, v- image distance

MODEL GRAPH

U –V GRAPH 1/U -1/V GRAPH

ZA ZB 1 1
f= = f= =
2 2 OA OB

RAY DIAGRAM

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PROCEDURE
* Obtain approximate value of the focal length of the thin convex lens by focusing the image of a
distant object. It can be found by obtaining a sharp image of the Sun or a distant tree on a screen,
say a plane wall, or a sheet of paper placed on the other side of the lens and measuring the
distance between the lens and the image with a scale. This distance is a rough estimate of the
focal length, f of the convex lens.
Note: Do not look at the image of Sun directly as it may hurt your eyes.
1. The optical bench is placed on a rigid table or on a platform, and using the spirit level to make
it horizontal with the help of leveling screws provided at the base of the bench.
2. The convex lens is clamped on an upright and mounts it vertically almost near to the middle
of the optical bench such that its principal axis is parallel to the optical bench. In this position,
the lens would lie in a plane perpendicular to the optical bench.
4. Index correction is found for both the pins.
5. The vertically mounted sharp pins P and P’ are placed on left and right hand sides of the lens
respectively. Pins P and P’are so adjusted the heights of the tips of these pins become equal to
the height of the optical centre O of the lens from the base of the optical bench. Let the pin P
(placed on left hand side of the lens ) be the object pin and the pin P’ (lying on right hand side)
be the image pin. A small piece of paper is put on one of the pins (say on image pin P’) to
differentiate it from the object pin P’.
6. The object pin P (on left side of the lens) is displaced to a distance slightly less than 2f from
the optical centre O of the lens &the position of the real and inverted image on the other side of
the lens above the image pin P’ is located.
7. Using the method of parallax, the position of the image pin P’ is adjusted such that the image
of the object pin P coincides with the image pin P’.
Note: As the value of u changes from 2f to f, v changes from 2f to infinity. Since the values of u
and v are interchangeable, i.e., the object and image are two conjugate points, therefore it is clear
that complete range of values for both u and v between f and infinity are obtained for a
movement of the object pin over the range 2f to f.
8. The upright position of the object pin, convex lens and image pin on the optical bench are
recorded observation table.
9. The object pin P is moved closer to the optical centre O of the lens (say by 2 cm or 3 cm) &
the experiment is repeated for at least six sets of readings for various distances of object pin
between f and 2f from the lens.
CALCULATIONS

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OBSERVATIONS
Approximate focal length of the convex lens by distant object method = ... …..cm
Object Image
distance
Distance
(v) 1/u 1/v
(u)
[Link].
(cm-1) (cm-1)
(cm)
cm
cm

RESULT
The focal length of the given converging thin convex lens by:
(i) u -v method, f = ............cm
(ii) from u – v graph, f =...............cm, and
(iii) from 1/u – 1/v graph, f =..........cm.
PRECAUTIONS
1. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid and mounted vertically..
2. Parallax should be removed.
3. Optical bench should be leveled.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The uprights may not be vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
3. Optical bench may not be levelled

Experiment. No. 6 Date:

REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM

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AIM
To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given glass prism by plotting a graph
between the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Drawing board, triangular glass prism, metre scale, drawing pins, graph paper, protractor, white
paper sheets

FORMULA

The refractive index of the material of the prism is, μ=

sin ( A+ δ m
2 )
A
sin
2
A – angle of the prism, δ m- angle of minimum deviation
MODEL GRAPH

RAY DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
1. A white sheet of paper is fixed on a drawing board with the help of cello tape or drawing pins.

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2. A straight line XY,is drawn using a sharp pencil nearly in the middle and parallel to the length
of the paper.
3. Points O1, O2, O3. ., . . . . are marked on the straight line XY at suitable distances of about 8 to
10 cm and normals N1 O1, N2 O2, N3O3. . . . drawn on these points .
4. Straight lines, P1 O1, P2 O2, P3 O3, . . . are drawn corresponding to the incident rays making
angles of incidence at 35°, 40°, 45°, 50°, ... 60° respectively with the normals, using a protractor.
The values of the angles P1 O1 N1, P2 O2 N2, P3 O3 N3,...are written on the white paper sheet .
5. The prism is placed with its refracting face AB on the line XY with point O1 in the middle of
AB as shown in the figure. The boundary of the prism is drawn with a sharp pencil.
6. Two pins Pl and Q1 are fixed with sharp tips vertically about 10 cm apart, on the incident ray
line. Pl Ql such that pin Q1 is close to point O1. Closing one eye (say left) and looking through the
prism, right eye is brought in line with the images of the pins Pl and Ql. Pins Rl and Sl are fixed
about 10 cm apart vertically on the white paper sheet with their tips in line with the tips of the
images of pins Pl and Ql. In this way pins R1 and S1 will become collinear, with the images of
pins P1 and Q1.
7. Removing the pins Rl and Sl and encircling their pin pricks on the white paper sheet with the
help of a sharp pencil ,the pins P1 and Q1 are removed and their pin pricks encircled also.
8. The points ( or pin pricks) Rl and Sl is joined with the help of a sharp pencil and scale, to
obtain the emergent ray Rl S l. R1S1 is produced in backwards to meet the incident ray Pl Ql
(produced forward) at T1. Arrowheads are drawn on Pl Ql and R1 S1 to show the direction of the
[Link] Angle of the prism (i) Angle of deviation (δ) rays.
9. The angle of
1 deviation δ1and
the angle BAC
2 (angle A) of
the prism (Fig.
3 1) are
measured with
4 a protractor
and the values
5 of these angles
are indicated in
6 the diagram.
10. Steps 5 to 9
7 are repeated
for different
values of angle
of incidence (40°, 45°, 50°...) and the corresponding angles of deviation δ2, δ3... are measured
with the protractor, and indicated them in the respective diagrams.
11. Observations are recorded in tabular form with proper units and significant figures.

OBSERVATIONS
Angle of the prism, A =

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CALCULATIONS

RESULT
Angle of minimum deviation, δm = ...... degree
The refractive index of glass of the prism = ……………
PRECAUTIONS
1. All pins should be straight fixed vertically to the plane of paper.
2. Drawing board should be leveled.
3. Prism should be clean.
4. Position of the prism should not be disturbed for a given set of observations.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. All pins may not be straight.
2. Drawing board may not be leveled.
3. Prism may be uncleaned and broken.
4. Position of the prism may be disturbed.

Experiment -7 Date:
Refractive index of water using convex lens and a plane mirror

AIM

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To determine the refractive index of a liquid (water) using convex lens and a plane mirror.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Double convex lens (focal length nearly 20 cm), plane mirror (bigger in size than the aperture of
the lens), laboratory stand fixed with a pin in clamp, metre scale, plumb line, water dropper.

FORMULA

1. If f1 is the focal length of the convex lens and F is the focal length of the combination of
convex lens and plano-concave liquid lens, the focal length of the liquid lens f 2 is given
f Ff
by, 2=
1
f
1 −F

2
l ℎ
2. Radius of curvature of convex lens, R= +
6ℎ 2
l = Mean value of distance between the two legs of the spherometer
h = height of bulged part of the lens measured by spherometer.
3. If R is the radius curvature of the face of the convex lens which is in contact with the
liquid, then the refractive index of the liquid is,

RAY DIAGRAM

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PROCEDURE
1. Place the plane mirror on the base of a rigid laboratory stand keeping its reflecting surface
upwards.
2. Place the convex lens on the plane mirror.
3. Fix a sharp-edged bright pin in the clamp and place it horizontally and above the lens. Adjust
the position of the pin such that its tip B lies vertically above the optical centre of the convex
lens. A plumb line and a spirit level may be used to achieve this.
4. Shift the clamped pin gradually upward looking at the image and bring it to a height such that
the tip B of the pin exactly coincides with the tip of its image B. Ensure that there is no
parallax
between the object pin and its image. Measure the distance OF [Fig (a)]. For this, observe the
distances of the pin from the upper and lower surfaces of the lens and take OF = f1 as the average
of these two distances.
5. With the help of a dropper, put a few drops of water under the lens so that the space between
mirror and lens is filled with water.
6. Move the object pin upward and remove the parallax between the tip of the object pin and its
image formed by the lens mirror system. Measure the distance OF[Fig.(b)]. Here again, as
before, measure the distances of the pin from the two surfaces of the lens and take OF’’= F as
their average.
7. Repeat the experiment and record your observations in the Table. ( The radius of curvature
may be measured by Spherometer)

OBSERVATIONS
1. Mean value of distance between the two legs of the spherometer
l = ...cm
2. Mean value of sagitta (bulge of the lens) h = ...cm
3. Mean value of the radius of curvature of the lens R = ...cm

Sl.N0 Position of pin with respect to optical centre O

Without water (OF = f1) With water (OF’ = F)
Distance of the pin from Distance of the pin from
Upper Plane d 1+ d 2 Upper Plane d 3+ d 4
surface Mirror 2 surface Mirror 2
of the d2 (cm) f1 of the d4(cm) F
lens (cm) lens (cm) cm
d1(cm) d3(cm)
1

Mean f2 = --------- cm
RESULT
The refractive index of a given liquid (say water) with respect to air =

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PRECAUTIONS
1. Pin should be kept horizontal and its tip should be above the optical centre of the lens on its
vertical principal axis otherwise it will be difficult to remove the parallax.
2. The thin lens should be used so that the distance measured from its surface is nearly equal to
the distance measured from the optical centre. Still it is better to measure distance from both the
surfaces and take the average for f or f2
3. Water should be gently put between the mirror and the lens surface with the help of a dropper
so that it may fill up the air space between them without disturbing the position of the lens.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Two surfaces of the convex lens may not have the same radius of curvature.
2. The plane mirror may not be horizontal.

Ex. No. 8 Date :

Forward Biased P-N Junction Diode
AIM-To draw the I-V characteristics of PN junction in forward bias and determine static
resistance of the PN junction diode at 7 V.
Materials required: Power Supply (0-30V), Voltmeter (0-30V), Ammeter (mA range),
resistors, p-n junction diode

Theory

Forward Biasing :
Forward biasing occurs when the positive end of the diode is connected to the positive terminal
of the battery, and its negative end to the negative terminal of the battery. Here, majority carriers
from both sides move towards and cross the junction and current flows through the junction. This
current is known as the forward current and is the order of 10-3 A. The size of the depletion layer
decreases in forward biasing.
Reverse Biasing
A pn junction diode is said to be reverse biased when its p region is connected to negative
terminal of the battery and its n region connected to the positive terminal of the battery. Reverse
bias characteristics of pn junction diode shows that a very small current of the order of micro
ampere flows through the circuit due to drift of minority charge carriers
Model Graph

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Circuit diagrams:

Forward bias Reverse Bias

Procedure:

 Connections are made as per the connection diagram.

 Insert the key. Arrange the sliding contact of the rheostat to minimum.
 Now, gently move the rheostat contact to provide a positive bias voltage.
 Note the voltmeter and milli ammeter readings.
 Repeat the process by increasing the forward current in equal steps by changing the
rheostat slider.
 It can be noted that, initially the current increase very slowly. For a certain value of
voltage, it shows a sharp increase. The corresponding voltage represents the knee voltage
of that diode.
 Plot a graph with forward voltage along X axis and forward current along Y axis. The
graph shows the forward V-I characteristics of the given p-n junction diode.

OBSERVATIONS
Forward V-I Characteristics :
Forward bias voltage, Vf Forward current, If
Sl. No.
(V) (mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6

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7
8
9
10

Reverse Bias
Reverse bias voltage, VR Reverse current, IR
Sl. No.
(V) (µA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

CALCULATIONS

RESULT

The forward characteristics and reverse characteristics of the given p-n junction diode is drawn.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Connections should be made neat and clean and as in the circuit diagram.
2. Zero error in measuring instruments (voltmeter and ammeter) should be corrected.
4. The key should be inserted only while taking observations, as excessive flow of current causes
unnecessary heating of the wire.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Connections may not be correct
2. The Ammeter or Voltmeter may have zero error.
3. Keeping the key inserted continuously causes excessive flow of current and may lead the
damage of diode ( even ammeter and voltmeter )

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*****

ACTIVITIES

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