12

CbSE
2025

Physics
Chapterwise Important Formulae,
Common Errors and Frequently Asked
types of Questions

Full Marks
Progressive Educational Publishers
 Contents
1. Electric Charges and Fields........................................................................................................................................ 3

2. Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance................................................................................................................... 5

3. Current Electricity..................................................................................................................................................... 9

4. Physical Education and Sports for CWSN.............................................................................................................. 12

5. Magnetism and Matter............................................................................................................................................. 15

6. Electromagnetic Induction...................................................................................................................................... 17

7. Alternating Current.................................................................................................................................................. 19

8. Electromagnetic Waves........................................................................................................................................... 22

9. Ray Optics............................................................................................................................................................... 24

10. Wave Optics............................................................................................................................................................. 29

11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter...................................................................................................................... 32

12. Atoms...................................................................................................................................................................... 34

13. Nuclei...................................................................................................................................................................... 37

14. Semiconductor Electronics...................................................................................................................................... 39

1 Electric Charges and Fields

Important Formulae

Formulae Symbols Applications

1. q = ± Ne q = Charge, N = number of Charge Quantization of charges
particle
2. q1q2 q1, q2 are point charges, To find force between two point
F= k
r2 F = Force charges
3. F = qE E = Electric Field Relation between F and E
4. q 1 Electric field due to a point charge
E= k k= , r = distance
r2 4πε 0
e0 = Absolute permittivity
 
5. dS = small area to find electric flux
∫ E ⋅ dS = E ∫ dS cos θ
φE = 

6.
φE =
∑q f = Electric flux Gauss theorem
ε0 q = Net Charge enclosed within the
surface
7. λ l = linear charge density Field intensity due to infinitely long
E=
2πε 0 R straight uniformly charged wire
8. q r = radius of Gaussian surface (outside Field intensity due to uniformly
(a) outside the shell: E = k 2 the shell) charged spherical shell
(b) on the shell: r
R = Radius of shell
q s = surface charge density
E = k 2 As q = 4πR 2 σ
R
E = σ / ε 0
(c) inside the shell: E = 0
9. σ E = Electric field Field intensity due to thin infinite
(a) E =
2ε 0 e0 = electric permittivity plane sheet of charge
1 p (b) Electric field at the equator of a
(b) Eequator = dipole
4πε 0 r 3
(c) Electric of the axis of a dipole
1 2p
(c) E axis =
4πε 0 r 3
10. t = p × E = pE sin q p = dipole moment Electric dipole in a uniform electric
t = torque field
11. p = q × 2a 2a = dipole length Dipole moment in electric field

Common Errors
S.No. Errors Corrections
1. Confusion between Electric field intensity & Electric Read the question properly before attempting.
Potential due to electric dipole
2. Method for finding the directions of Electric field. Direction of motion positive charges or decreasing
direction of electric potential
3. Area Vector concept in Gauss Theorem. Area vector is always perpendicular to the surface.
3
 Frequently Asked types of Questions

☞ Important Topics
1. Questions based on Electric field due to a dipole.
2. Questions based on Gauss theorem and its application.
3. Short questions on the dipole moment and torque.
* Maximum weightage is of Application of Gauss’s Law.

1. The figure shows three charges +2q, – q and +3q. Two charges +2q and –q are enclosed within a surface ‘S’. What
is the electric flux due to this configuration through the surface ‘S’?
q
[Ans. ]
ε0
2q S
+3q –q

2. An arbitrary surface encloses a dipole. What is the electric flux through this surface?
[Ans. Zero]
3. If the radius of the Gaussian surface enclosing a charge q is halved, how does the electric flux through the Gaussian
surface change? [Ans. Unchanged]
4. Obtain Coulomb’s laws of electrostatics using Gauss theorem.
5. A point charge +10mC is at a distance of 5 cm directly above the centre of a square of side 10 cm as shown in the
figure. What is the magnitude of the electric flux through the square?
[Ans. 1.88 × 105 Nm2/C]
10 µC

5 cm
D C

A 10 cm B
6. Find the electric field intensity due to a uniformly charged spherical shell at a point (i) outside the shell and
(ii) inside the shell. Plot the graph of electric field with distance from the centre of the shell.
σR 2
[Ans. (i) E = (ii) E = 0]
ε0 r2
7. A pendulum bob of mass 80 mg and carrying charge of 3 × 10–8 C is placed in an horizontal electric field. It comes
to equilibrium position at an angle of 37° with the vertical. Calculate the intensity of electric field. (g = 10 m/s2)
[Ans. 2 × 10–4 N/C]
 qqq

4
2 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance

Important Formulae

Formulae Symbols Application

WAB DV = Potential difference To find the potential difference using
DV = VA – VB = VA = Electric potential at A work done from a point A to a point B
1. q
VB = Electric potential at B
q = Charge
− dV Relation between electric field and
2. E= dV/dr = dipole gradient
dr potential
q Electric potential due to a point
3. V=k r = distance
r charge
p cos θ Electric potential due to dipole at
4. V=k p = dipole moment
r2 any point
C = Capacitance Capacity of isolated spherical
5. C = 4pe0r
r = radius of conductor conductor
ε0 A A = area of plates Capacitance of a parallel plate
6. C=
d d = distance between the plates capacitor
Grouped capacitors: To calculate equivalent capacitance
(a) in series. of a circuit
1 1 1 1 CS = equivalent capacitance in series
7. = + + CP = e quivalent capacitance in
Cs C1 C2 C3
parallel
(b) in Parallel.
CP = C1 + C2 + C3
Energy stored in a capacitor
1 Q2 1 1 U = Electrostatic energy stored in
8. U= = CV 2 = QV
2 C 2 2 capacitor

q1q2 Potential energy of a system of two

U= W= k U = Potential Energy
9. point charges
r12 W = Work done

Energy density of a parallel plate

10. U=
1
ε E2 E = Electric field strength
2 0 capacitor
C1 V1 + C 2 V2 To find common potential due to
11. V= V = Common potential
C1 + C 2 sharing of charge
Loss of energy due to sharing of
12. E – E = C1 C 2 (V1 – V2)
2
Ei – Ef = Loss of energy charges
i f 2 (C1 + C 2)

K = dielectric constant Relation between dielectric constant

13. K = 1 + χ & conducting slab in between
χ = electric susceptibility
C0 t = thickness of slab Capacitance of parallel plate
C=
14. t d = distance between the plates capacitor with conducting slab in
c1– m
d C0 = capacitance between

5
 ε0 A Capacitance of parallel plate
C=
15. 1
d – t c1– m
K = dielectric constant capacitor with dielectric slab in
K between
16. I Values of Difference quantities after introducing slab between the plates of the charged capacitor:
Description When Battery connected When Battery disconnected
(i) Charge KQ0 Q0
(ii) Potential difference V0 V0/K
(iii) Electric field E0 E0/K
(iv) Capacitance KC0 KC0
(v) Energy K times ½e0E2 [Energy is supplied 1/K times ½e0E2 [Energy used for
by battery] Polarization]
Common Errors
S No. Errors Corrections
1. Student can’t differentiate b/w electric potential of a Electric potential of a dipole depends on distance and
dipole and a single charge angle, while potential due to a single charge depends
only on distance.
2. Students get confused b/w the terms electric potential Electric potential is a scalar quantity, while potential
and electric potential gradient. gradient is a vector quantity.
3. Student can’t differentiate b/w the graphs In graph
V q V q
A A A A

q V q V
and
V 1
Slope = =
q capacitance
While in graph
q
Slope = = capacitance
V
4. Effect of dielectric in capacitors Proper polarity for dielectric slab
5. Variation of charge potential, energy, field, While connected p.d is constant and while disconnected
capacitance etc. on connected and disconnected with charge is constant.
battery condition.
6. Numeric Problems based on combination of Three ways of solving networks:
capacitors 1. Solve from one end of the circuit if possible.
2. re-draw the circuit in a simpler way
3. Apply wheatstone’s principle if applicable

6
 Frequently Asked types of Questions

☞ Important Topics
1. Questions based on series and parallel combination of the capacitor. 2. Questions based on Electric Potential of a dipole.
3. Questions based on equipotential. 4. Energy stored in a capacitor.

1. In the following fig. calculate the potential difference across capacitor C2. Given potential at A is 90 V. C1 = 20 µF,
C2 = 30 µF, and C3 = 15 µF. [Ans. 20V]

A
C1 C2 C3

2. Figure shows three circuits, each consisting of a switch and two capacitors initially charged as indicated. After the
switch has been closed, in which circuit (if any) will the charges on the left hand capacitor (i) increase (ii) decrease
(iii) remain same?
S S S

+ + 6Q + + 3Q + +
6Q 2C C 3Q 3C C 2C 2C
6Q 3Q

(a ) (b) (c)

[Ans. (a) remains unchanged, (b) increases, (c) decreases]

3. For what value of C does the equivalent capacitance between A and B is 1 µF in the given circuit?
C 3
A

3
3 3
4 2
B
3 3

All capacitance given in micro Farad (µF)

[Ans. 2 µF]
4. Two metal spheres A and B of radius r and 2r whose centres are separated by a distance of 6r are given charge
Q, are at potential V1 and V2. Find the ratio of V1 / V2. These spheres are connected to each other with the help of a
connecting wire keeping the separation unchanged, what is the amount of charge that will flow through the wire?
V 7 q
[Ans. 1 = , ]
V2 4 3

A B

6r

5. Eight charged water droplets each of radius 1 mm and charge 10 × 10–10C coalesce to form a single drop. Calculate
the potential of the bigger drop. [Ans. 3600 V]
6. Three concentric spherical metallic shells A < B < C of radii a, b, c (a < b < c) have surface densities s, – s and s
respectively. Find (i) the potential of three shells A, B and C. (ii) If shells A and C are at the same potential, obtain
relation between a, b, c.
σ σ 2 σ 2
[Ans. (i) VA = (a – b + c), VB =
ε0 ε 0b
a − b 2 + c 2 , VC =
ε0c
( )
(a – b2 + c2), (ii) c = a + b]

7
 7. Find the potential at A and C in the following circuit:
12V

B
A C
1 mF 5 mF

[Ans. VAB = 10 V, VBC = 2V, When B is earthed VB = 0, VA = 10V and VC = –2V]

8. Two identical parallel plate capacitors connected to a battery with the switch S closed. The S
switch is now opened and the free space between the plates of the capacitors is filled with
dielectric of dielectric constant 3, Find the ratio of the total electrostatic energy stored in E A B
both capacitors before and after the introduction of dielectric.

El 5
[Ans. = ]
E 3
9. Eight charged droplets each of radius 1 mm and charge 10 × 10–10 C coalesce to form a single drop. Calculate the
potential of the bigger drop. [Ans. 3600 V]
10. What potential difference must be applied to produce an electric field that can accelerate an electron to 1/10 of
velocity of light? [Ans. 2.6 × 103 V]
11. A 10 µF capacitor can withstand a maximum voltage of 100 V across it, whereas another 20 µF capacitor can
withstand a maximum voltage of only 25 V. What is the maximum voltage that can be put across their series
combination? [Ans. 75 V]
12. Three concentric spherical metallic shells A < B < C of radii a, b, c (a < b < c) have surface densities s, – s and
s respectively. Find the potential of three shells A, B and C. If shells A and C are at the same potential, obtain
relation between a, b, c.[Ans. c = a + b]
13. Four point charges are placed at the corners of the square of edge a as shown in the figure. Find the work done in

disassembling the system of charges. Ans.

Kq 2
a
( 2−4 J)
–q +q

+q –q

 qqq

8
3 Current Electricity

Important Formulae

Formula Symbols Application

1. Q ne I = current, Q = charged, t = time, To find charge
I= = e = charge of electron
t t
2. V = IR (Ohms law) V = Potential difference, Relation between V and I
R = Resistance

3. I = neAvd (n = number density of vd = Drift Velocity Relation between current and

free electron) A = Areas of cross section drift velocity

4. ρl ml R = Resistance, r = Resistivity Relation between (i) R and r (ii)

R= =
A n e2 τ A t = relaxation time, m = mass of electron R and relaxation time

5. RA m e = charge of electron Relation for resistivity and

ρ= = 2 r = resistivity relaxation time t
l ne τ
6. 1 1 l C = conductance, s = conductivity To find C and s
C= and σ = =
R ρ RA
7. I j = current density Relation between j with Vd and
J= = neVd j = σ E s = conductivity j with E
A
8. Vd eτ m = mobility of electron To find m from Vd
µ= =
E m
9. r = r0 [1 + a (T – T0)} a = temperature coefficient of resistance/ Variation of r with temperature
resistivity
10. R2– R1 T2 – T1 = temperature difference Formula for a
α=
R 1 (T 2 – T1)

11. P = VI = I2 R = V2/R P = electrical power Relation for P with V, I and R

12. (I) V = E – Ir r = internal resistance (I) Current is drawn
(II) V = E + Ir (II) cell is being charged
13. nE n = number of cells in series Current drawn when n identical
I= R = External resistance cells are connected in series
(R + nr)
14. mE m = number of cells in parallel For max. current the external
I= resistance must be equal to the
(mR + r)
total internal resistance
15. mnE m = number of rows For max. current the external
I= n = number of identical cells in each row. resistance must be equal to the
(mR + nr)
total internal resistance

9
16. SI = 0 (Junction rule) SI, algebraic sum of current SV, algebraic Kirchhoff’s law
SV = 0 (loop rule) sum of potential difference
17. P R P, Q, R, S are resistances in four arms of Balanced condition of
= Wheatstone Bridge Wheatstone Bridge
Q S
18.  100 − l  S = Unknown resistance Working condition for
S = R R = Known resistance Wheatstone Bridge
 l 

Common Errors
S No. Errors Corrections
1. Factors affecting the resistance of a resistor, Correct relations of factors affecting specific resistance
difference between resistance and specific or resistivity has to be explained with examples.
resistance etc.
2. Circuit diagram and numericals (Wheatstone Wheatstone's bridge-use ‘Z’ technique for balancing
Bridge) condition
3. Meter Bridge Meter bridge – ratio of resistances should be taken in
corresponding arms.
4. Comparison of drift velocities in series and Use appropriate relation for vd (for series
parallel combination I = neAvd and for parallel vd = Eet/m)
5. Kirchhoff’s rule-sign convention Potential rise in positive and fall is negative conventionally

10
 Frequently Asked types of Questions

☞ Important Topics
1. Questions related to Drift Velocity. 2. Questions on Cells, EMF and Internal Resistance
3. Questions based on Kirchhoff’s Laws and Potentiometer
* Maximum weightage is of Drift velocity of Electrons and Resistivity.

1. The resistance of a platinum wire at a point 0°C is 5.00 ohm and its resistance at steam point is 5.40Ω. When the
wire is immersed in a hot oil bath, the resistance becomes 5.80Ω. Calculate the temperature of the oil bath and
temperature coefficient of resistance of platinum. [Ans. a = 0.004°C–1; T = 200°C]
2. A 16 ohm resistance wire is bent to form a square. A source of emf 9 volt is connected across one of its sides.
Calculate the potential difference across anyone of its diagonals. [Ans. 1 V]
3. A length of uniform ‘heating wire’ made of nichrome has a resistance 72 Ω. At what rate is the energy dissipated
if a potential difference of 120V is applied across (a) full length of wire (b) half the length of wire (wire is cut into
two). Why is it is not advisable to use the half length of wire?
[Ans. (a) 200W (b) 400W. 400W >> 200W but since current becomes
large so it is not advisable to use half the length]

4. Potential difference across terminals of a cell are measured (in volt) 1.6
1.4
against different current (in ampere) flowing through the cell. A graph 1.2
A

was drawn which was a straight line ABC. Using the data given in the 0.8
B
graph, determine (i) the emf. (ii) The internal resistance of the cell.

P.D. (volt)
C
0.4
[Ans. (i) emf = l.4V, (ii) r = 5Ω]
.04 .08 .12 .16 .20 .24 .28
I (ampere)
5. For the circuit given below, find the potential difference between points B and D.
A B
2V, 2Ω

1V, 1Ω 1V, 1Ω

3V, 3Ω
C D
           [Ans. 1.46 Volts]
6. A copper wire of length 3m and radius r is nickel plated till its radius becomes 2r. What would be the effective
resistance of the wire, if specific resistance of copper and nickel are rc and rn respectively?
3ρn ρc
[Ans. R = ]
πr (3ρc + ρn )
2

7. Given two resistors X and Y whose resistances are to be

X Y
determined using an ammeter of resistance 0.5Ω and a A A
voltmeter of resistance 20 kΩ. It is known that X is in the
range of a few ohms, while Y is in the range of several (i)
V
(ii)
V
thousand ohm. In each case, which of the two connection
shown should be chosen for resistance measurement?
[Ans. Small resistance: X will be preferred; large resistance: Y will be preferred]

8. A voltmeter with resistance 500W is used to measure the emf of a cell of internal resistance 4W, What will be the
percentage error in the reading of the voltmeter? [Ans. 0.8%]
 qqq

11
4 Moving Charges and Magnetism

Important Formulae

Formulae Symbols Application

1. Biot Savart Law dB = magnetic field at a point distance r To find magnetic field at a point due to
µ Idl sin θ due to a current element. m0 = permeability current element. To find magnetic field
dB = 0 ×
4π r2 of free space I = current through wire due to a straight line.
q = angle between current element Idl and
position vector r.

2. µ 0 NI a 2 B = magnetic field due to a circular coil Magnetic field at centre, x = 0

B= 3 of N turns at distance x from its centre. µ 0 NI
2 (a 2 + x ) 2
(on its axis) B =
2a
2

a = Radius of coil

3. µ 0 NI B = magnetic field Magnetic field due to a straight conductor

B= r = perpendicular distance from wire to of infinite length
2π r
point of observation.

4. Ampere's circuital law  

 Magnetic field due to a solenoid


 ∫ B.dl = µLine
0I integral of magnetic field on
B = m0 n I
∫ B.dl = µ0I a closed path.
n Æ no. turns per unit length of the coil.

5.    F = Force Force acting on a charge particle in

F = q (v × B)
F = B q v sinf V = Velocity of charge particle magnetic field.
q = charge of the particle

6.     Force on charged particle in simultaneous Total Lorentz force

(
F = q  E + V × B  ) Electric and magnetic field.

7.    F = Magnetic force on a current carrying To find force acting on a current carrying

F = I ( L × B)
conductor of length L conductor in a magnetic field.
F = B I L sin f B = magnetic field.

8. F µ 0 I1 I2 F Force per unit length between two

= = Force per unit length between two parallel current carrying conductors.
l 2π r l
parallel current carrying I1 and I2
r = distance between the conductor.
(q is the angle between perpendicular to the
coil and the magnetic field)

9. t = BINA sin q t = orque experienced by a current loop of Magnetic field due to a straight conductor
area A in magnetic field B of infinite length
N = Number of turns of coil.
I = current

12
10.  ig  S = shunt required, Conversion of Galvanometer into
S= G G = Galvanometer Resistance, Ammeter.
 i − ig 
  ig = maximum current through galvanometer
(0-i) = range of ammeter

11. R = (V/ig) – G R = High resistance in series Conversion of Galvanometer into

Voltmeter.

Common Errors
S.No. Errors Corrections
1. Direction of magnetic field Using thumb rule for finding direction of magnetic field due
to a current carrying conductor
2. Relation between current and voltage sensitivity In numerical the usage of ‘increased by’ and ‘increased to’
must be distinguished.

13
 Frequently Asked types of Questions

☞ Important Topics
1. Questions based on Biot Savart Law.
2. Questions based on working and principle of moving coil Galvanometer.
* Maximum weightage is of Moving Coil Galvanometer.

1. Calculate the magnetic field due to a circular coil of 500 turns and of mean diameter 0.1 m, carrying a current of
14A (i) at a point on the axis distance 0.12m from the centre of the coil (ii) at the centre of the coil.
[Ans. (i) 5.0 × 10–3 Tesla; (ii) 8.8 × 10–2 Tesla]
2. An electron of kinetic energy 10 keV moves perpendicular to the direction of a uniform magnetic field of O.S milli
tesla. Calculate the time period of rotation of the electron in the magnetic field. [Ans. 4.467 × 10–8 s]
3. If the current sensitivity of a moving coil galvanometer is increased by 20% and its resistance also increased by
50% then how will the voltage sensitivity of the galvanometer be affected? [Ans. 25% decrease]
4. What is the magnitude of magnetic force per unit length on a wire carrying a current of 8A and making an angle
of 30° with the direction of a uniform magnetic field of 0.15T? [Ans. 0.6 Nm–1]
5. A straight wire of mass 200g and length 1.5 m carries a current of 2A. It s suspended in mid-air by a uniform
horizontal magnetic field B. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field? [Ans. 0.657 T]
6. A rectangular loop of sides 25 em and 10 em carrying current of 15A is placed with its longer side parallel to a
long straight conductor 2.0 cm apart carrying a current of 25A. What is the new force on the loop?
[Ans. 7.82 × 10–4 N towards the conductor]
7. In a chamber of a uniform magnetic field 6.5G is maintained. An electron is shot into the field with a speed of
4.8 × 106 ms–1 normal to the field. Explain why the path of electron is a circle.
(a) Determine the radius of the circular orbit (e = 1.6 × 10–19 C, me = 9.1 × 10–31 kg)
(b) Obtain the frequency of resolution of the electron in its Circular orbit. [Ans. (i) 4.2 cm, (ii) 1.8 MHz]
 qqq

14
5 Magnetism and Matter

Important Formulae

Formula Symbols Application

1. Magnetic dipole moment of a bar magnet, qm = pole strength In study of bar magnet
m = qm2l 2l = dipole length
2. Magnetic field strength due to a bar magnet m = magnetic dipole moment To find value of B at axial and
(i) At an axial point equator point
 µ 
2mr
B= o 2 2 2
4π (r − l )

µ o 2m
For r >>> l, B =
4π r 3
(ii) On equator,
µ m
B= o
4π (r 2 + l 2 ) 2
3

µo m
For r >>> l, B =
4π r 3
3.    t = Torque To find work done in rotating the
τ=m×B
magnet
4. µ B µr = relative permeability To study magnetic properties like
µr = = susceptibility
µ o Bo
5. Intensity of magnetisation (M) m = mag. dipole moment To study the strength of magnetic
m q V =Volume of the specimen field
M= = m
V A
6. M χm = magnetic susceptibility To classify the magnetic material
χm =
H
7. µr = 1 + cm — To determine characteristic of the
magnetic material

Common Errors
S No. Errors Corrections
1. Forget to convert Take the units in SI system always
2. Dependence of susceptibility and Should draw in proper quadrant – for dia in fourth quadrant and
temperature for para and ferro in first quadrant.

15
 Frequently Asked types of Questions

☞ Important Topics
1. Questions related to Classification of Magnetic Material.
2. Questions based on Properties of diamagnetic, paramagnetic, ferromagnetic.

1. Which of the following substances are diamagnetic?

Bi, Al, Na, Cu, Ca and Ni
2. Will the neon gas be diamagnetic or paramagnetic? Give reason.
3. State and explain Curie law of magnetism.
4. Permanent magnets are made of special alloys while the cores of temporary magnets are made of soft iron. Why?
5. Out of the following, identify the materials which can be classified as: (i) paramagnetic, (ii) diamagnetic:
(a) Aluminium (b) Bismuth (c) Copper (d) Sodium
6. A uniform magnetic field gets modified as shown below when two specimens X and Y are placed in it. Identify
whether specimens X and Y are diamagnetic, paramagnetic or ferromagnetic.

7. What is the magnitude of the equatorial and axial fields due to a bar magnet of length 4 cm at a distance of 40 cm
from its mid point? The magnetic moment of the bar magnet is 0.5 Am2.
[Ans. BE = 7.8125 × 10–7 T; BA = 15.625 × 10–7 T]
 qqq

16
6 Electromagnetic Induction

Important Formulae

Formula Symbols Application

1. dφ e = induced emf. Faraday's law of electromagnetic
ε= induction:
dt
2. e = – B l v B = magnetic field Motional emf
V = Velocity
l = length of the metal rod
3. V = ½ B w l2 V = e mf developed between the ends of the rod. To find emf developed between the
w = angular velocity end of the rod rotating in the magnetic
l = length of the rod field.

4. f = LI f = Magnetic flux Relation between f and L

L = Self-Inductance of the coil

5. e = – L dl/dt L = Self-Inductance of the coil. To find self-induced emf in a coil.

6. e = – M dl /dt M12 = Coefficient of mutual inductance Self-induced of a solenoid

1 12 2
dI 2
= Rate of charge of current in the secondary
dt
coil

7. L = m m n2 Al mr = Relative permeability Self inductance of along solenoid

r 0
m0 = permeability of free

8. e = nB A w sin wt n = no. of turns of the coil Equation of a.c. generator

(w = 2 pn) B = magnetic field
A = area of the coil
v = frequency of AC

9. 1 2 U = Energy stored in inductor To find energy stored in the inductor

U= LI in its magnetic field.
2

Common Errors
S No. Errors Corrections
1. Applications of Lenz's Law Current should be marked in such a way to oppose the
increase or decrease of flux.

17
 Frequently Asked types of Questions

☞ Important Topics
1. Working and principle of A.C. Generator. 2. Working and principle of Transformer.
3. Questions based on induced emf and self / mutual induction.
* Maximum weightage is of Inductance.

1. The coefficient of self-induction of a coil is 0.015 henry (H). If the current changes from 0.20 A to 1.0 A in
0.010 sec, what is the emf induced? [Ans. 1.2 V]
2. What is the maximum induced emf in a 400-turn coil of area 400 cm2 revolving at 30 rps about an axis in the plane
of coil and perpendicular to a field of 0.050 tesla(T)? [Ans. 150 V]
3. If you have one 4-H and one 12-H inductor, what inductances can you achieve by using them together? What
configurations would you use to obtain these inductances? [Ans. Series, 15H, parallel, 3 H]
4. What is the maximum flux through a coil that has an area of 400 cm2 and a value of 0.500 T (weber/m2) for B?
[Ans. 0.020 Wb]
5. What is the energy required to establish a magnetic field by a 5.00 H inductor carrying a current of 10.0 A?
[Ans. 250 J]
6. The north pole of a bar magnet is inserted in a flat coil (closed) of 20 turns resting on a table. If the flux changes
from 10–4 Wb to 10–3 Wb in 0.25 sec, what is the induced emf? What is the direction of the induced current in the
coil as you look down upon the coil-Clockwise or counterclockwise? [Ans. 0.07 V, counterclockwise]
7. A search coil has 60 turns, each of an area of 5 cm2. It is moved from a magnetic field of 0.5 Wb/m2 to one of
0.0 Wb/m2 in 0.15 msec. What is the induced emf? [Ans. 100 V]
8. A coil with a radius of 2.00 cm and 20.0 turns is removed from a magnetic field of 0.300 T in 4.00 msec. Find the
emf induced in the coil. [Ans. 1.88 V]
9. A rectangular coil of 100 turns has dimensions of 10 cm by 15 cm. It rotates about an axis through the midpoint of
the short sides. The axis of rotation is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field of strength 0.50 T, and
it is rotating at 600 rpm.
(a) When is the emf induced in the coil a maximum?
(b) Is the induced emf ever zero? If so, when?
(c) What is the maximum induced emf?
[Ans. (a) when f = 0 and Δf/Δt is max; (b) yes: when f is max, and Δf/Δt = 0; (c) 47 V]

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18
7 Alternating Current

Important Formulae

Formula Symbols Application

1. 2 I = average current To fined current in the circuit
Iav = I = 0.637 I0 I0 = Peak current
π 0

2. I0 Iv = virtual current To find peak or max. value of

Ieff or Irmsor Iv = = 0.707 I0 Irms = Root mean square current current
2
Ieff = Effective current

3. LR circuit Z = Impedance (ohm) To draw Phasor diagram

V To determine power factor
(i) Z = rms = R 2 + XL2
I rms
Where XL = wL
w = Angular frequency (rad/s)
V rms
(ii) Irms = f = Phase angle
Z L = Inductance (Henry)
X ωL cos f = Power factor
(iii) tan f = L =
R R
(iv) cos f = R
Z
4. RC circuit C = capacitance (Farad) To determine Instantaneous
V current
(i) Z = rms = R 2 +X C2
I rms
1
Where XC =
ωC
X 1/ωC
(ii) tan f = C = I = Instantaneous current
R R
(iii) I = I0 sin (wt + f)

5. LCR circuit To find impedance and phase

V rms difference between V & I.
= R 2 + (X L − X C )
2
(i) Z = I
rms
X L –X C
(ii) tan f =
R
(iii) cos f = R
Z
Z
XL–XC
f
R
6. 1 Tuning of a radio receiver
Resonant frequency, fr =
2π LC

19
 Common Errors
S No. Errors Corrections
1. Confusion in Instantaneous Peak and rms. If not specified, the current or voltage marked (or voltage with
value of AC current/voltage. frequency should be considered as r.m.s.
2. AC through pure inductor and capacitor Voltages across different elements should be added vectorially
phase difference between voltage and current only.
3. Numerical problems based on LCR series Conversion of units into SI and proper calculation should be
circuit (condition of resonance), power factor done.

20
 Frequently Asked types of Questions

☞ Important Topics
1. Questions based on peak and rms values. 2. Questions based on LCR-Circuit.
3. Questions based on Q-factor and phasor diagram.
* Maximum weightage is of AC Voltage to a Series LCR Circuit.

1. A coil of wire has a resistance of 30.0 W and an inductance of 0.100 H.

(a) What is its inductive reactance if connected to a 60-cycle line?
(b) What is its impedance?
(c) What would the current be if the coil were connected to a 120-V DC line?
(d) What would the current be if it were to a 120-V AC, 60-cycle line?
[Ans. (a) 37.7 Ω; (b) 48.2 Ω; (c) 4 A; (d) 2.49 A]
2. A 120-W rheostat and a 15 mF capacitor are connected in a series circuit to 120-V, 60-cycle emf.
(a) What is the reactance of the capacitor?
(b) What is the total impedance of the circuit?
(c) What is the current through the circuit?
(d) What is the voltage drop across each circuit element?
[Ans. (a) 177 Ω; (b) 214 Ω; (c) 0.561 A; (d) VC = 99.3 V, VR = 67.3 V]
3. If a 110-V line is connected to the primary of a step-up transformer, it delivers 2 amps on the secondary coil. The
ratio of turns on the two windings is 25. Assume no losses in the transformer. Find
(a) the secondary voltage (b) the primary current
[Ans. (a) 2750 V; (b) 50 A]
4. What is the impedance of a circuit which has a resistance of 30 Ω and an inductive reactance of 40 Ω?
[Ans. 50 Ω]
5. What is the phase angle for a circuit that has an inductance reactance of 30 Ω, a capacitive reactance of 20 Ω and
20 Ω resistance? [Ans. f = 26.6°, voltage leads current]
6. What is the capacitance needed in a circuit to produce resonance in a 60-cycle circuit having an inductance of 1
H? [Ans. 7.04 mF]
7. What is the ratio of primary turns to secondary turns in a transformer which is designed to operate a 6-V bell system
when connected to a 114-V line? [Ans. 19:1]
8. What is the reactance of a 2.00-μF capacitance at a frequency of 1, 60, 440, 106 Hz? What does this indicate?
[Ans. 7.96 × 104 Ω, 1.3 × 103 Ω, 181 Ω, 7.96 × 10–2 Ω]
9. A step-up transformer has a turns ratio of 200:1, and 100 V are applied to the primary side of this transformer.
(a) Find the secondary output voltage.
(b) If the secondary current is 100 mA, find the primary current.
(c) Find the power output of the transformer. [Ans. (a) 2 × 104 V; (b) 20 A; (c) 2 × 103 watts]

 qqq

21
8 Electromagnetic Waves

Important Formulae

Formula Symbols Application

1. 1 c is the speed of electromagnetic To find speed of e.m. wave
c= wave in vacuum, m0 is permeability in vacuum.
µ0 ε0
constant and e0 is the permittivity
constant for vacuum.
2. 1 n is the speed of electromagnetic T o f i n d s p e e d o f
ν= electromagnetic wave in
µε wave in material medium.
material medium.
3. Laws at a glance fB = Flux in magnetic field Used in various electric
(i) ∫ B · dA = 0 (Gauss’s Law for electricity) and magnetic field related
S problems.

(ii) ∫ B · dA = 0 (Gauss’s Law for magnetism) fE = Flux in electric field

S

– dφ B
(iii) ∫ E ⋅ dl =
dt
(Faraday’s Law)
S
dφ ε
(iv) ∫ B ⋅ dl = m0ic + m0 e0
S dt
(Ampere – Maxwell Law)
4. Speed of an e.m. wave in vacuum B0 = amplitude of the magnetic To determined speed of
E field in vacuum light
c= 0
B0

5. Equation of a plane e.m. wave is k = propagation vector To determine frequency

By = B0 sin (wt ± kx) angular frequency and
Ez = E0 sin (wt ± kx) wavelength of e.m. wave.

2p 2π
w = 2pn = , k=
T λ

Common Errors
S. No. Errors Corrections
1. Confusion in direction of propagation of wave From phase term, direction of propagation of wave is
obtained and
2. Directions of magnetic and electric fields. From the unit vector, direction of fields can be obtained.
3. Electromagnetic spectrum in the order of increasing Either the order of frequency or the wavelength should be
or decreasing wavelength or frequency remembered from which the other can be calculated.

22
 Frequently Asked types of Questions

☞ Important Topics
1. Questions related to Electromagnetic Spectrum.
2. Questions on arranging of wavelength and frequency of emw in decreasing or increasing order.
3. Questions based on formula v = nl.
* Maximum weightage is of Electromagnetic Waves.

1. Electromagnetic waves with wavelength:

(a) l1 are used to treat muscular strain.
(b) l2 are used by a FM radio station for broadcasting.
(c) l3 are used to detect fracture in bones.
(d) l4 are absorbed by the ozone layer of the atmosphere.
Identify and name the part of electromagnetic spectrum to which these radiation belong. Arrange these wavelengths
in decreasing order of magnitude.
[Ans. (a) l1, Infrared radiations, (b) l2, VHF radiowaves, (c) l3, X-rays, (d) l4, Ultraviolet rays. The wavelengths in
decreasing order of magnitude are: l2 > l1 > l4 > l3 ]
2. Identify the type of e.m. waves, whose method of production, is associated with
(a) a klystron value
(b) vibrations of atoms and molecules
(c) decay of atomic nuclei.
Also give the approximate range of wavelength of each of these e.m. waves.
[Ans. (a) Microwaves, l from 0.1 m to 1 mm, (b) Infrared radiation, l from 1 mm to 700 nm,
(c) Gamma rays, l < 10–3 nm]
3. In an electromagnetic wave propagating along the x-direction, the magnetic field oscillates at a frequency of
3 × 1010 Hz and has an amplitude of 10–7 tesla, acting along the y-direction.
(a) What is the wavelength of the wave?
(b) Write the expression representing the corresponding oscillating electric field.
[Ans. (a) l = 100 cm (b) Ez= 30 sin 2p (3 ×1010t – 100x)Vm–1 ]
4. The amplitude of the magnetic field part of a harmonic electromagnetic wave in vacuum is B0 = 510 nT. Waht is
the amplitude of the electric field part of the wave? [Ans. 153 NC–1]
5. Suppose that the electric field amplitude of an electromagnetic wave is E0 =  120 NC and that its frequency is
–1

u = 50.0 MHz. (a) Determine, B0, w, k and l. (b) Find expressions for E and B
[Ans. (a) B0 = 4 × 10–7 T, w = 3.14 × 108 rad s–1, k = 1.05 m–1, l = 6.00 m,
 
(b) B = 4 × 10–7 sin (1.05x – 3.14 × 108t) j T]
6. What is the cut-off frequency beyond which the ionosphere does not reflect electromagnetic radiations?
[Ans. Ionosphere cannot reflect electromagnetic radiations having frequency higher than 40 MHz]
7. What is the nature of the waves used in radar? What is their wavelength range?
[Ans. Microwaves. These are electromagnetic waves of the wavelength range 10–3 m to 0.3 m.]

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23
9 Ray Optics

Important Formulae

Formula Symbols Application

1 1 1 u = object distance
1. Mirror formula + = v = image distance, To find focal length of mirror
v u f
f = focal length of the mirror
v m = magnification
m= - To find magnification caused by a
2. u m is negative for real images and
mirror
+ ve for virtual images
— To determine focal length of a
3. f = R
2 mirror
Linear magnification for mirror
hi = height of image To find height of object/image (+ve in
4. m = hi = –v = –f = f–v
h0 u f–u f ho = height of object case of mirror)

real depth To assess the depth of an object in

5. µ =
apparent depth a medium
 1
6. Normal shift d = t 1 −  t = thickness To find refractive index
 µ 
1 To study total internal reflection.
7. µ = ic = critical angle
sin ic Optical fibres
8. d = t sec r sin (i – r) d = lateral shift To study bending of light rays
When object is situated in rarer
medium
− µ1 µ 2 µ 2 − µ1 µ2 = refractive index of denser
+ =
u v R medium To find value of u or v or R, while
9.
When object is situated in denser µ1 = refractive index of rarer two of them are given.
medium medium
− µ 2 µ1 µ1 − µ 2
+ =
u v R
1  µ 2 − µ1   1 1  R1, R2 = Radius of curvature
=  −  f = focal length of the lens m1, m2 = Lens makers formula. To find focal
10. f  µ1   R 1 R 2 
Refractive index of medium 1 and 2 length of lens
respectively
1 1 1
11. Lens formula = − — To find the focal length of lenses
f v u
Linear magnification for lens
12. m = hi = v = f = f–v — To determine liear magnification
ho u f+u f
1 1 1 1 f = effective focal length of
= + + To find focal length of the
13. f f1 f 2 f 3 combination
combination of lenses.
f1, f2, f3 = focal length of objective

24
 Simple microscope:
D
m = 1 + , when image at ‘D’ Used as reading glass and in
14. f D=L
 east distance of distinct vision
D laboratory
m = , when normal adjustment
f

Compound microscope:
(i) Final image at near point ‘D’
v  D L  D To study the biological specimen
m = 0 1 +  = 1 + 
u0  fe  fo  fe  To select the lens of required focal
15. L = length of the tube of microscope
length
(ii) For normal adjustment
Used by jewellers and watch makers
v D L D
m= 0 ×  ×
u0 f e f o f e

m: magnifying power of a compound

microscope
–L D fo = focal length of objective To find magnifying power of a
16. m=
fo
×
fe fe = focal length of eyepiece compound for normal adjustment.
L = Distance between objective lens
and eye lens
m = magnifying power of a telescope
fe = focal length of eyepiece
β f b = angle subtended at the eye by To find magnifying power of a
17. m= = o
α − fe
the image telescope. For normal adjustment.
a = angle subtended at the eye by
the object
Astronomical Telescope:
When final image is formed at least
distance of distinct vision:
f  f 
m = − o 1 + e  Used in astronomical research.
fe  D
18. To find separation between objective
magnifying power in normal
and eyepiece lenses.
adjustment
f
m=− o
fe

i Æ angle of incidence
e Æ angle of emergence
19. –i + –e = –A + –d For a prism
A Æ angle of prism
d Æ angle of deviation
20. i = e, r1 = r2 At minimum deviation. For a prism
 A + δm  A = Angle of prism
sin  
µ  2  m2 = refractive index of prism To find refractive index by
21. µ 21 = 2 =
A
µ1 sin m1 = refractive index of medium using a prism.
2 dm = angle of minimum deviation.
d = dv – dr
d = Angular dispersion
22. ω = δ v − δ r = µ v − µ r To find the dispersive power
w = Dispersive power
δy µy −1

25
 Common Errors

S No. Errors Corrections

1. Directions of ray diagrams Arrow marks should be shown in ray diagrams to
represent the direction of the ray of light
2. Numerical Problem based on lens/mirror formula. Proper sign convention should be used.
3. Dispersive power of microscope and telescope. Check the positive and negative sign properly.

26
 Frequently Asked types of Questions

☞ Important Topics
1. Questions related to Critical angle, TIR, Glass Prism.
2. Questions on mirror formula, lens maker formula.
3. Questions based on microscope, telescope.
4. Numerical questions based on refraction on spherical surface (both convex and concave).

1. An object of length 2.5 cm is placed at a distance of 1.5 f from a concave mirror where f is the focal length of the
mirror. The length of object is perpendicular to principal axis. Find the size of image. Is the image erect or inverted?
2. Find the size of image formed in the situation shown in figure. [Ans. 5 cm, Inverted]

1.5 cm 40 cm
20 cm
O C 1.6 cm approx.
µ1 = 1 µ2 = 1.33

3. A ray of light passes through an equilateral prism in such a manner that the angle of incidence is equal to angle of
emergence and each of these angles is equal to 3/4 of angle of prism. Find angle of deviation. [Ans. 30°]
4. A light ray passes from air into a liquid as shown in figure. Find refractive index of liquid.
[Ans. airµliquid = 3/ 2 ]

60° Air

Liquid
15
°

5. At what angle with the water surface does fish in figure see the setting sun?
µ = 1 air Sun

Water µw = 4/3

[Ans. At critical angle, fish will see the sun.]

6. In the following diagram, find the focal length of lens L2 . [Ans. 40 cm]

0 cm
f1 = 2
o
L1
I′ I
L2
15 cm

20 cm 80 cm

7. Using the data given below. State which two of the given lenses will be preferred to construct a (i) telescope (ii)
Microscope. Also indicate which is to be used as objective and as eyepiece in each case.

27
 Lenses Power (P) Aperture (A)
L1 6D 1 cm
L2 3D 8 cm
L3 10 D 1 cm
[Ans. For telescope, less L2 is chosen as objective as it aperture is largest, L3 is chosen as eyepiece as its focal length is
smaller.
For microscope lens L3 is chosen as objective because of its small focal length and lens L1, serve as eyepiece
because its local length is not larges.]
8. Two thin converging lens of focal lengths 15 cm and 30 cm respectively are held in contact with each other. Calculate
power of the combination. [Ans. P = 10 D]

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28
10 Wave Optics

Important Formulae

Formulae Symbols Application

1. A2 = a12 + a22 + 2a1a2 cos f A = Resultant amplitude To determine ratio of the intensities
Or I = Intensity or amplitude of the resultant wave.
I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos f
2. 2π Df = Phase difference To determine wavelength
Df = ∆x Dx = path difference
λ
3. Imax = Max. intensity To find ratio of max. and min.
I max (a + b) 2 Imin = Min. intensity intensity
=
I min (a – b) 2 a,b = respective amplitudes
4. (i) Condition for max. intensity at a To determine the position of bright
point in interference and dark fringes.
Df = 2np; Dx = nl
where n = 0, 1, 2, ...
(ii) Condition for min. intensity at a
point in interference
λ
Df = (2n –1) p; Dx = (2n –1)
2
5. In YDSE: For Bright fringe yn = distance of nth bright fringe To determine the wavelength of a
λD from the center monochromatic light
(i) yn = n
d qn = Angular position of nth bright To determine the angular width of
yn nλ fringe a fringe.
(ii) qn = =
D d
For dark fringe: n = order of fringe To find l and q
λD
(i) yn = (2n –1)
2d
y ( − 1) λ
2 n
(ii) qn = n =
D 2d
6. λD b = fringe width To find fringe width for interference
β= fringes
d l = wavelength of light
D = distance between the slits and
the screen
d = distance between the slits
7. Diffraction of light: y = Distance of nth secondary max. In study of bending of light ray
n
λD from the centre of the screen
(i) yn = (2n + 1)
2a qn = 
Angular position of nth
secondary maximum
( 2n + 1) λ
(ii) qn =
2a

29
 (iii) Width of central maxima a = Slit width In study of spreading of light
2λD
= a
(iv) Width of secondary maxima or
minima
λD
=
a

Common Errors
S No. Errors Corrections
1. Differences between Interference and Differences should be learnt with the help of graphs or patterns.
Diffraction
2. Forgot to recognised the fringe type i.e. Highlight the type of fringe in the exam question paper with
bright or dark, and always applied the slight pencil mark.
formula for bright fringes
3. Student get confussed between linear width Central max. of a diffraction battern is twice the secondary max.
of central max. (b0) and linear width of b0 = 2b
secondary max. (b)

30
 Frequently Asked types of Questions

☞ Important Topics
1. Questions related to Y.D.S.E., Single slit. 2. Questions on Huygen’s principle and interference.
3. Questions based Fringe width.

1. Write two difference between interference and diffraction.

2. Red light of wavelength 750 nm enters a glass plate of refractive index 1.5. If the velocity of light in vacuum is
3 × 108 ms–1, calculate in the glass (i) frequency (ii) velocity and (iii) wavelength of light. [Ans. (i) 4 × 1014 Hz,
(ii) 2 × 108 ms–1, (iii) 500 nm]
3. The two slits in Young’s double slit experiment are separated by a distance of 0.03 mm. An interference pattern
is produced on a screen 1.5 m away. The 4th bright fringe is at a distance of 1 cm from the central maximum.
Calculate the wavelength of light used.  [Ans. 500 Å]
4. Two wavelengths of sodium light 590 nm, 596 nm are used, in turn, to study the diffraction taking place at slit
and the screen is 1.5 m. Calculate the separation between the positions of first maximum of the diffraction pattern
obtained in the two cases.  [Ans. 6.77 mm]
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31
11 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter

Important Formulae

Formula Symbols Application

1. c E = energy of photon, To find the energy of photon
E = hv = h
λ h = Planck’s constant,
v = frequency
2. W0 = hv0 = hc/l0 W0 = work function Relation between work function and v0, l0
v0 = threshold frequency
l0 = threshold wavelength
3. 1 Kmax = Maximum kinetic Einstein's photoelectric equation.
Kmax = mv 2 max energy of emitted
2
electrons
  = hn – W0 = h (n –n0)
4. 1 e = charge of electron Relation between maximum kinetic energy and
Kmax = mv 2 max = eV0 stopping potential.
2
5. l = wavelength of matter de Broglie wavelength for matter wave.
h h
λ= or λ = wave
mv p p = Momentum
6. h h E = Kinetic energy
λ= = Relation between l and E, V
2 mE 2mqV V = accelerating potential

h 12.27 de Broglie wavelength for electron when accelerated

7. λ = ,λ= Å V = accelerating potential
2meV V through a potential difference of V volt.

Common Errors
S.No. Errors Corrections
1. Explanation of laws of Photo Electric Effect Graphical treatment should be explained with different
using Einstein equation factors and drawing the conclusions
2. Graph between stopping potential and frequency Calculation of slope of the graph

32
 Frequently Asked types of Questions

☞ Important Topics
1. Questions on Einstein equation of photoelectric emission.
2. Questions based on de Broglie waves, stopping potential.
* Maximum weightage is of Experimental study of Photoelectric Effect.

1. Ultraviolet light of wavelength 350 nm and intensity 1 W/m2 is directed at a potassium surface having work function
2.2 eV.
(i) Find the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectron.
(ii) If 0.5 percent of the incident photons produce photoelectric effect, how many photoelectrons per second are
emitted from the potassium surface that has an area 1 cm2 .
photoelectron
[Ans. (i) KEmax. = 1.3 eV; (ii) n = 8.8 × 1011 ]
second
2. A metal surface illuminated by 8.5 × 1014 Hz light emits electrons whose maximum energy is 0.52 eV the same
surface is illuminated by 12.0 × 1014 Hz light emits electrons whose maximum energy is 1.97eV. From these data
find work function of the surface and value of Planck's constant. [Ans. Work Function = 3eV]
3. An electron and photon each have a wavelength of 0.2 nm. Calculate their momentum and energy.
[Ans. (i) 3.3 x 10–24 kgm/s; (ii) 6.2 k eV for photon; (iii) 38 eV for electron]
4. What is the (i) Speed (ii) Momentum (iii) de Broglie wavelength of an electron having kinetic energy of 120 eV?
[Ans. (i) 6.5 × 106 m/s; (ii) 5.92 × 10–24 kg m/s; (iii) 0.112 nm.]
5. If the frequency of incident light in photoelectric experiment is doubled then does the stopping potential become
double or more than double, justify? [Ans. More than double]
6. A proton is accelerated through a potential difference V. Find the percentage increase or decrease in its de Broglie
wavelength if potential difference is increased by 21 %. [Ans. 9.1%]
7. For what Kinetic energy of a neutron will the associated de Broglie wavelength be 5.6 ×10 m?–10

2
 6.6251 × 10 −34 
2
h  h 1 1
[Ans. 2mn × K.E. = ⇒ K.E. =   × =  = 3.351 × 10–21 J]
λ  λ 2mn −10 
 5.61 × 10  2 × 1.675 × 10 −27

M 2M
8. A nucleus of mass M initially at rest splits into two fragments of masses and . Find the ratio of de Broglie
wavelength of the fragments. 3 3
[Ans. Following the law of conservation of momentum,
2M
ν
M 2M M 2M h λ1 3 2 λ 2 ν2
ν + ν = 0 or ν1 = ν2 ; λ = ⇒ = fi 1 =
3
1
3
2
3 3 m ν λ M λ2 ν1
2 ν
3 1
9. An electron and a proton are possessing same amount of K.E., which of the two have greater de-Broglie, wavelength?
Justify your answer.
Ans. Ee = 1 me νe2 and E p = 1 m p ν2p ⇒ νe me = 2 Ee me and m p ν p = 2 E p m p
2 2
λe mp
But. Ee = Ep ⇒ = >1 \ le > lp.
λp me
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33
12 Atoms

Important Formulae

Formula Symbols Application

1. k4Z e 2 To find the distance of closest

r0 = k=
1 ,
mv 2 4πε0 approach r0.

Z = Atomic number of element.

m = mass of electron,
v = velocity of electron.

2. k Z e 2 cot θ/2 b = impact parameter To find the impact parameter

b=
1 q = scattering angle
mv 2
2

3. n2 h2 rn = Radius of nth orbit Bohr’s radius (Z =1 n =1)

rn =
4π mk Ze 2
2
r0 = 0.53 Å

n2
r∝
Z

4. 2πkZe 2 En = Total energy of an electron in nth orbit.

v=
nh
c
v µ Z/n, v =
137n

5. 2π 2 mk 2 Z 2 e 4 En = Total energy of electron in nth orbit.

En = – En = −
13.6
Total energy of
n2 h2 n2
E µ Z2/n2 electron in nth orbit for hydrogen.

6. kZe 2 1 Kinetic energy of electron

K.E = k= , Z = Atomic number of element
2r 4πε0 Relation between K.E. and total
K.E = – En energy

7. kZe 2 En = Total Energy Potential energy of electron

P.E = –
r relation between P.E. and total
P. E. = 2 En energy

8. 1 1 l = Wavelength of emitted radiation. 1

1
=R 2 − 2 = Wave number
λ
λ  n1 n2  R = Rydberg's constant
Lyman series : n1 = 1, n2 = 2, 3, 4...
Balmer series : n1 = 2, n2 = 3, 4,
5...

34
9. (i) Kinetic energy (K.E) K.E = Kinetic energy Relation among K.E., P.E and T.E.
= – Total Energy (T.E) T.E = Total energy
P.E. = Potential energy
(ii) Potential energy (P.E)
= 2 × Total Energy

Common Errors
S No. Errors Corrections
1. Student forget to convert from eV to Joule Use 1eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J
2. Students get confused in Ground state and first excited For ground state n = 1
state. For first excited state n = 2

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 Frequently Asked types of Questions

☞ Important Topics
1. Questions related to Total energy of an electron, radius of hydrogen atom.
1 1 1
2. Questions on Rydberg formula =R 2 − 2
λ  n1 n2 
3. Questions based on Energy level diagram.
* Maximum weightage is of Bohr Model of Hydrogen Atom.

1. Calculate the radius of the third Bohr orbit of hydrogen atom and energy of electron in that orbit.
[Ans. r3 = 4775 Å and E3 = – 2.43 × 10–19 J]
2. Calculate the longest and shortest wavelength in the Balmer series of Hydrogen atom. Rydberg
constant = 1.098 × 107 m–1.[Ans. l1 = 6563 Å, lS = 3646 Å]
3. What will be the distance of closest approach of a 5 MeV proton as it approaches a gold nucleus?
[Ans. 4.55 × 10–14 m]
4. A 12.5 MeV alpha-particle approaching a gold nucleus is deflected by 180°. What is the closest distance to which
it approaches the nucleus? [Ans. 1.82 × 10–14 m]
5. Determine the speed of the electron in n = 3 orbit of hydrogen atom. [Ans. 7.29 × 105 ms–1]
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13 Nuclei

Important Formulae

S.NO. Formula Symbols Application

Relation between Radius of
1. R = R0 A1/3 R0 = 1.2 × 10–15 m
nucleus and mass number
2. m Density of a nucleus
ρ= r = Nuclear density,
4 m = average
π R 03
3 mass of a nucleon.
3. ∆m = [Zmp + (A–Z)mn]– MN MN = Mass of nucleus • To find Q-value
• In nuclear reactor
4. (i) B.E. = D m c2 B.E. = Binding Energy Relation between binding energy
B.E. Dm = mass defect and mass defect.
(ii) B=
A 1. a.m.u = 931.5 MeV
B = Binding energy per nucleon • To study nuclear forces

Common Errors
S No. Errors Corrections
1. Students get confused in use of the term nucleons. Nucleons indicates both protons and neutrons.

2. In deciding the value of N. N denotes the numer of the remaining nuclei at any
instant t.

37
 Frequently Asked types of Questions

☞ Important Topics
1. Binding Energy
2. Q-value

1. Identify the nuclides X and Y in the nuclear reactions:

8 14
      11 1
5 B + 1H 4 Be + X; 6 C Y + –01 e [Ans. X = 24 He and Y = 14
7 N]

2. What do you mean by Q-value of a nuclear reaction?

[Ans. The amount of energy released or absorbed in a nuclear reaction is called its Q-value.
a B b
A
Nucleus + Elementary Nucelus Q
+ Elementary + Energy ]
particle particle

3. Binding energy of 2He4 and 3Li7 nuclei are 27.37 MeV and 39.4 MeV respectively. Which of the two nuclei is more
stable? Why? [Ans. 2He4, because its BE/nucleon is greater]

4. Find the binding energy and binding energy per nucleon of nucleus 83Bi209. (Given: mass of proton = 1.0078254
u, mass of neutron = 1.008665u, mass of 83Bi209 = 208.980388u.)  [Ans. 1639.38 MeV and 7.84 MeV/Nucleon]

5. Is the fission of iron (26Fe56) into (13Al28) as given below possible?

         26
Fe56 Æ 13Al28 + 13A128 + Q
Given mass of 26Fe56 = 55.934940 and 13AI28 = 27.98191 u
[Ans. Since Q value comes out negative, so this fission is not possible]
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14 Semiconductor Electronics

Important Formulae

Formulae Symbols Application

1. ne = nh ne = free electron density Intrinsic semiconductors
nh = hole density
2. ne < nh p - type semiconductors
3. ne > nh n - type semiconductors
4. ne.nh = ni2 ni = density of Intrinsic carriers Relation between charge carriers
5. I = Ie + Ih Ie = current through electrons Current through a semiconductor
I = neeAVde + nheAVdh Ih = current through holes
Vde = Drift velocity of electrons
Vdh = Drift velocity of holes
6. s = e(neme + nhmh) m = mobility To determine mobility and conductivity
s = conductivity of a semiconductor

Common Errors
S.No. Error Correction
1. Energy level diagram for Extrinsic and intrinsic Labelling of acceptor and donor level in the energy band
semiconductor diagrams.

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 Frequently Asked types of Questions

☞ Important Topics
1. Questions based on diodes and rectifiers.

1. Mobilities of electrons and holes in a sample of intrinsic germanium at room temperature are 0.54 m2 V–1 s–1 and
0.18 m2 V–1s–1 respectively. If the electron and hole densities are equal to 3.6 × 1019 m–3, calculate the germanium
conductivity.  [Ans. 4.147 Sm–1]
2. The V–I characteristic of a silicon diode is given in figure. Calculate the diode resistance in:
(a) forward bias at V = ± 2 V and V = + 1V, and (b) reverse bias V = – 1V and –2V.
Ge-diode
Si-diode
80 ∆I
70

Milliampere
60 ∆V

(mA)
50
40
30
V (Reverse bias) 20
–3 –2 –1 10
1 2 3
– 0.5 Volts
– 1.0 V (Forward bias)
Cut-in voltage
– 1.5
Microampere
(µA)
Breakdown

[Ans. (a) rrb (at + 2V) = 20W,rrb = (at + 1V) = 40W, (b) rrb (– 2V) = 8 × 106W, rrb = (– 1V) = 8 × 106W]
3. Explained the working of ‘Full wave rectifier’ with circuit diagram.
4. Differentiate between the following:
(i) Conduction Band and Valence Band
(ii) Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor
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