Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

MODULE 1 : Coulomb’s Law, Electric Field Intensity and Flux Density

1.1 Experimental Law of Coulomb

1.1 .1 Force on a point charge

1.1 .2 Force due to several charges

1.2 Electric field intensity

1.2 .1 Electric Field intensity due to several charges

1.2 .2 Electric Field intensity at a point due to infinite sheet

of charge

1.2 .3 Electric Field at a point on the axis at a charges

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circular ring

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1.3 Electric Flux

1.4 Electric Flux Density

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1.1 Experimental law of Coulomb

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Coulomb’s law states that the electrostatic force F between two point charges q1 and q2 is
directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges, and inversely proportional
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to the square of the distance between them., and it acts along the line joining the two charges.
Then, as per the Coulomb’s Law,

F kq1q2
Or F = (kq1q2)/(r²) N

Where k is the constant of proportionality whose value varies with the system of units. R^ is the
unit vector along the line joining the two charges.
In SI unit, k= .
Where is called the permittivity of the free space.
It has an assigned value given as =8.834 F/m.

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

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Force on Q1 is given by

F1 = e.i
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Newtons
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q1 q2
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F2
q1 q2

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

1.1 Objectives

After going through this section, the students are able

to 1. State Coulombs law
Application of Coulombs Law to point charge as well as several charges

1.2 Electric field intensity

Electric field intensity at any point in an electric field is the force experienced by positive unit
charge placed at that point.

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Consider a charge Q located at a point A. At the point B in the electric fields set up by Q, it is

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required to find the electric field intensity E.
Let the charge at B be and let the charge Q be fixed at A. Let r be the distance between A and
B. As per the Coulomb’s Law, the force between Q and q is given by:
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F= rˆ N
If it is a unit positive charge, then by definition, F in the above equation gives the magnitude of
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the electric field intensity E.

i.e. E=F when
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Therefore, the magnitude of the electric field

strength is: E=Q/(4r
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Let r be the unit vector along the line joining A and B. Thus, the vector relation between E is
written as:
E=Q/(4 or²) V/m

1.2.1 Electric Field intensity due to several charges

Let there be many point charges q1,q2,q3......... qn at distances r1,r2,r3 .....rn be the corresponding
unit vectors. The field E1, E2, E3.......... En at the charges q1,q2,q3........... qn respectively are:
rˆ +
E=Eq1+Eq2+Eq3 ...............

Hence,

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

1.2 .2 Electric field intensity at a point due to a infinite sheet of charge

Let us assume a straight line charge extending along Z axis in a cylindrical coordinate
system from -∞ to +∞ as shown in the figure 1.1. Consider an incremental length dl at a point on
the conductor. The incremental length has an incremental charge of dQ= ρl dl= ρldz’ Coulombs.
Considering the charge dQ, the incremental field intensity at point p is given by,

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Where

,
and

Therefore,

Integrating the above and substituting z’=ρ cot θ, we get

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

and

1.2.3 Electric field intensity at a point due to a infinite sheet of

charge:

Let us assume a infinite sheet of charge with surface charge density ρs as shown in the
figure 1.2. Divide the sheet of charge into differential width strips. number of str Consider an
incremental length dl at a point on the conductor. The line charge density ρl= ρs dy’.

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The differential Electric field intensity at point P,

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adding the effects of all the strips,

Therefore,

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

1.2.4 Electric field at a point on the axis of charged circular ring:

Let ρ be the charge density of the ring.

So, ρ=dq/dl
dq=ρdl

Electric field due to an infinitely small element = dE = dq/4πεo r² rˆ

where rˆ is the unit vector along AP.

dE can resolved into two rectangular components, dEx and dEy. Now, dEx=dEcosθ.
Taking the magnitude of dE from above, the equation becomes,

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dEx=
cosθ=
e.i
substituting for dq from above, we have;
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dEx=
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The component dEy is directed downwards. If we consider an element of the ring at a point
diametrically opposite to A, then its dEy component points upwards and hence, cancels with
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that due to element A. The dEx components add up.

∫dEy=0.
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The total field at P is the sum of the fields due to all the elements of the ring.
Therefore, E=∫dE=∫dEx+∫dEy=∫dEx

E=∫dEx=

But, r=(R²+x²)½

Therefore, E= ax

Where, ax is the unit vector along the x axis.

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

1.2 Objectives
At the end of this section the students are able to
1. Define Electric field Intensity
2. Derive Electric field intensity at a due to several charges
3. Derive Electric field Intensity at a point due to sheet of charge
4. Derive Electric field intensity at a point on the axis of charged circular ring

1.3 Electric flux:

The concept of electric flux is useful in association with Gauss' law. The electric flux through a
planar area is defined as the electric field times the component of the area perpendicular to the
field. If the area is not planar, then the evaluation of the flux generally requires an area integral

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since the angle will be continually changing.

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When the area A is used in a vector operation like this, it is understood that the magnitude of the
vector is equal to the area and the direction of the vector is perpendicular to the area.
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Consider a concentric sphere having radius of ‘a’m charged up to +Q C. This sphere is
then placed in another sphere having a radius of ’b’ m as shown in the figure 1.4.
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There is no electrical connection between them. The outer sphere is momentarily

charged, then it found that the charge on the outer sphere is equal to the charge on the inner
sphere. This is depicted by the radial lines. This is referred as displacement flux. Therefore,
Ψ = Q.

1.3.1 Electric flux density:

If +Q C of charge on the inner sphere produces the electric flux of ψ, tthen electric flux ψ
2 2
uniformly distributed over the surface area 4Πa m , where a is the radius of the inner sphere.

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

The electric flux density si given by

Similarly for the outer sphere,

If the inner sphere becomes smaller and smaller retaining a charge of Q C, it becomes a point
charge. The flux density at appoint ‘r’ from the point charge is given by,

The electric field intensity due to point charge in free space is given by,

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Therefore in free space,
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1.3 Objective
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After going through this section the students should be able to

1. Define Electric flux
2. Explain Electric flux density

1.4 Gauss law:

The Gauss's law states that. "The electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to
the total charge enclosed by the surface"

For the Gaussian-surface shown in the following figure, the Gauss' law can
be expressed mathematically, .

Where

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

Ψ = flux passing through the closed surface

§s =1 surface integral
Ds =, flux density (vector quantity) normal to the
surface Q = Total charge enclosed in the surface

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e.i
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Gauss law for charge Q enclosed in a closed surface:
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Let Q be the point charge placed at the origin of imaginary sphere in spherical co-
ordinate system with a radius of "a" as illustrated in the figure
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The electrical field intensity cf the point charge is found to be equal to

no

Where r = Cl
and we al so know that the relation between E and D as,

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

Therefore from (1) and (2) we get.

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at the surface of the sphere,

e.i
The differential element of area on a spherical surface is, in spherical coordinate form is
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given by,
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Then the required integrand

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Then the integration over the surface as required for Gauss' law.

The limits placed for integral indicate that the integration over the entire sphere in spherical
co-ordinate system on integration we get

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

Thus we get, comparing LHS of Gauss' law as

This indicates that, Q coulombs of electric flux are crossing the surface as the enclosed charge is
Q coulombs.

1.4 .1 Application of Gauss law:

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In case of asymmetry, we need to choose a very closed surface such that D is almost
constant over the surface. Consider any point P shown in the figure 1.6 located in the
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rectangular co-ordinate system.
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The value of D at point P, may be expressed in rectangular components as,

D=Dx0ax+Dy0ay+Dz0az. . From Gauss law, we have

In order to evaluate the integral over the closed surface, the integral must be broken into
six integrals, one over each surface,

= + .
The surface element is very small & hence D is essentially constant ,

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

,
Similarly,

and,

.
Therefore collectively,

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Charge enclosed in volume ∆v,
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1.4 Objectives

At the end of this section the students are able to

1. State and prove Gauss Law
2. Apply Gauss law to find the charge enclosed in differential volume

1.5 Divergence:

From Gauss law, we know that,

And applying limits,

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

The last term in the equation is the volume charge density, ρv.

We shall write it as two separate equations,

And

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.
Divergence is defined as,

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.
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Statement: The flux crossing the closed surface is equal to the integral of the divergence of the
flux density throughout the enclosed volume, as the volume shrinks to zero.
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Divergence in Cartesian system,

Divergence in Cylindrical system,

Divergence in Spherical system,

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

1.6.1 Maxwell’s First equation:

From divergence theorem, we have

From Gauss law,

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Per unit volume,

e.i
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As the volume shrinks to zero,
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Therefore, div D = ρv.

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1.6.2 Divergence theorem:

The del operator is defined as a vector operator.

In Cartesian coordinate system,

Which is equal to,

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

Therefore,

From Gauss law, we have

And by letting,

& .
Hence we have,

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1.6 Objectives
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At the end of this section the students are able to

1. Explain the concept of divergence
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2. Derive Maxwell’s First Equation

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3. State and prove Divergence theorem

4.
5.

1.7 Recommended Questions

1. State Coulomb’s law of force between any 2 point charges & indicate the units of the
quantities involved.

2. Derive the general expression for electric field vector due to infinite line charge using Gauss law.

3. State and prove Gauss law.

4. Derive the general expression for E at a height h(h<a) , along the axis of the ring charge &
normal to its plane.

5. From gauss law show that .D=σv

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

6. State and prove divergence theorem for symmetric condition.

7. State and prove divergence theorem for asymmetric condition

1.8 Further Readings

th
1. Energy Electromagnetics, William H Hayt Jr. and John A Buck, Tata McGraw-Hill, 7
edition,2006.

2. Electromagnetics with Applications, John Krauss and Daniel A Fleisch McGraw-Hill, 5th
edition, 1999

3. Electromagnetic Waves And Radiating Systems, Edward C. Jordan and Keith G Balmain,
nd
Prentice – Hall of India / Pearson Education, 2 edition, 1968.Reprint 2002

n
e.i
4. Field and Wave Electromagnetics, David K Cheng, Pearson Education Asia, 2nd
edition, 1989, Indian Reprint – 2001
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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

MODULE 2: Gauss's law and Divergence, Energy and Potential, Conductors Dielectrics
and Capacitance

2.1 Energy expended in moving a point charge in an electric field

2.2 Line integral
2.3 Definition of potential difference and potential
2.4 Potential field of a point charge & system of charges
2.5 Potential gradient,

2.6 Energy density in an electrostatic field.

2.7 Current and current density

2.8 Continuity of current
2.9 metallic conductors
2.11 Dielectric properties and boundary conditions for dielectrics,
Conductor properties and boundary conditions for perfect

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2.12 dielectrics,

2.0 Objectives
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1. To Understand the concept of Potential and Potential Difference
2. To Learn the concepts of Energy density, current density
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3. To derive current continuity equation

4. To understand the boundary Conditions
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2.1 Energy expended in moving a point charge in an electric field

Electric field intensity is defined as the force experienced by unit test charge at a point p.
If the test charge is moved against the electric field, then we have to exert a force equal
and opposite to that exerted by the field and this requires work to be done.
Suppose we need to move a charge fo Q C a distance dl in an electric field
E. The force on Q arising from the electric field is,

The differential amount of work done in moving charge Q over a distance dl

is given by, , as F =QE

Thus the work done to move the charge for the finite distance is given by,

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

2.3 Definition of Potential Difference and potential

Potential difference(V) is defined as the work done in moving unit positive

charge from one point to another point in an electric field.
We know that,

Therefore V=W/Q=
VAB signifies potential difference between points A & B and the work done in

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moving the unit charge from B to A. Thus B is the initial point & A is the final point.
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.
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From the previous example, the work done in moving charge Q from ρ= b to ρ= a was,
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.
Thus the potential difference between the points a & b is given by,
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Absolute electric potential is defined as the work done in moving a unit positive
charge from infinity to that point against the field.
Electric field is defined as force on unit charge.
E= F/Q.
By moving the charge Q aganist an electric field between the two points a & b work
is done. Thus ,
Edl= Fxdl/Q =work/ charge.
This work done per charge is the electric potential difference. Potential difference
between points a and b at a radial distance of ra and rb from a point charge Q is given
by, If the potential at point a is VA and at point B is VB, then

Equipotential Surface is defined as "It is a surfacehaving the same value of potential" on

composed of all- points such surfaces no work is charge, hence no potential difference
involved in moving a unit between any two points on this
surface.

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

2.4 Potential field of a point charge & system of charges

Consider a point charge Q to be placed in the origin of a spherical coordinate system. Consider
2 points A & B as shown in the figure.

Electric Potential difference between A & B, VAB is given by,

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e.i
dl in spherical co ordinate system is given the figure above and E=Q/ 4Π€r
Therefore,
2.
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And
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Potential at a point has been defined as the work done in moving unit positive charge from zero
reference to the point. Potential is independent of the path taken from one point to the other.
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Potential due to a single charge is given by

V(r)= Q1/ 4Π€R. If Q1 is at r1 & point p at r, then

Potential arising from 2 charges, Q1 at r1 and Q2 at r2, is given by

Potential due to n number of charges, is given by

Or

If point charge is a small element in the continuous volume charge distribution then,
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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

As number of point charges in the volume charge distribution tends to infinity,

Similarly if the point charges takes the form of a straight line then,

Similarly if the point charges takes the form of a surface charge then,

Potential is a function of inverse distance. Hence we can conclude that for a zero reference at
infinity, then:
I Potential due to a single point charge is the work done in moving unit positive charge from
zero reference to the point. Potential is independent of the path taken from one point to the other

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e.i
II Potential field due to number of charges is the sum of the individual potential fields arising
from each charge.
III. Potential due to continuous charge distribution is found by carrying a unit charge
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from infinity to the point under consideration.
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is independent on the path chosen for the line

integral, regardless of the source of the E field.
Hence we can conclude that no work is done in carrying a unit positive charge around any
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closed path, or
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Any field that satisfies an equation of the form above is said to be conservative field

2.5 Potential Gradient

Potential at any point is given by

Potential difference between 2 points separated by a very short length ∆L along which E
is essentially constant, is given by

In rectangular co ordinate system,

, As V is a unique function of x,y,z. Then,

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

.
Since both the expressions are true with respect dx,dy & dz, we can write

Therefore,

In rectangular co ordinate system,

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Combining all the above equations allows us to use a compact expression that relates E &
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V,
Gradient in other coordinate system is as given below,
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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

6 Energy Density in an Electric Field

Consider a surface without charge. Bringing a charge Q1 from infinity to any point on the
surface requires no work as there is no field present. The positioning of Q2 at appoint in the
field of Q1 requires an amount of work to be done which is given by

.
Similarly work required to position each additional charge in the field is given by,

Total positioning work = Potential energy of the field

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Bringing the charges in the reverse order, the work done is given by,
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Adding the 2 energy expressions, we get

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For n number of charges,

2.7 Potential energy in a continuous charge distribution:

For the region with continuous charge distribution, the equation for WE=
By vector identity which is true for any scalar function V & vector D,

,
Then,

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

From Guass law, We can write

and from gradient

2.8 Boundary condition for conductor free space interface:

Consider a closed path at the boundary between conductor and a dielectric, such that
∆h→0.

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We know that work done in moving a charge over a closed path is zero i.e.,
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.
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Therefore the integral can be broken up as,

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.
Let the length from a to b or c to d be ∆W and from a to d or b to c be ∆h , hence we obtain,

. Hence we obtain E∆W=0 & therefore Et=0

Hence at the conductor dielectric interface tangential component of the electric field intensity
is zero.
Consider a gaussian cylinder of radius ρ and height ∆h at the boundary, Applying Gauss
law,

& then integrating over the distinct surfaces we get

.
Flux experienced by the lateral surface is zero & Flux experienced by the bottom surface
is zero as charge inside the conductor is zero. Therefore
or .

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

At the conductor dielectric interface normal component of the electric flux density is equal
to the surface charge density.

2.8 Boundary condition for perfect dielectric:

Consider a closed path abcda at the dielectric dielectric interface & ∆h→0. The work done
in moving a unit charge over a closed path is zero. Therefore,

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We know that the work done in moving a unit charge over a closed path is zero. Therefore,

, and hence
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.
The small contribution of the normal component of E due to ∆h becomes negligible. Therefore,
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. & as D = € E we get,
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or .
At the dielectric – dielectric boundary tangential component of the E is continuous where as
tangential component of electric flux density is discontinuous.
Consider a gaussian cylinder of radius ρ and height ∆h at the boundary, Applying
Gauss law, & then integrating over the distinct surfaces we get

. Flux experienced by the lateral surface is zero. Therefore

.
From which,

For perfect dielectric, DN1= DN2, then €2E2 = €1E1.

At the dielectric dielectric boundary normal component of the flux density is continuous.
Normal components of D are continuous,

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

. The ratio of the tangential components,

Or .
And

.
The magnitude of D is given by,

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e.i
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Out comes
At the end of the unit the students are able to understand the concepts of Potential
and Potential difference, energy and current densities, current continuity
equation, and different boundary conditions.

Recommended questions

1. Define electric scalar potential. Establish the relationship between intensity and potential.
2. Discuss the boundary conditions between 2 perfect dielectrics.
3. State & explain the principle of charge conservation.
4. Derive for energy stored in an electrostatic field.

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Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

5. Derive for energy expended in moving a point charge in an electric field.

6. Define Potential & potential difference.
7. Prove that E is Grad of V
8. Write a short note on dipole
9. Three point charges, 0.4 μC each, are located at (0,0,-1), (0,0,0) and (0,0,1) in free space.
(a). Find an expression for the absolute potential as a function of Z along the lne x=0, y=1.
(b) Sketch V(Z).

Further Reading
th
1. Energy Electromagnetics, William H Hayt Jr. and John A Buck, Tata McGraw-Hill, 7
edition,2006.

n
e.i
2. Electromagnetics with Applications, John Krauss and Daniel A Fleisch McGraw-Hill, 5th
edition, 1999

3. Electromagnetic Waves And Radiating Systems, Edward C. Jordan and Keith G Balmain,
fre
nd
Prentice – Hall of India / Pearson Education, 2 edition, 1968.Reprint 2002
s4

4. Field and Wave Electromagnetics, David K Cheng, Pearson Education Asia, 2nd
edition, 1989, Indian Reprint – 2001
te
no

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

MODULE 3: POISSONS AND LAPLACES EQUATION, STEADY

MAGNETIC FIELD

STRUCTURE
1.1 Derivation of Poisson’s equation and Laplace’s equation
1.2 Uniqueness theorem,
1.3 Examples of the solutions Laplace Equations and Poisson’s Equations

Objectives

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1. To derive the Poissons and Laplaces equation

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2. To derive the Uniqueness theorem
3. Application of Laplaces equation to parallel plate capacitor…
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Laplace’s & Poisson’s equation:
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Laplace’s & Poisson’s equation enable us to find potential fields within regions bounded by
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known potentials or charge densities.

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Derivation of Laplace’s & Poisson’s equation:

From Gauss law in point form, we have

-------------------------------(1).
By definition, D = €E. & from gradient relationship,
.
By substituting the above in equation 1, we get

Or --------------------2

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

For a homogeneous region in which € is constant. Equation 2 is poisson’s equation.

In rectangular co-ordinates,

Therefore,

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e.i
If ρv = 0, indicating zero volume charge density, but allowing point charges, line charges
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& surface charge density to exist at singular locations as sources of the field, then

which is Laplace’s equation. The

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operorator is called the Laplacian of V.

In rectangular coordinates Laplace equation is,

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no

, In cylindrical coordinates,

& in spherical coordinates,

very conductor produces a field for which

If ρv = 0, indicating zero volume charge density, but allowing point charges, line charges &
surface charge density to exist at singular locations as sources of the field, then

which is Laplace’s equation. The operator is called the Laplacian of V.

In rectangular coordinates Laplace equation is,

, In cylindrical coordinates,

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

& in spherical coordinates,

Every conductor produces a field for which V=0. In examples if it satisfies the
boundary conditions and Laplace equation, then it is the only possible answer.

V=0. In examples if it satisfies the boundary conditions and Laplace equation, then it
is the only possible answer.

Uniqueness theorem:

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

n
2.8

e.i
Example of solution of Laplace’s equation:

Example 1: For a Parallel plate capacitor:

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Let us assume V is a function of x. Laplace’s equation reduces to,
.
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Since V is not a function of y & z.

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Integrating the above equation twice we obtain,

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Where A & B are integration constants.

If V=0 at x=0 and V= V0 at x = d, then,

A= V0/d and B = 0.
Therefore,

.
Hence we have,

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

n
And the capacitance is

e.i .
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Example 2: Capacitance of a co-axial cylindrical conductor:
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Assuming variation with respect to ρ Laplace equation becomes,

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Integrating twice on both sides we obtain,

,
.

Assuming V = V0 at ρ = A and V= 0 at ρ = B, We get

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

Example 3: Spherical capacitor:

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Assuming variation with respect to r Laplace equation becomes,

e.i .
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Integrating twice on both sides we obtain,
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.
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Assuming V = V0 at θ = Π/2 and V= 0 at θ = α, We get

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 Engineering Electromagnetics 17EC36

and

Outcomes
The students are able to state and derive the poisons and laplace’s equation and apply it
to derive the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor, cylindrical conductor and spherical
ring & show that Laplaces equation has only one solution

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Recommended Questions

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1. Derive Poisson’s & Laplace’s equation.

2. Using Laplace’s equation , Prove that the potential distribution at any point in the
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region between two concentric cylinders of radii A & B as
V=Voln ῤ/B /ln A/B
3. State and prove uniqueness theorem
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4. Derive for Capacitance of Parallel plate capacitor

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5. Derive for Capacitance of Concentric spherical capacitor.

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6. Let V = 2xy2z3 and ε = ε0. Given point P(1,2,-1), Find (a) V at P; (b) E at P; (c) ρv at P;
(d) the equation of the equipotential surface passing through P; (e) the equation of the
streamline passing through P; (f) Does V satisfy the Laplaces Equation

Further Reading
TEXT BOOK:
1. Energy Electromagnetics, William H Hayt Jr . and John A Buck, Tata McGraw-Hill, 7th
edition,2006.

REFERENCE BOOKS:
2. Electromagnetics with Applications, John Krauss and Daniel A Fleisch McGraw-Hill, 5th
edition, 1999
3. Electromagnetic Waves And Radiating Systems, Edward C. Jordan and Keith G Balmain,
Prentice – Hall of India / Pearson Education, 2nd edition, 1968.Reprint 2002
4. Field and Wave Electromagnetics, David K Cheng, Pearson Education Asia, 2nd edition, -
1989, Indian Reprint – 2001.

Dept of ECE, ATMECE Page 7

 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS [15EC36]

MODULE-IV

Plane Wave:

A uniform plane wave is the wave that the electric field, E or magnetic field, H in same direction, same
magnitude and same phase in infinite planes perpendicular to the direction of propagation. A plane wave
has no electric field, and magnetic field, components along its direction of propagation.

n
Wave Equations:
e.i
If the wave is in simple ( linear, isotropic and homogeneous ) nonconducting medium ( =0), Maxwell’s
fre
equation reduce to,
s4
te
no

The first-order differential equations in the two variables E and H . They can combine to give E or H
alone using second-order equation.

Using Maxwell’s equation,

The curl of equation of (1)

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Replacing in equation (2)

We know that because of equation (3), thus the wave equation is

The wave equation also can written as

n
e.i --------------------------(a)
fre
Assuming an implicit time dependence in the field vector. Equation (a) also called Helmholtz
equation. The k is called the wave number or propagation constant.
s4
te
no

where c is the velocity of light in free space.

For magnetic intensity domain, H , we have,

For a uniform plane wave with an electric field E x Ex traveling in the z-direction, the wave equation
can be reduced as

The solution of this wave equation,

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Where is the attenuation constant of the medium and is its phase constant.

The associated magnetic field, H ,

n
e.i
where is the intrinsic impedance of the medium.
The k is called the wave number or propagation constant.
fre
s4

The wave number can also be written in terms of and .

te
no

Thus,

By solving (1) & (2),

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So for different medium,

n
e.i
Electromagnetic Phenomena are described by using four Maxwell’s equations:
fre
s4
te
no

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n
e.i
fre
s4
te
no

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 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS [15EC36]

n
e.i
fre
s4

Poynting Vector and Power Flow in Electromagnetic Fields:

te

Electromagnetic waves can transport energy from one point to another point. The electric and magnetic
field intensities associated with a travelling electromagnetic wave can be related to the rate of such energy
transfer.
no

Let us consider Maxwell's Curl Equations:

Using vector identity

The above curl equations we can write

,
And .
In simple medium where and are constant, we can write

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Applying Divergence theorem we can write,

…………….(a)

The term represents the rate of change of energy stored in the electric and

magnetic fields and the term represents the power dissipation within the volume. Hence right
hand side of the equation (a) represents the total decrease in power within the volume under
consideration.

2
The left hand side of equation (6.36) can be written as where (W/mt ) is called the Poynting
vector and it represents the power density vector associated with the electromagnetic field. The
integration of the Poynting vector over any closed surface gives the net power flowing out of the surface.
Equation (6.36) is referred to as Poynting theorem and it states that the net power flowing out of a given

n
volume is equal to the time rate of decrease in the energy stored within the volume minus the conduction
losses.

e.i
Poynting vector for the time harmonic case:
For time harmonic case, the time variation is of the form , and we have seen that instantaneous value
fre
of a quantity is the real part of the product of a phasor quantity and when is used as
reference. For example, if we consider the phasor
s4
te

then we can write the instanteneous field as

no

when E0 is real.
Let us consider two instanteneous quantities A and B such that

,
where A and B are the phasor quantities. i.e,

Therefore,

Since A and B are periodic with period , the time average value of the product form AB, denoted
by can be written as

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Further, considering the phasor quantities A and B, we find that

and , where * denotes complex conjugate.

The poynting vector can be expressed as

n
..............................(b)

e.i
If we consider a plane electromagnetic wave propagating in +z direction and has only
component, from (b) we can write:
fre
Using (6.41)
s4
te
no

where and , for the plane wave under consideration.

For a general case, we can write

We can define a complex Poynting vector

and time average of the instantaneous Poynting vector is given by .

Polarisation of plane wave:

The polarization of a plane wave can be defined as the orientation of the electric field vector as a
function of time at a fixed point in space. For an electromagnetic wave, the specification of the
orientation of the electric field is sufficient as the magnetic field components are related to electric field
vector by the Maxwell's equations.
Let us consider a plane wave travelling in the +z direction. The wave has both E x and Ey components.

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The corresponding magnetic fields are given by,

Depending upon the values of Eox and Eoy we can have several possibilities:
1. If Eoy = 0, then the wave is linearly polarised in the x-direction.
2. If Eoy = 0, then the wave is linearly polarised in the y-direction.
3. If E ox and E oy are both real (or complex with equal phase), once again we get a linearly polarised wave

n
e.i
with the axis of polarisation inclined at an , with respect to the x-axis. This is shown in
angle fig 6.4.
fre
s4
te
no

Fig 6.4 : Linear Polarisation

If Eox and Eoy are complex with different phase angles, will not point to a single spatial direction.
This is explained as follows:

Let ,

Then,

and ....................................(c)

To keep the things simple, let us consider a =0 and . Further, let us study the nature of the electric
field on the z =0 plain.
From equation (c) we find that,

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and the electric field vector at z = 0 can be written as

………(d)

Assuming , the plot of for various values of t is hown in figure 6.5.

n
e.i
fre
s4

Figure 6.5 : Plot of E(o,t)

From equation (d) and figure (6.5) we observe that the tip of the arrow representing electric field
te

vector traces an ellipse and the field is said to be elliptically polarized.

no

Figure 6.6: Polarisation ellipse

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The polarisation ellipse shown in figure 6.6 is defined by its axial ratio(M/N, the ratio of semimajor to
semiminor axis), tilt angle (orientation with respect to xaxis) and sense of rotation(i.e., CW or
CCW). Linear polarisation can be treated as a special case of elliptical polarisation, for which the axial
ratio is infinite.

In our example, if , from equation (6.47), the tip of the arrow representing electric field
vector traces out a circle. Such a case is referred to as Circular Polarisation. For circular polarisation
the axial ratio is unity.

n
e.i
fre
Figure 6.7: Circular Polarisation (RHCP)
s4

Further, the circular polarisation is aside to be right handed circular polarisation (RHCP) if the electric
field vector rotates in the direction of the fingers of the right hand when the thumb points in the direction
te

of propagation-(same and CCW). If the electric field vector rotates in the opposite direction, the
polarisation is asid to be left hand circular polarisation (LHCP) (same as CW).
no

In AM radio broadcast, the radiated electromagnetic wave is linearly polarised with the field vertical
to the ground( vertical polarisation) where as TV signals are horizontally polarised waves. FM
broadcast is usually carried out using circularly polarised waves.
In radio communication, different information signals can be transmitted at the same frequency at
orthogonal polarisation ( one signal as vertically polarised other horizontally polarised or one as RHCP
while the other as LHCP) to increase capacity. Otherwise, same signal can be transmitted at
orthogonal polarisation to obtain diversity gain to improve reliability of transmission.

Behaviour of Plane waves at the inteface of two media:

We have considered the propagation of uniform plane waves in an unbounded homogeneous medium. In
practice, the wave will propagate in bounded regions where several values of will be present.
When plane wave travelling in one medium meets a different medium, it is partly reflected and partly
transmitted. In this section, we consider wave reflection and transmission at planar boundary between two
media.

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n
Fig 6.8 : Normal Incidence at a plane boundary

by e.i
Case1: Let z = 0 plane represent the interface between two media. Medium 1 is characterised
and medium 2 is characterized by .
fre
Let the subscripts 'i' denotes incident, 'r' denotes reflected and 't' denotes transmitted field
components respectively.

The incident wave is assumed to be a plane wave polarized along x and travelling in medium 1 along
s4

direction. From equation (6.24) we can write

te

..................(e)
no

......................(f)

where and .
Because of the presence of the second medium at z =0, the incident wave will undergo partial reflection

and partial transmission. The reflected wave will travel along in medium 1.
The reflected field components are:

...............................................(g)

.........(h)

The transmitted wave will travel in medium 2 along for which the field components are

............................................(i)

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 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS [15EC36]

............................................(j)

where and
In medium 1,
and
and in medium 2,
and
Applying boundary conditions at the interface z = 0, i.e., continuity of tangential field components and
noting that incident, reflected and transmitted field components are tangential at the boundary, we can
write

n
&

e.i
From equation (e) to (j) we get,
................................................................(k)
fre
..............................................................(l)
Eliminating Eto ,
s4
te

or,
no

or,

...............(m)
is called the reflection coefficient.
From equation (k) & (l), we can write

or,

is called the transmission coefficient.

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We observe that,

The following may be noted

(i) both and T are dimensionless and may be complex
(ii)
Let us now consider specific cases:
Case I: Normal incidence on a plane conducting boundary
The medium 1 is perfect dielectric and medium 2 is perfectly conducting .

n
From (k) and (l)

e.i = -1
and T =0
Hence the wave is not transmitted to medium 2, it gets reflected entirely from the interface to the
fre
medium 1.
s4

&
Proceeding in the same manner for the magnetic field in region 1, we can show that,
te
no

The wave in medium 1 thus becomes a standing wave due to the super position of a forward travelling
wave and a backward travelling wave. For a given ' t', both and vary sinusoidally with distance
measured from z = 0. This is shown in figure 6.9.

Figure 6.9: Generation of standing wave

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Zeroes of E1(z,t) and

Maxima ofH1(z,t).

Maxima of E1(z,t) and

zeroes ofH1(z,t).

Case2: Normal incidence on a plane dielectric boundary

If the medium 2 is not a perfect conductor (i.e. ) partial reflection will result. There will be a
reflected wave in the medium 1 and a transmitted wave in the medium 2.Because of the reflected wave,
standing wave is formed in medium 1.

n
From above equations we can write

e.i
Let us consider the scenario when both the media are dissipation less i.e. perfect dielectrics
fre
( )
s4
te

In this case both and become real numbers.

no

..................(n)
From (n), we can see that, in medium 1 we have a traveling wave component with amplitude TE io and
a standing wave component with amplitude 2JEio.
The location of the maximum and the minimum of the electric and magnetic field components in
the medium 1from the interface can be found as follows. The electric field in medium 1 can be
written as

If i.e. >0
The maximum value of the electric field is

and this occurs when

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or , n = 0, 1, 2, 3....................... (o)

The minimum value of is

.................(p)
And this occurs when

or , n = 0, 1, 2, 3.............................(q)

For i.e. <0

The maximum value of is which occurs at the zmin locations and the minimum value

n
of is which occurs at zmax locations as given by the equations (o) and (q).

e.i
From our discussions so far we observe that can be written as
fre
The quantity S is called as the standing wave ratio.
s4

As the range of S is given by

We can write the expression for the magnetic field in medium 1 as
te
no

From above equation we can see that will be maximum at locations where is minimum and
vice versa.
In medium 2, the transmitted wave propagates in the + z direction.

Oblique Incidence of EM wave at an interface

So far we have discuss the case of normal incidence where electromagnetic wave traveling in a lossless
medium impinges normally at the interface of a second medium. In this section we shall consider the case
of oblique incidence. As before, we consider two cases

i. When the second medium is a perfect conductor.

ii. When the second medium is a perfect dielectric.

A plane incidence is defined as the plane containing the vector indicating the direction of propagation
of the incident wave and normal to the interface. We study two specific cases when the incident electric
field is perpendicular to the plane of incidence (perpendicular polarization) and is parallel to the

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plane of incidence (parallel polarization). For a general case, the incident wave may have arbitrary
polarization but the same can be expressed as a linear combination of these two individual cases.

Oblique Incidence at a plane conducting boundary

i. Perpendicular Polarization
The situation is depicted in figure 6.10.

n
e.i
Figure 6.10: Perpendicular Polarization
fre
As the EM field inside the perfect conductor is zero, the interface reflects the incident plane wave.
and respectively represent the unit vector in the direction of propagation of the incident and
reflected waves, is the angle of incidence and is the angle of reflection.
s4
te
no

We find that

Since the incident wave is considered to be perpendicular to the plane of incidence, which for the
present case happens to be xz plane, the electric field has only y-component. Therefore,

The corresponding magnetic field is given by

Similarly, we can write the reflected waves as

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Since at the interface z=o, the tangential electric field is zero.

The above equation is satisfied if we have

The condition is Snell's law of reflection.

n
The total electric field is given by

e.i
fre
Similarly, total magnetic field is given by
s4

From above two equations we observe that

te

1. Along z direction i.e. normal to the boundary

y component of and x component of maintain standing wave patterns according
no

to and where . No average power propagates along z as

y component of and x component of are out of phase.
2. Along x i.e. parallel to the interface
y component of and z component of are in phase (both time and space) and
propagate with phase velocity

The wave propagating along the x direction has its amplitude varying with z and hence constitutes a non
uniformplane wave. Further, only electric field is perpendicular to the direction of propagation (i.e. x),
the magnetic field has component along the direction of propagation. Such waves are called transverse
electric or TE waves.

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ii. Parallel Polarization:

In this case also and are given by the derived equations. Here and have only
y component.

Figure 6.11: Parallel Polarization

n
With reference to fig (6.11), the field components can be written as:

Incident field components:

e.i
fre
............................(r)
s4

Reflected field components:

te
no

Since the total tangential electric field component at the interface is zero.

Which leads to and as before.

Substituting these quantities in (r) and adding the incident and reflected electric and magnetic
field components the total electric and magnetic fields can be written as

Once again, we find a standing wave pattern along z for the x and y components of and , while a

non uniform plane wave propagates along x with a phase velocity given by

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where . Since, for this propagating wave, magnetic field is in transverse direction, such waves are
called transverse magnetic or TM waves.
Oblique incidence at a plane dielectric interface
We continue our discussion on the behavior of plane waves at an interface; this time we consider a plane
dielectric interface. As earlier, we consider the two specific cases, namely parallel and perpendicular
polarization.

n
e.i
fre
Fig 6.12: Oblique incidence at a plane dielectric interface
For the case of a plane dielectric interface, an incident wave will be reflected partially and transmitted
partially.
s4

In Fig(6.12), corresponds respectively to the angle of incidence, reflection and transmission.

1. Parallel Polarization
As discussed previously, the incident and reflected field components can be written as
te
no

In terms of the reflection coefficient

The transmitted filed can be written in terms of the transmission coefficient T

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We can now enforce the continuity of tangential field components at the boundary i.e. z=0

..........................(s)
If both and are to be continuous at z=0 for all x , then form the phase matching we have

We find that

..........................(t)

n
Further, from equations (s) and (t) we have

e.i
fre
s4
te
no

or

..........................(u)
From equation (u) we find that there exists specific angle for which = 0 such that

or

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Further,
For non magnetic material
Using this condition

.........................(v)

rom equation (v), solving for we get

n
This angle of incidence for which = 0 is called Brewster angle. Since we are dealing with

e.i
parallel polarization we represent this angle by so that
fre
2. Perpendicular
s4

Polarization For this case

te
no

Using continuity of field components at z=0

As in the previous case

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Using these conditions we can write

.........................(w)
From equation (w) the reflection and transmission coefficients for the perpendicular polarization can
be computed as

n
We observe that if = 0 for an angle of incidence

e.i
fre
s4
te

Again
no

or

or

or .........................(x)

We observe if i.e. in this case of non magnetic material Brewster angle does not exist
as the denominator or equation (x) becomes zero. Thus for perpendicular polarization in dielectric
media, there is Brewster angle so that can be made equal to zero.
From our previous discussion we observe that for both polarizations

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 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS [15EC36]

If

For ;

The incidence angle for which i.e. is called the critical angle of

incidence. If the angle of incidence is larger than total internal reflection occurs. For such case an
evanescent wave exists along the interface in the x direction (w.r.t. fig (6.12)) that attenuates
exponentially in the normal i.e. z direction. Such waves are tightly bound to the interface and are
called surface waves.

n
QUESTIONS:

e.i
1.Write down Maxwell’s field equations in the differential and integral form for time harmonic fields
2.Derive the expressions for energy stored in electric and magnetic field. Which field is efficient.
fre
3.In a uniform plane wave, E and H are at right angles to each other. Prove.
-4
4.A lossy dielectric is characterized by R=1.5, R=1 and / =2.5x10 . At a frequency of 200MHz, how far
can a uniform plane wave propagate in the material before
s4

(i)it undergoes an attenuation 1Np

te

(ii)its amplitude is halved

5. Deduce the integral form of the theoram of Poynting and state the significance of the three terms
no

appearing in the equation.

6.What are the properties of uniform plane wave?

7.Write Maxwell’s equation in integral form and interpret

8.Show that characteristic impedance of free space is 377ohm

9.State and explain Poynting Vector(P) and Poynting theorem.

7
10.A brass(conductivity=10 mho/m) pipe with inner and outer diameter of 3.4 and 4 cm carries a total
current of 100A dc. Find Electric field (E), Magnetic field(H) and Poynting Vector(P) within the brass

DEPT.OF ECE, A CE 84
 TIME VARYING MAGNETIC FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

Introduction

Electrostatic fields are usually produced by static electric charges whereas

magnetostatic fields are due to motion of electric charges with uniform velocity
(direct current) or static magnetic charges (magnetic poles); time-varying fields
or waves are usually due to accelerated charges or time-varying current.

 Stationary charges  Electrostatic fields 


 Steady current  Magnetostatic fields 


n
 Time-varying current  Electromagnetic fields (or waves) 
e.i
Faraday discovered that the induced emf, Vemf (in volts), in any closed circuit is
fre
equal to the time rate of change of the magnetic flux linkage by the circuit
s4

This is called Faraday’s Law, and it can be expressed as

te

V d d
no

emf  dt N dt 1.1

where N is the number of turns in the circuit and  is the flux through each
turn. The negative sign shows that the induced voltage acts in such a way as to
oppose the flux producing it. This is known as Lenz’s Law, and it emphasizes
the fact that the direction of current flow in the circuit is such that the induced
magnetic filed produced by the induced current will oppose the original
magnetic field.
Fig. 1 A circuit showing emf-producing field Ef and electrostatic field Ee

n
e.i
fre
s4
te
no
TRANSFORMER AND MOTIONAL EMFS

Having considered the connection between emf and electric field, we may
examine how Faraday's law links electric and magnetic fields. For a circuit with
a single (N = 1), eq. (1.1) becomes
V d
emf N dt 1.2
In terms of E and B, eq. (1.2) can be written as
V
emf

 E dl 
L
d
dt S 
B dS 1.3


where,  has been replaced by B dS and S is the surface area of the circuit
S

bounded by the closed path L. It is clear from eq. (1.3) that in a time-varying
situation, both electric and magnetic fields are present and are interrelated.

n
Note that dl and dS in eq. (1.3) are in accordance with the right-hand rule as
e.i
well as Stokes's theorem. This should be observed in Figure 2. The variation of
flux with time as in eq. (1.1) or eq. (1.3) may be caused in three ways:
fre
1. By having a stationary loop in a time-varying B field
2. By having a time-varying loop area in a static B field
s4

3. By having a time-varying loop area in a time-varying B field.

te

A. STATIONARY LOOP IN TIME-VARYING B FIELD (TRANSFORMER EMF)

no

This is the case portrayed in Figure 2 where a stationary conducting loop is in

a time varying magnetic B field. Equation (1.3) becomes

V B
emf 
 E dl   t
dS 1.4
L S

Fig. 2: Induced emf due to a stationary loop in a time varying B field.

This emf induced by the time-varying current (producing the time-varying B
field) in a stationary loop is often referred to as transformer emf in power
analysis since it is due to transformer action. By applying Stokes's theorem to
the middle term in eq. (1.4), we obtain

B
E dS   dS 1.5
S S t

For the two integrals to be equal, their integrands must be equal; that is,

 E  B 1.6
t

This is one of the Maxwell's equations for time-varying fields. It shows that the

n
time varying E field is not conservative ( x E  0). This does not imply that the
e.i
principles of energy conservation are violated. The work done in taking a
charge about a closed path in a time-varying electric field, for example, is due
fre
to the energy from the time-varying magnetic field.
s4

B. MOVING LOOP IN STATIC B FIELD (MOTIONAL EMF)

te

When a conducting loop is moving in a static B field, an emf is induced in the

loop. We recall from eq. (1.7) that the force on a charge moving with uniform
no

velocity u in a magnetic field B is

Fm = Qu x B 1.7

We define the motional electric field Em as

Fm
Em   u B 1.8
Q

If we consider a conducting loop, moving with uniform velocity u as consisting

of a large number of free electrons, the emf induced in the loop is

L

Vemf  Em dl  u Bdl
L
 1.9
This type of emf is called motional emf or flux-cutting emf because it is due to
motional action. It is the kind of emf found in electrical machines such as
motors, generators, and alternators.

C. MOVING LOOP IN TIME-VARYING FIELD

This is the general case in which a moving conducting loop is in a time-varying

magnetic field. Both transformer emf and motional emf are present. Combining
equation 1.4 and 1.9 gives the total emf as

B

Vemf  E dl   t 
dS  u Bdl 1.10
L S L

 Em u  B 1.11

n
or from equations 1.6 and 1.11.
e.i
fre
B
 E  u  B 1.12
t
s4

DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
te

For static EM fields, we recall that

no

xH=J 1.13

But the divergence of the curl of any vector field is identically zero.

Hence,

 . ( x H) = 0 =  . J 1.14

The continuity of current requires that

 J  v  0 1.15

t
Thus eqs. 1.14 and 1.15 are obviously incompatible for time-varying
conditions. We must modify eq. 1.13 to agree with eq. 1.15. To do this, we add
a term to eq. 1.13, so that it becomes

 x H = J + Jd 1.16

where Jd is to be determined and defined. Again, the divergence of the curl of

any vector is zero. Hence:

 . ( x H) = 0 =  . J +  . Jd 1.17

In order for eq. 1.17 to agree with eq. 1.15,

 v  D
 J d  J   D

n
1.18
t t t
or
D
e.i
fre
Jd  t 1.19
Substituting eq. 1.19 into eq. 1.15 results in
s4

 H  J  D 1.20
t
This is Maxwell's equation (based on Ampere's circuit law) for a time-varying
te

field. The term Jd = D/t is known as displacement current density and J is the
no

conduction current density (J = E)3.

Fig. 3 Two surfaces of integration showing the need for Jd in Ampere’s circuit
law

The insertion of Jd into eq. 1.13 was one of the major contribution of Maxwell.
Without the term Jd, electromagnetic wave propagation (radio or TV waves, for
example) would be impossible. At low frequencies, Jd is usually neglected
compared with J. however, at radio frequencies, the two terms are comparable.
At the time of Maxwell, high-frequency sources were not available and eq. 1.20
could not be verified experimentally.

Based on displacement current density, we define the displacement current as

 J
Id  d
dS   D dS 1.21
t

We must bear in mind that displacement current is a result of time-varying

electric field. A typical example of such current is that through a capacitor
when an alternating voltage source is applied to its plates.

PROBLEM: A parallel-plate capacitor with plate area of 5 cm2 and plate

n
separation of 3 mm has a voltage 50 sin 103 t V applied to its plates. Calculate
the displacement current assuming  = 2 0.
e.i
fre
Solution:
V
D  E  
s4

d
te

J  D   dV
d t d dt
no

Hence,
S dV dV
I d  J d S  C
d dt dt

which is the same as the conduction current, given by

dQ d s dD dE dV dV
Ic S S  S  S C
dt dt dt dtd dt dt

10 9 5 10 4 3 3
Id  2   10 50 cos10 t
3
36 3 10
= 147.4 cos 103 t nA

n
e.i
fre
s4
te
no
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY FOR TIME VARYING FIELDS

Equation of continuity in point form is

 . J = -v

where,

J = conduction current density (A/M2)

P = volume charge density (C/M3), v  v
t
 = vector differential operator (1/m)

a  a  a 
x y z
x y z

n
e.i
Proof: Consider a closed surface enclosing a charge Q. There exists an outward
flow of current given by
fre
I JdS
s4

S
te

This is equation of continuity in integral form.

no

From the principle of conservation of charge, we have

dQ
I JdS
dt
S

From the divergence theorem, we have

I JdSJd
S v

 dQ
Thus,  J d 
 dt
By definition, Q   d 


where,  = volume charge density (C/m3)

 J d   

.

So, d    d
 t

. 

where   t

The volume integrals are equal only if their integrands are equal.

n
Thus,  . J = - .
e.i
MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS FOR STATIC EM FIELDS
fre

Differential (or
s4

Integral Form Remarks

Point) Form
D dS   dv
S 
te

 . D = v v Gauss's law
v
no

Nonexistence of magnetic
.B=0 SB dS  0 monopole
B  B
 x E =- t L E dl  t  dS Faraday’s Law
s


D
xH=J+ L H dl  J dS Ampere's circuit law
t s

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS FOR TIME VARYING FIELDS

These are basically four in number.

Maxwell's equations in differential form are given by
D
xH= +J
t
B
xE=-
 t

no
te
s4
fre
e.i
n
 .D =
.B = 0
Here,
H = magnetic field strength (A/m)
D = electric flux density, (C/m2)
(D/t) = displacement electric current density
(A/m2) J = conduction current density (A/m 2)
E = electric field (V/m)

B = magnetic flux density wb/m2 or Tesla

(B/t) = time-derivative of magnetic flux density (wb/m2 -
sec) B is called magnetic current density (V/m2) or Tesla/sec
P = volume charge density (C/m3)
Maxwell's equations for time varying fields in integral form are given by
.
 

n
H dL  D J  dS

L

LE dL B dS

S  e.i
S
fre
D dS   d 

BdS0
S
s4

MEANING OF MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS

te
no

1. The first Maxwell's equation states that the magnetomotive force around
a closed path is equal to the sum of electric displacement and,
conduction currents through any surface bounded by the path.

2. The second law states that the electromotive force around a closed path
is equal to the inflow of magnetic current through any surface bounded
by the path.

3. The third law states that the total electric displacement flux passing
through a closed surface (Gaussian surface) is equal to the total charge
inside the surface.

4. The fourth law states that the total magnetic flux passing through any
closed surface is zero.
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS FOR STATIC FIELDS

Maxwell’s Equations for static fields are:

 H  J  HdLJdS
L S

E  0  EdL0
L

D    DdS d

S 

 B  0  BdS0

n
S
e.i
As the fields are static, all the field terms which have time derivatives are zero,
B
fre
that is, D = 0, = 0.
t t
s4

PROOF OF MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

te

1. From Ampere's circuital law, we have

no

xH=J

Take dot product on both sides

.xH=.J

As the divergence of curl of a vector is zero,

RHS =  . J = 0

But the equation of continuity in point form is


 J  
t
This means that if  x H = J is true, it is resulting in  . J = 0.

As the equation of continuity is more fundamental, Ampere's circuital

law should be modified. Hence we can write

 x H = J + F Take

dot product on both sides 


.xH=.J+.F

that is,  .  x H = 0 =  . J +  . F 

n
Substituting the value of .J from the equation of continuity in the
above expression, we get
e.i
fre
 . F + (-) = 0
s4

or,  . F = -
te

The point form of Gauss's law is

no

 . D = 

or,  . D = 

From the above expressions, we get

.F=.D

The divergence of two vectors are equal only if the vectors are identical,

that is, F = D

So, xH=D+J
Hence proved.
2. According to Faraday's law,

 d
emf 
dt

 = magnetic flux, (wb)

and by definition,

emf  E dL
L

d


n
E dL 
L dt e.i

fre
But   B dS
S

B
s4

 E dL   dS

t
te

L S


no

 B dS, B  B
S t
Applying Stoke's theorem to LHS, we get

EdLEdS
L S

 E dS   B dS

S S

Two surface integrals are equal only if their integrands are equal,

that is,  x E = - B

Hence proved.
3. From Gauss's law in electric field, we have

DdSQd
S 

Applying divergence theorem to LHS, we get

DdSDdd
S  

Two volume integrals are equal if their integrands are equal,

that is,  . D = 

n
Hence proved.
e.i
4. We have Gauss's law for magnetic fields as
fre

BdS0
s4

S
te

RHS is zero as there are no isolated magnetic charges and the magnetic flux
no

lines are closed loops.

Applying divergence theorem to LHS, we get

B d0


or,
 . B = 0 Hence proved.

PROBLEM 1:
Given E = 10 sin (t - y) ay V/m, in free space, determine D, B and H.

Solution:
E = 10 sin (t - y) ay, V/m
 D = 0 E, 0 = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m

D = 100 sin (t - y) ay, C/m2

Second Maxwell’s equation is

 x E = -B

a a a
x y z

  
That is,  E 
x y z
0 Ey 0

  E
 a
 E

or, E  ax  y 0 z y

n
 z   x 

As Ey = 10 sin (t - z) V/m

e.i
fre
E
y
0
x
s4
te

Now,  x E becomes
no

E y
E  a
x
z

= 10  cos (t - z) ax

B

t


B  10 cost  zdt ax

10 sint  z a , wb / m 2
or B z


B 10 sint  za , A / m

and H  z
 
0 0
PROBLEM 2: If the electric field strength, E of an electromagnetic wave in free

space is give n by E = 2 cos  t 

 z 
a y
V/m, find the magnetic field, H.
 0 
Solution: We have

B/t = - x E

ax a y az
  

x y z
0 Ey 0

 a    E   a (0)  a   E  
 x   z y  y z  x y  

n
 E y a
z x
e.i
fre


 2 sin  t  z  a
  x
s4

0  0 
te

2  z 
B  sin t  
dt a
 x
no

0  0 

or, B
 2   z 
cost 
a
x


0  0 
 
B 2  z   0 120
or, H  cos  a


t   x

0
 0

0 00  0 


 
2 z    1
Thus, H a
0 
  0 0 
cost   x 

0  0 
 

1  z 
H cost  a A/m
  x
60  0 
PROBLEM 3: If the electric field strength of a radio broadcast signal at a TV
receiver is given by

E = 5.0 cos (t - y) az, V/m,

determine the displacement current density. If the same field exists in a

medium whose conductivity is given by 2.0 x 103 (mho)/cm, find the
conduction current density.

Solution:
E at a TV receiver in free space

= 5.0 cos (t - y) az, V/m

Electric flux density

D = 0 E = 5 0 cos (t - y) az, V/m

n
e.i
The displacement current density
fre
J d  D  D
t
s4

  5  cost  ya 

t 0 z
te
no

Jd = -50  sin (t - y) az, V/m2

The conduction current density,

Jc =  E

 = 2.0 x 103 (mho) /cm 


= 2 x 105 mho /m

Jc = 2 x 105 x 5 cos (t - y) az

6 2
Jc = 10 cos (t - y) az V/m
 UNIFORM PLANE WAVES

In free space ( source-less regions where

  J    0 ), The wave equation for electric field, in free-space
is,

2 E
 E    2 ________ (2)
2

t
The wave equation (2) is a composition of these equations, one each component wise,

n
ie,

e.i
 2 Ex  2 Ey
 _______(2) a
x 2 t 2
fre
 2 Ey  2 Ey
 _______(2) b
y 2 t 2
s4

 2 Ez  2 Ez
 _______(2) c
z 2 t 2
te

Further, eqn. (1) may be written as

Ex Ey Ez

no

   0 ________ (1) a
x y z
For the UPW, E is independent of two coordinate axes; x and y axes, as we have assumed.
 
   0
x y
Therefore eqn. (1) reduces to

Ez
 0 ______ (3)
z
ie., there is no variation of Ez in the z direction.

 2 Ez
Also we find from 2 (a) that t 2 = 0 ____(4)
These two conditions (3) and (4) require that Ez can be
(1) Zero
(2) Constant in time or
(3) Increasing uniformly with time.
A field satisfying the last two of the above three conditions cannot be a part of wave motion. Therefore E z can be put
equal to zero, (the first condition).

Ez = 0
The uniform plane wave (traveling in z direction) does not have any field components of E & H in its direction of
travel.

Therefore the UPWs are transverse., having field components (of E & H ) only in directions perpendicular to the
direction of propagation does not have any field component only the direction of travel.

RELATION BETWEEN E & H in a uniform plane wave.

n
E & H are independent of x

e.i
We have, from our previous discussions that, for a UPW traveling in z direction, both

and y; and E & H have no z component. For such a UPW, we have,

fre
iˆ ˆj kˆ
    E y  ˆ  Ex 
 E  ( 0) ( 0)  iˆ    j  _____ (5)
x y z  
s4

 z   z 
Ex Ey Ez (  0)
te

iˆ ˆj kˆ
 H y  ˆ  H x 
no

  
 H  ( 0) (  0)  iˆ    j  _____ (6)
x y z  z   z 
Hx Hy Hz (  0)
Then Maxwell’s curl equations (1) and (2), using (5) and (6), (2) becomes,

E Ex ˆ Ey ˆ ˆ  Hy  ˆj  Hx  ______ (7)

  H    i  j  i  
t t t  z   z 
and
H Hx ˆ Hy ˆ  Ey  ˆj  Ex  ______ (8)
  E     i j  i  
t t t  z   z 
Thus, rewriting (7) and (8) we get

Hy ˆ Hx ˆ  Ex ˆ Ey ˆ 

 i j   i  j  ______ (7)
z z  t t 
Ey ˆ Ex ˆ  Hx ˆ Hy ˆ 
 i j    i  j  ______ (8)
z z  t t 
Equating iˆ th and j th terms, we get

Hy Ex
   ______ 9 ( a )
z t
Hx Ey
  ______ 9 (b)
z t

n
Ey ˆ Hx

z
i 
t
e.i ______ 9(c )
fre
and
Ex Hy
  ______ 9 ( d )
s4

z t
Let
te

1
Ey  f1  z   0t  ; 0  . Then,
no

E
Ey
 f1  z   0t    0  .   0 f1 .
t
 From eqn. 9(c ), we get ,
Hx  0
 0 f '
  f '

t  0 1


 Hx  
0  f1' dz  c.
 Now
f1'   z   0t 
 f1'  f1'
z z
 f1
  z
Hz   C

Now
f1'   z   0t 
 f1'  f1'
z z
 f1 
  z
  dz  c   f1  c

n


Hx  


Ey  c
e.i
fre
The constan C indicates that a field independent of Z could be present. Evidently this is not a part of the wave
motion and hence is rejected.
s4

Thus the relation between HX and EY becomes,


te

Hx   Ey

no

Ey 
  __________ (10)
Hx 
Similarly it can be shown that

Ex 

Hy 
_____________ (11)
 E  Ex iˆ  E y ˆj
In our UPW,

 E 
2 E     E   
t  t 
E 2 E
 E   
2
   2 _______ ( xi )
t t

But  E 
0
E

n
e.i
DERIVATION OF WAVE EQUATION FOR A CONDUCTING MEDIUM:

0. Surface charges and hence surface currents exist, static fields or charges
fre
0

do not exist.
For the case of conduction media, the point form of maxwells equations are:
s4
te
no
 D E
 H  J    E  ________ (i )
t t
B H
 E     _________ (ii )
t t
 D    E   E  0 _________ (iii )
 B    H   H  0 _________ (iv )

Taking curl on both sides of equation (i ), we get

 E 
    H     E  
 t 

n

    E 
t
e.i
  E ________ (v )
fre
substituting eqn. (ii ) in eqn. (v ), we get
 H   2H 
s4

    H          2 
_________ (vi )
 t    t 
 
te

But     H    H   2 H _________ (vii )

no

 eqn. (vi ) becomes

H 2 H
 
  H   H   
2

t

t 2
_________ (viii )

B 1 1
But  H     B 00
  

 eqn. (viii ) becomes,

H 2 H
 H  
2
  0 ________ (ix)
t t 2
This is the wave equation for the magnetic field H in a conducting medium.
Next we consider the second Maxwell’s curl equation (ii)

H
  E   ________ (ii )
t
Taking curl on both sides of equation (ii) we get

    E    
H
 
  H   ________ ( x)
t t
But     E    E   2 E ;  
Vector identity and substituting eqn. (1) in eqn (2), we get

  E 
 

n
  E  2 E    E  
t  t 

  
E
e.i
2 E
_______ ( xi )
fre
t t 2

But  E 
0
s4

conductor,
te

Therefore we get  E 0
no

Therefore eqn. (xi) becomes,

E 2 E
 E   
2

t t 2 ____________ (xii)

This is the wave equation for electric field E in a conducting medium.

Wave equations for a conducting medium:
1. Regions where conductivity is non-zero.
2. Conduction currents may exist.
For such regions, for time varying fields
The Maxwell’s eqn. Are:
 E
 H  J  _________ (1)
t
H
  E   __________ (2)
t
J E  : Conductivity ( / m)
= conduction current density.
Therefore eqn. (1) becomes,

E
  H   E  _________ (3)
t
Taking curl of both sides of eqn. (2), we get


    E    H  

n
t

e.i
2 E E
    ________ (4)
t 2
t
But
fre
 
    E    E   2 E (vector identity )
u sin g this eqn. (4) becomes vector identity ,
s4

E 2 E
 
  E   2 E   
t

t 2
_______ (5)
te

 But  D  
1
no

 is cons tan t ,  E   D

Since there is no net charge within a conductor the charge density is zero ( there can be charge on the surface ), we
get.

1
 E  D0

Therefore using this result in eqn. (5)
we get

E 2 E
 E  
2
   2  0 ________(6)
t t
This is the wave eqn. For the electric field E in a conducting medium.

This is the wave eqn. for E . The wave eqn. for H is obtained in a similar manner.
Taking curl of both sides of (1), we get
 E
    H        E ________ (7)
t
H
But   E    ________ (2)
t
 (1) becomes,
2 H H
    H      ________ (8)
t 2
t

As before, we make use of the vector identity.

 H    H   2
H

n
in eqn. (8) and get

 H 2 H
 
  H   2 H   

But
t
e.i
   2 ________ (9)
t
fre
B 1 1
 H    B 00
  
s4

 eqn.(9)becomes
 H 2 H
te

 2 H      2 ________ (10)
t t
no

This is the wave eqn. for H in a conducting medium.

Sinusoidal Time Variations:
In practice, most generators produce voltage and currents and hence electric and magnetic fields which vary
sinusoidally with time. Further, any periodic variation can be represented as a weight sum of fundamental and
harmonic frequencies.
Therefore we consider fields having sinusoidal time variations, for example,
E = Em
E = Em

Therefore every field or field component varies sinusoidally, mathematically by an additional term. Representing

sinusoidal variation. For example, the electric field E can be represented as

E  x, y , z , t  as
ie., E  r , t  ; r  x, y , z 

Where E is the time varying field.

The time varying electric field can be equivalently represented, in terms of corresponding phasor quantity E (r) as

E  r , t   Re  E  r  e j t  ________ (11)

The symbol ‘tilda’ placed above the E vector represents that E is time – varying quantity.
The phasor notation:
We consider only one component at a time, say Ex.
The phasor Ex is defined by

n
Ex  r , t   Re  Ex  r  e j t  ________ (12)

| Ex |
e.i
fre
| Ex |

t

s4
te

Ex  r  Ex  r 
no

denotes Ex as a function of space (x,y,z). In general is complex and hence can be represented as a

point in a complex and hence can be represented as a point in a complex plane. (see fig) Multiplication by e jwt

results in a rotation through x

e jwt traces out a
circle with center at the origin. Its projection on the real axis varies sinusoidally with time & we get the time-

harmonically varying electric field Ex (varying sinusoidally with time). We note that the phase of the sinusoid is
x.

Therefore the time varying quantity may be expressed as

Ex  Re  Ex e j e j t  ________ (13)
 Ex cos( t   ) ________ (14)
Maxwell’s eqn. in phasor notation:
In time – harmonic form, the Maxwell’s first curl eqn. is:
 D
 H  J  _______ (15)
t
using phasor notation, this eqn. becomes,



  Re He j t   t
Re  De j t   Re  Je j t  ________ (16)

The diff. Operator  & Re part operator may be interchanged to get,

 j t 

Re   He j t  Re 
 t

De j t  Re 
 Je 

 
 j D
 Re  e j t   j t 
  Re  Je 


Re    H  j D  J e j t  

n
 0
This relation is valid for all t. Thus we get

  H  J  j D ________ (17)
e.i
fre
This phasor form can be obtained from time-varying form by replacing each time derivative by

  
jw  ie., is to be replaced by   
 t 
s4

For the sinusoidal time variations, the Maxwell’s equation may be expressed in phasor form as:

J  
te

(17)   H  J  j D  L
H dL 
S
j D ds
no

(18)   E   j B  L
E dl    j B ds
S

(19)  D  S
D ds  
V
V dV

(20)  B0  S
B ds  0
The continuity eqn., contained within these is,

 J   j  S
J ds    j dv _______ (21)
vol

The constitutive eqn. retain their forms:

D  E
B  H
J E ____ (22)
For sinusoidal time variations, the wave equations become

 2
E   2   E ( for electric field ) 

 2
H   2   H ( for electric field )
_________ (23)
Vector Helmholtz eqn.
In a conducting medium, these become

 2 E   2    j  E  0
 2 H   2    j  H  0
________ (24)
Wave propagation in a loss less medium:
In phasor form, the wave eqn. for VPW is

2 E 

n
  2   E   E y
2

x 2
;    2 E y _______ (25)

e.i
 x 2

  2 E 
 E y  C1 e  j  x  C2 e j  x _______ (26)
fre
C1 & C2 are arbitrary constants.
The corresponding time varying field is
s4

E y  x, t   Re  E y  x  e j t 

 Re C1 e j  t   z   C2 e j  t   z   ______ (27)

te

 C1 cos  t   z   C2 cos  t   z  ______ (28)

no

When C1 and C2 are real.

Therefore we note that, in a homogeneous, lossless medium, the assumption of sinusoidal time variations results in a
space variation which is also sinusoidal.
Eqn. (27) and (28) represent sum of two waves traveling in opposite directions.
If C1 = C2 , the two traveling waves combine to form a simple standing wave which does not progress.
If we rewrite eqn. (28) with Ey as a fn of (x-



Let us identify some point in the waveform and observe its velocity; this point is
 t   x   a constant
 ' a '  t 
 
dx  x   

   
Then
dt  t  
This velocity is called phase velocity, the velocity of a phase point in the wave.
e.

n
e.i
fre
s4
te

Wavelength:
ie.,
  2
no

2 2
  or  
 
But
 2 
    
  f
or
  f ; f in H Z
 1
:   0
 
Wave propagation in a conducting medium
We have,
 2 E   2 E  0
 2
  2    j
 j   j 
Where
propagation constant is, in general, complex.

The eqn. for UPW of electric field strength is

2 E
  2E
x 2

One possible solution is

n
E  x   E0 e  x
Therefore in time varying form, we get

e.i
E  x, t   Re  E e  x e j t 
fre
 e  x Re  E0 e jwt 

e  x .
s4

This eqn. shown that a up wave traveling in the +x direction and attenuated by a factor
The phase shift factor

2
te




no

and velocity  f  


j   j t 

  2 
  1  2 2 1 
2    


  2 
   1   1
2   
2 2 

=
Conductors and dielectrics:
We have the phasor form of the 1st Maxwell’s curl eqn.

  H   E  j  E  J c  J disp
where
J c   E  conduction current density ( A/m2 )

J disp  j  E 
displacement current density ( A/m2 )

J cond 
 
J disp  
We can choose a demarcation between dielectrics and conductors;

1


1
*  is conductor. Cu: 3.5*108 @ 30 GHz

1


n
* is dielectric. Mica: 0.0002 @ audio and RF

e.i
* For good conductors, are independent of freq.
* For most dialectics, are function of freq.

fre
*  is relatively constant over frequency range of interest
Therefore dielectric “ constant “
s4


*  dissipation factor D
te

if D is small, dissipation factor is practically as the power factor of the dielectric.

no

-1
D
PF & D difference by <1% when their values are less than 0.15.
Example 11.1
1. Express

E y  100 cos  2 108 t  0.5 z  300  v / m as a phasor

E y  Re 100 e j 2 10 t  0.5 z  300 

6

 
Drop Re and suppress ejwt term to get phasor

100e 0.5 z 30

0

Therefore phasor form of Eys =

Whereas Ey is real, Eys is in general complex.

Note: 0.5z is in radians; 300 in degrees.

Example 11.2
Given
 Es  100 300 ax
ˆ  20   500 ay
ˆ  40 2100 az
ˆ ,V / m
find its time varying form representation

Let us rewrite
Es as

ˆ  20e  j 50 ay
Es  100e j 30 ax ˆ  40e j 210 az
0 0 0
ˆ .V / m
 E  Re  Es e j t 
j  t  300  j  t  500  j  t  2100  
 Re 100e  20e  40e V /m
 
E  100 cos  t  300  20 cos  t  500   40 cos  t  2100  V / m

None of the amplitudes or phase angles in this are expressed as a function of x,y or z.

n
Even if so, the procedure is still effective.

e.i
2. Consider

H s  20e  0.1 j 20  z ax
ˆ A/ m
fre
 0.1 j 20  z
H  t   Re  20e ˆ
ax e j t 
 
 20e 0.1z cos  t  20 z  ax ˆ A/ m
s4

E x  E x  x, y , z 
te

Ex 
Note : consider  Re  E x  x, y , z  e j t 
t t
no

 Re  j E x e j t 
Therefore taking the partial derivative of any field quantity wrt time is equivalent to multiplying the corresponding

Example
Given

E0 s   500  400 ay ˆ  e  j 0.4 x V / m

ˆ   200  j 600  az
Find  a  
 b  E at  2, 3,1 at t  0
 c  E at  2, 3,1 at t  10 ns.
 d  E at  3, 4, 2  at t  20 ns.
Q. Fro
m given data,

  0.4    0 0
0.4  3  108
   120  106
9
10
4  10 7 
36 9
f  19.1 106 Hz
R. Giv
en,

Es   500  400 ay ˆ  e  j 0.4 x

ˆ   200  j 600  az

n
 500e  j 40 e  j 0.4 x ay
ˆ  632.456e  j 71.565 e  j 0.4 x az
0
ˆ
 ˆ

e.i  ˆ
 j 0.4 x  400  j 0.4 x  71.5650
 500e ay  632.456e az

E  t   500 Re e  j t e

 j 0.4 x  400  ay
ˆ  632.456 e j t e 
 j 0.4 x  71.565 
0

ˆ 
fre
az
 
 500 cos  t  0.4 x  400  ay
ˆ  632.456 cos  t  0.4 x  71.565  az
ˆ
s4

E at  2,3,1 t  0  500 cos  0.4 x  400  ay

ˆ  632.456  0.4 x  71.565  az
ˆ
 36.297 ay
ˆ  291.076 az
ˆ V /m
te
no

c)

E at  t  10 ns  at  2, 3,1
 500 cos 120  106  10  10 9  0.4  2  400  ay
ˆ
 632.456 cos 120  106  10  10 9  0.4  2  71.5650  az
ˆ
 477.823 ay
ˆ  417.473 az
ˆ V /m

d)

at t = 20 ns,

E at  2, 3,1
 438.736 ay
ˆ  631.644 az
ˆ V /m
D 11.2:
 H s   2  400 ax ˆ  e  j 0.07 z
ˆ  320 ay A/ m
Given for a UPW traveling in free space. Find

H
x at p(1,2,3) at t = 31 ns. (c) at t=0 at the origin.
 j z
(a) we have p = 0.07
(e term)

    0.07
0.07
  0.07  3  108  21.0  106 rad / sec

 21.0  106 rad / sec
(b)

 
H  t   Re  2 e  j 40 e  j 0.07 z ax
0
ˆ  e j t
ˆ  3 e j 20 e  j 0.07 z ay
0

 

n
 2 cos  t  0.07 z  400  ax
ˆ  3 cos  t  0.07 z  200  ay
ˆ
H x (t )  2 cos  t  0.07 z  400 
e.i
fre
H x (t ) at p 1, 2, 3
 2 cos  2.1106 t  0.21  400 
s4

At t  31n sec;  2 cos  2.1106  3110 9  0.21  400 

 2 cos  651 103  0.21  400 
te

 1.9333 A/ m
no

(c)

H  t  at t  0  2 cos  0.07 z  0.7  ax

ˆ  3cos  0.7 z  0.35  ay
ˆ
H  t   2 cos  0.7  ax
ˆ  3cos  0.3 ay
ˆ
 1.53ax
ˆ  2.82ay
ˆ
 3.20666 A/ m
In free space,
 E  z , t   120 sin  t   z  ay
ˆ V /m
find H  z, t 
Ey
we have    120
Hx
Ey 120
Hx    sin  t   z  ay
ˆ
120 120
1
 sin  t   z 

1
H  z, t    sin  t   z  ax
ˆ

Problem 3. J&B

n
Non uniform plans waves also can exist under special conditions. Show that the function


F  e  z sin

 x  t 
e.i
fre
1 2 F
 F 2 2
2

satisfies the wave equation c t

provided the wave velocity is given by
s4

  2c 2 
  e 1 
 2 
te


no

Ans:
From the given eqn. for F, we note that F is a function of x and z,

2 F 2 F
 F  2

x 2 y 2
F  
 e  z cos  x   t 
x  
 F  z         2 e  z
2
 e     sin  x  t    F
x 2 
      2

F 
 e  z sin  x  t 
z 
2 F 
   2  z
e sin  x  t    2 F
z 2

  2 
 F    2   2  F
2

  
dF   
 e  z      cos  x   t 
dt   
d 2F  
 e  z        sin  x   t 
 
2
dt
  2 F
The given wave equation is

1 2 F
2 F 
c 2 t 2
 2 

n
  2  2 F  2
 
1
   F2

e.i
c
2 2
  2   2
2

 c
fre
 2
 2
2  2  2
c 

s4

2
2 
2
  2
2
te

c
 2c 2 c2
  2

 2c 2   2  2c 2
no

1
2
c
or  
 2c 2
1
2
Example
The electric field intensity of a uniform plane wave in air has a magnitude of 754 V/m and is in the z direction.
ting in the y direction.
Find
(i) Freq

A cos  t   z 
.
(ii) Find

an expression for H.
In air or free space,

  c  3 108 m / sec
(i)

3  108
e
f   m / sec  1.5  108 Hz  150 MHz
 2m
2 2
    3.14 rad / m
 2m
 Ez  754 cos  2  150  106 t   y 

(ii)
For a wave propagating in the +y direction,

n
Ez E
   x
Hz Hz
For the given wave,
e.i
fre
Ez  754 V / m; Ex  0
754 754
 H x  754     A/ m
s4

120 377
 H  2 cos  2  150  106 t   y  ax
ˆ A/ m
te

Example
no

7
 2 1
  
  f 
1 1 1 1
   
 4  10 7
5.8  10 7
f
1 1 1 66 10 3
   
4  5.8 f
2
23.2 2 f f
66  103
(i )   9.3459  103 m
50
66  103
(ii )   3.8105  105 m
3  10 6

n
66  103
(iii )   3.8105  10 7 m
3  106
Wave Propagation in a loss less medium:
e.i
fre
Definition of uniform plane wave in Phasor form:
In phasor form, the uniform plane wave is defined as one for which the equiphase surface is also an
equiamplitude surface, it is a uniform plane wave.
s4

For a uniform plane wave having no variations in x and y directions, the wave equation in phasor form may be
expressed as
te

2 E 2 E
  2   E 0r    2 E ________ (i )
Z 2
Z 2
no

where
     . Let us consider eqn.(i) for, the E component, we get
y

2 Ey
  2 Ey
Z 2

Ey
has a solution of the form,

E y  C1e  j  z  C2 e  j  z ________ (2)

Ey
Where C1 and C2 are arbitrary complex constants. The corresponding time varying form of is

E y  z , t   Re  E y  z  e j t 

 Re  C1 e  j  z  C2 e j  z   e j t  _______ (3)

If C1 and C2 are real, the result of real part extraction operation is,
 E y  z , t   C1 cos  t   z   C2 cos  t   z  _______ (4)
From (3) we note that, in a homogeneous lossless medium, sinusoidal time variation results in space variations
which is also sinusoidal.
Equations (3) and (4) represent sum of two waves traveling in opposite directions.
If C1 = C2, the two wave combine to form a standing wave which does not progress.
Phase velocity and wavelength:

The wave velocity can easily obtained when we rewrite E y as a function and
 z  t  , as in eqn. (4). This
shows that

  ________(5)

In phasor form, identifying a some reference point on the waveform and observing its velocity may obtain the
 t   z  a constant.

n
same result. For a wave traveling in the +Z direction, this point is given by

e.i
dz 
  
dt  , as in eqn. (5)
fre
This -shift
constant and is a measure of phase shift in radians per unit length.
Wavelength: Wavelength is defined as that distance over which the sinusoidal waveform passes through a full
s4

ie.,
te

  2
2 2 2 
no

1
     ;  ________(7)
    2 f   f 
  f  , f in Hz ________(8)

  1
    0 _______(9)
   
0  C ; C  3  108 m / sec
Wave propagation in conducting medium:
The wave eqn. written in the form of Helmholtz eqn. is

 2 E   2 E  0 _______(10)
where  2    2    j   j   j  _______(11)
.
We have, for the uniform plane wave traveling in the z direction, the electric field E must satisfy
2 E
  2 E _______(13)
Z 2

This equation has a possible solution

E  Z   E0 e  Z _______(14)
In time varying form this is becomes

E  z , t   Re  E0 e  Z e j t  _______(15)

=

e  z Re E0 
e j  t   z  ________(16)

n
This is the equation of a wave traveling in the +Z direction and attenuated by a factor e  Z . The phase shift

e.i
factor and the wavelength phase, velocity, as in the lossless case, are given by

2 
   f 
fre
 
The propagation constant
s4

  j   j  ________(11)
We have,

 2    j     2  2 j   2  j   2   ________(17)

te

2
no

 2   2   2   ;  2   2   2   ________(18)
  

  ________(19)
2
Therefore (19) in (18) gives:
 2
  
  2
   
2

 4 
4  4  4  2 2    2  2 2  0
 2  2 2
     
4 2 2
0
4
 2     4  2 2   2  2 2
  2

2
  2 2 
       1 
2 2

 2 

2
 2    2 2 

n
 1  1  2 2 
2    

 
 
 1 

e.i
2 
2 
 1 _________(20)
fre
2 
2
 
and
s4

  2 
  1  2 2   1 ___________(21)
2    
te
no

We choose some reference point on the wave, the cosine function,(say a rest). The value of the wave ie., the

 k0 z  2m
at mth erest.
Now let us fix our position on the wave as this mth erest and observe time variation at this position, nothing that

 t  k0  0 z  2m    t  z / c 
ie.,
Thus at t increases, position z must also increase to satisfy eqn. ( ). Thus the wave erest (and the entire wave
moves in a +ve direction) with a speed given by the above eqn. Similarly, eqn. ( ) having a cosine argument

 t   0 z  describes a wave that moves in the negative direction (as + increases z must decrease to keep the
argument constant). These two waves are called the traveling waves.
Let us further consider only +ve z traveling wave:
We have
 iˆ ˆj kˆ
  
0 0
x y z
Ex Ey 0

  Es   j H s
 E y  Ex
i  j  kˆ0   j  iH 0 x  j  by 
 z  z
Exs
   j H 0 y
z
0
 H oy  
1

Ez 0 e  jk0 z  E x 0 
e  j 0 z

n
j 0

 H y  z , t   Ex 0
0
0 e.i
cos  t   0 z 
fre
Ex 
  ;   0  377  120
Hy 
s4

Ey and Hx
constant.
te

Energy flow is in +Z direction.

no

E and H are perpendicular to the direction of propagation; both lie in a plane that is transverse to the direction of
propagation. Therefore also called a TEM wave.
ˆ
âz direction is 250 V/m. If E = Ex ax
11.1. The electric field amplitude of a UPW in the

H.
  2 f 106
f     159.155 KHz
2 2 2
C
  1.88495 km
f
1
period   6.283  s
f
E
amplitude of H y  x    120
Hy
Ex 250
Hy    0.6631 A / m
120 120

n
1. Giv

en
H s   2  400 ax
ˆ  3200 ay

e.i
ˆ  e  j 0.07 z A / m
for a certain UPW traveling in free space.

H
fre
x at p(1,2,3) at t = 31ns and (iii) at t = 0 at the orign.
Wave propagation in dielectrics:
For an isotopic and homogeneous medium, the wave equation becomes
s4

 2 Es   k 2 s
k     k0  r r   0  r r
te

For Ex component
no

We have

d 2 Exs
2
  k 2 Exs
dz for Ex comp. Of electric field wave traveling in Z – direction.
k can be complex one of the solutions of this eqn. is,

jk    j 
E xs  E x 0 e  z e  j  z
Therefore its time varying part becomes,

Exs  Ex 0 e  z cos  t   z 
This is UPW that propagates in the +Z direction with phase

Z  e  z 
constant . Thus the general effect of a complex valued k is
to yield a traveling wave that changes its amplitude with distance.
 -ve

–ve.
Wave propagation in a conducting medium for medium for time-harmonic fields:
(Fields with sinusoidal time variations)

 2 E   2   E
In a conducting medium, the wave eqn. becomes for sinusoidal time variations:

 2 E   2    j  E  0
Problem:

n
Using Maxwell’s eqn. (1) show that

.D  0 in a conductor

e.i
if ohm’s law and sinusoidal time variations are assumed. When ohm’s law and sinusoidal time variations are
fre
assumed, the first Maxwell’s curl equation is

  H   E  j  E
s4

Taking divergence on both sides, we get,

 
   H    E  j  E  0
te

 E   j   0
 
no

or  D   j   0
 
 , &  are

constants and of finite values and

 0

 D0

Wave propagation in free space:

The Maxwell’s equation in free space, ie., source free medium are,
 E
  H 0 H _________(1)
t
H
  E   _________(2)
t
 D  0 _________(3)
 B  0 _________(4)
Note that wave motion can be inferred from the above equation.
How? Let us see,

Eqn. (1) states that if electric field E is changing with time at some, point then magnetic field H has a curl at that

point; thus H varies spatially in a direction normal to its orientation direction. Further, if E varies with time, then
H will, in general, also change with time; although not necessarily in the same way.

n
Next

From (2) we note that a time varying

e.i
H generates E ; this electric field, having a curl, therefore varies spatially in
a direction normal to its orientation direction.
fre
We thus have once more a time changing electric field, our original hypothesis, but this field is present a small
distance away from the point of the original disturbance.
The velocity with which the effect has moved away from the original disturbance is the velocity of light as we are
s4

going to prove later.

te

UNIFORM PLANE WAVE:

E and H lie in the transverse plane. Ie., the

no

Uniform plane wave is defined as a wave in which (1) both fields

plane whose normal is the direction of propagation; and (2) both E and H are of constant magnitude in the
transverse plane.
Therefore we call such a wave as transverse electro magnetic wave or TEM wave.

The spatial variation of both E and H fields in the direction normal to their orientation (travel) ie., in the
direction normal to the transverse plane.

Differentiating eqn. (7) with respect to Z1 we get

 2 Ex   Hy  2H
 0    0 ________(9)
Z 2 Z  t  t Z

Differentiating (8) with respect to t1 we get

 2 H  2 Ex
  0 _________(10)
t Z t 2
Therefore substituting (10) into (9) gives,

 2 Ex  2 Ex
   0 0 _________(11)
t 2 t 2
This eqn.(11) is the wave equation for the x-polarized TEM electric field in free space.
1
 0 0 3 108 m / sec , on
The constant is the velocity of the wave in free space, denoted c and has a value
10 9
 0  4  10 7 H / m and 0 
substituting the values, 36 Differentiating (10) with respect to
Z and differentiating (9) with respect to ‘t’ and following the similar procedure as above, we get

n
2 H y 2 H y
Z 2
  0 0
t 2
e.i
_________(13)
eqn. (11 and (13) are the second order partial differential eqn. and have solution of the form, for instance,
fre
Ex  Z , t   f1  t  Z /    f 2  t  Z /   ________(14)
E  Ex ax
s4

ˆ
Let (ie., the electric field is polarized (!) in the x- direction !) traveling along Z direction. Therefore

variations of E occurs only in Z direction.

te

Form (2) in this case, we get

no

aˆ x aˆ y aˆ z
   Ex ˆ H H ˆ
 E    0   0  j   0   0 j _________(5)
x y z z t t
Ex 0 0

Note that the direction of the electric field E determines the direction of H , we is now along the y direction.

Therefore in a UPW, E and H are mutually orthogonal. (ie., perpendicular to each other). This in a UPW .

(i) E and H are perpendicular to each other (mutually orthogonal and

(ii) E and H are also perpendicular to the direction of travel.

Form eqn. (1), for the UPW, we get

H y E Ex
 H   ˆ 0
ax  t0 ˆ
ax
Z t t
(using the mutually orthogonal property) _______________(6)
Therefore we have obtained so far,

E x H y
 0 ________(7)
Z t
H y E x
  0 ________(8)
Z t
f1 and f2 can be any functions who se argument is of the form t  Z / .
The first term on RHS represents a forward propagating wave ie., a wave traveling along positive Z direction.
The second term on RHS represents a reverse propagating wave ie., a wave traveling along negative Z direction.
(Real instantaneous form and phaser forms).
The expression for Ex (z,t) can be of the form

Ex  z , t   Ex  z , t   E 1x  z , t 

n
 Ex 0 cos   t  Z /  p   1   E1x 0 cos   t  Z /  p   2 

e.i
 Ex 0 cos  t  k0 z  1   E1x 0 cos  t  k0 z  2  _______ 15 
fre

p c rad/m
is called the phase velocity = c in free space k0 is called the wave number in free space =
s4

_________(16)
eqn. (15) is the real instantaneous forms of the electric (field) wave. ( experimentally measurable)
0t and k0z have the units of angle usually in radians.
te

rad/sec.
no

k0 : spatial frequency, phase shift per unit distance in rad/m.

k0 is the phase constant for lossless propagation.

ie.,

k0 z  k0   2
2
or 
k0 (in free space) _________(17)
Let us consider some point, for instance, the crest or trough or zero crossing (either –ve to +ve or +ve to –ve).
Having chosen such a reference, say the crest, on the forward-propagating cosine function, ie., the function

cos  t  k0 z  1 

the mth erest of the wave from our reference point, the condition becomes,
K0
This point on the cosine wave we have chosen, let us see what happens as time increases.
point.

 t  k0 z    t  Z /    2m _______(18)
Therefore we get,
As time increases, the position Z must also increase to satisfy (18). The wave erest, and the entire wave, moves in
the positive Z-direction with a phase velocity C (in free space).

Using the same reasoning, the second term on the RHS of eqn. (15) having the cosine argument
 t  k0 z 
represents a wave propagating in the Z direction, with a phase velocity C, since as time t increases, Z must decrease
to keep the argument constant.

POLARISATION:
It shows the time varying behavior of the electric field strength vector at some point in space.

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Consider of a UPW traveling along Z direction with E and H vectors lying in the x-y plane.

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1. If
Ey  0 and only Ex is present, the wave is said to be polarized in the x-direction.

2. If Ex = 0 and only Ey is present, the wave is said to be polarized in the y-direction.

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Therefore the direction of E is the direction of polarization

Ex and Ey are present and are in phase, then the resultant electric field E has a
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3. If both

direction that depends on the relative magnitudes of Ex and Ey .

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Ey
The angle which this resultant direction makes with the x axis is tan-1 Ex ; and this angle will be constant with
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time.
1. Linear polarization:
In all the above three cases, the direction of the resultant vector is constant with time and the wave is said to be
linearly polarized.

If Ex and
Ey are not in phase ie., they reach their maxima at different instances of time, then the direction of the
resultant electric vector will vary with time. In this case it can be shown that the locus of the end point of the

resultant E will be an ellipse and the wave is said to be elliptically polarized.

In the particular case where Ex and Ey have equal magnitudes and a 900 phase difference, the locus of the resultant

E is a circle and the wave is circularly polarized.

Linear Polarisation:
Consider the phasor form of the electric field of a UPW traveling in the Z-direction:
 E  Z   E0 e  j  z
Its time varying or instanious time form is

E  Z , t   Re  E0 e  j  z e j t 
The wave is traveling in Z-direction.

Therefore
Ez lies in the x-y plane. In general, E0 is a complex vector ie., a vector whose components are complex
numbers.

Therefore we can write

E0 as,

E0  Er  jE0i

Where
E0 and E0i are real vectors having, in general, different directions.

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At some point in space, (say z = 0) the resultant time varying electric field is

E  0, t   Re  E 0r

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 j E0i e j t

 E0 r cos  t  E0 i sin  t
 
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Therefore E not only changes its magnitude but also changes its direction as time varies.
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Circular Polarisation:
Here the x and y components of the electric field vector are equal in magnitude.
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If Ey leads Ex by 900 and Ex and Ey have the same amplitudes,

Ex  E y E   ax ˆ  E0
ˆ  j ay
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Ie., , we have,
The corresponding time varying version is,

E  0, t    ax ˆ sin  t  E0
ˆ cos  t  ay
 Ex  E0 cos  t
and E y  E0 sin  t
 Ex2  E y2  E02

E0  0, t  E0
Which shows that the end point of traces a circle of radius as time progresses.
Therefore the wave is said to the circularly polarized. Further we see that the sense or direction of rotation is that of
a left handed screw advancing in the Z-direction ( ie., in the direction of propagation). Then this wave is said to be
left circularly polarized.
Similar remarks hold for a right-circularly polarized wave represented by the complex vector,

E   ax ˆ  E0
ˆ  j ay
It is apparent that a reversal of the sense of rotation may be obtained by a 180 0 phase shift applied either to the x
component of the electric field.
Elliptical Polarisation:

Here x and y components of the electric field differ in amplitudes

E x  Ey .
Assume that Ey leads Ex by 900.
Then,
ˆ A  j ay
E0 ax ˆ B
Where A and B are +ve real constants.
Its time varying form is

E  0, t   axA
ˆ cos  t  ayB
ˆ sin  t
 Ex  A cos  t

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E y   B sin  t


Ex2
A2

E y2
B2
1
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E  0, t 
Thus the end point of the vector traces out an ellipse and the wave is elliptically polarized; the sense of
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polarization is left-handed.
Elliptical polarization is a more general form of polarization. The polarization is completely specified by the
orientation and axial ratio of the polarization ellipse and by the sense in which the end point of the electric field
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moves around the ellipse.

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