1

PILE FOUNDATIONS
4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF PILES:
Piles can be classified according to
1. The material used
2. The mode of transfer of load
3. The method of construction
4. The use and
5. Displacement of soil
1.Classification according to material used
There are four types of piles according to materials used
a) Steel piles
b) Concrete piles
c) Timber piles
d) Composite piles
a) Steel piles:
 Steel piles are generally either in the form of thick pipes or rolled steel H-
section. Pipe steel piles are driven into ground with their ends open or closed.
Piles are provided with a driving point or shoe at the lower end.
 Epoxy coatings are applied in the factory during manufacture of pipes to reduce
corrosion of the steel pipes. Sometimes concrete encasement at site is done as a
protection against corrosion. To take into account the corrosion, an additional
thickness of the steel section is usually recommended.
b) Concrete piles
 Cement concrete is used in the construction of concrete piles. Concrete piles
are either precast or cast in- situ. Precast concrete piles are prepared in a factory
or a casting yard. The reinforcement is provided to resist handling and driving
stresses. Precast piles can also be pre-stressed using high strength steel pre-
tensioned cables.
 A cast in-situ pile is constructed by making a hole in the ground and then filling
it with concrete. A cast in situ pile may be cased or uncased. A cased pile is
constructed by driving a steel casing into the ground and filling it with concrete.
An uncased pile is constructed by driving to the desired depth and gradually
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withdrawing casing when fresh concrete is filled. An un-casted pile may have a
pedestal.
c)Timber piles
 Timber piles are made from tree trunks after proper trimming. The timber used
should be straight, sound and free from defects.
 Steel shoes are provided to prevent damage during driving. To avoid damage to
the top of the pile, a metal bond or a cap is provided. Splicing of timber piles is
done using pipe sleeve or metal straps and bolts. The length of the pipe sleeve
should be at least five times the diameter of the pile.
 Timber piles below the water table have generally long life. However, above the
water table, these are attacked by insects. The life of the timber piles can be
increased by preservatives such as creosote oil. Timber piles should be used in
massive environment where these are attacked by various.
d)Composite piles
 A composite pile is made of two materials. A composite pile may consist of the
lower portion of steel and the upper portion of cast in-situ concrete.
 A composite may also have the lower portion of timber below the permanent
water table and the upper portion of the concrete.
 As it is difficult to provide a proper joint between two dissimilar materials,
composite piles are rarely used in practice.
2.Classification based on mode of transfer of load
a) Based on the mode of transfer of loads, the pile can be classified into three
categories:
1. End bearing piles
2. Friction piles
3. Combined end bearing and friction piles
i. End bearing piles
 End bearing piles transmit the loads through their bottom tips. Such piles act as
columns and transmit the load through a weak material to a firm stratum below.
If bed rock is located within a responsible depth, piles can be extended to the
rock.
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 The ultimate capacity of the pile depends upon the bearing capacity of the rock.
If instead of bed rock, a fairly compact and hard stratum of soil exists at a
reasonable depth, piles can be extended a few minutes’ piles are also known as
“point-bearing piles”.
 The ultimate load carried by the pile (Q u) is equal to the load carried by the point
or bottom end (Qp)

Fig1.End bearing pile

[Fig1 https://www.civilknowledges.com/pile-foundation/]
ii. Friction piles
 Friction piles do not reach the hard stratum. These piles transfer the loads
through skin friction between the embedded surface of the pile and the
surrounding soil. Friction piles are used when a hard stratum does not exist at a
reasonable depth.
 The ultimate load (Qu) carried by the pile is equal to the sum of the load carried
by the pile is equal to the load transferred by skin friction (Qs).
 Friction piles are known as floating piles as these do not reach the hard stratum.
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Fig2.FrictionPile
[Fig2 https://www.civilknowledges.com/pile-foundation/]
iii. Combined end bearing and friction piles
 The piles transfers load by a combination of end bearing at the bottom of the pile
and friction along the surface of the pile shaft, the ultimate load carried by the
pile is equal to the sum of the load carried by the pile point (Qp) and the load
carried by the skin friction(Qs).
3) Classification based on method of installation
Based on the method of construction, the piles may be classified into the following
5 categories
i. Driven pile
ii. Driven and cast in situ piles
iii. Bored and cast in situ piles
iv. Screw piles
v. Jacked piles
i)Driven piles
These piles are driven into the soil by applying blows of a heavy hammer on their
tops.
ii)Driven and cast in situ piles
These piles are formed by drawing a casing with a closed bottom end into
the soil. The casing is later filled with concrete. The casing may or may not be
withdrawn.
iii)Bored and cast in situ pile
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These piles are formed by a hole into the ground and then filling it with concrete.
iv)Screw piles
These piles are screwed into soil.
v)Jacked piles
These piles are jacked into the soil by applying a downward force with the help
of a hydraulic jack.
4)Classification based on use
The piles can be classified into the following 6 categories depending upon their use.
i. Load bearing piles
ii. Compaction piles
iii. Tension piles
iv. Sheet piles
v. Fender piles
vi. Anchor piles
i)Load bearing piles
These piles are used to transfer the load of the structure to a suitable stratum by
end bearing by friction or by both.
ii)Compaction piles
These piles are driven into the loose granular soil to increase the relative density.
The bearing capacity of the soil is increased due to densification caused by vibrations.
iii)Sheet piles
Sheet piles forms a continuous wall or bulk head which are used for retaining
earth or water.
iv)Fender piles
Fender piles are sheet piles which are used to protect water front structures from
impact of ships and vessels.
v)Anchor piles
These piles are used to protect anchorage for anchored sheet piles. These piles
provide resistant against horizontal pull for a sheet pile wall.
5)Classification based on displacement of soil:
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Based on the volume of the soil displacement during installation the piles can be
classified into 2 categories
1. Displacement piles
2. Non- displacement piles
1.Displacement piles
All driven piles are displacement piles as the soil is displacement laterally when
the pile is installed. The soil gets densified. The installation may cause heaving of the
surrounding ground. Precast concrete pile and closed end pipe pile are high
displacement piles. Sheet H- piles are low displacement piles.
2.Non- displacement piles
Bored piles are non- displacement piles. As the soil is removed when the hole is
bored, there is no displacement of the soil during installation. The installation of these
piles causes very little change in the stresses in the surrounding soil.
Use of pile foundation is preferred:
 The load coming from the user structure is heavy and its distribution is uneven.
 The structure is located on a sea-shore or river bed when the foundation likely to
affected by the scouring action of water. Hence they are useful in marine
structures.
 The pile foundation to uses for the structures in the area where canals, deep
drainage lines, etc. are to construct near the foundation.
 The top soil has a poor bearing capacity.
 The construction of the raft foundation or grillage foundation is likely to very
costly or is practically impossible.
 The sub-soil water level is high so that the pumping of water from the open
trenches for the shallow foundation is difficult and uneconomical.
Selection of Foundation:
The selection of pile foundation depends on the soil investigation data received
from soil exploration bore holes at different depths. Selection of appropriate pile for the
desired strength and requirement plays an important role in cost reduction and
efficiency. In this article we discuss about the selection of type of piles based on soil
conditions.
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Factors affecting the selection of Pile Foundation

 The factors that affect the selection of pile foundations are,

 Soil conditions
 Loads from structures
 Nature of loads
 Number of piles to be used
 Cost of construction
 Type, size, and weight of the structure to be supported.
 Physical properties of the soil at the site.
 Depth to a stratum capable of supporting the piles.
 Possibility of variations in the depth to a supporting stratum.
 Availability of materials for piles.
 Number of piles required.
 Facilities for driving piles.
 Durability required.
 Types of structures adjacent to the project.
 Depth and kind of water, if any, above the ground into which the piles will be
driven.
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4.2 Load carrying capacity of pile:

 The ultimate Load carrying capacity of pile or ultimate Load bearing resistance
of pile is the maximum load which it can be carry without failure.
 The pile transfer the load in two ways
1) Through the tip in compression is called end bearing or point bearing
2) By shear along the surface is called as skin friction
 All type of pile behave both end bearing and skin friction
The Load carrying capacity of pile can be determined by following method
1. Dynamic Analysis
2. Static Analysis
3. Pile load test
4. Penetration test
1. Dynamic Analysis:
The load carrying capacity of a driven pile can be estimated from the resistance
against penetration developed during driving operation with a hammer.
i)Engineering news formula
𝑊𝐻
𝑄𝑎 =
𝐹(𝑆 + 𝐶)
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
H= height of fall
W=weight of hammer in kg
F=Factor of safety=6
S=settlement or penetration
C=empirical constant=2.5cm
ii)Drop hammer
𝑊𝐻
𝑄𝑎 =
𝑏(𝑆 + 2.5)
a)single acting hammer
𝑊𝐻
𝑄𝑎 =
6(𝑠 + 0.25)
b)double acting hammer
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(𝑊 + 𝑎𝑝)𝐻
𝑄𝑎 =
6(𝑠 + 0.25)
iii)Hileys formula
𝑊𝐻ηh ηb
𝑄𝑓 = 𝐶
𝑠+
2

𝑄𝑓 = 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒

C=elastic compression
𝐶 = 𝑐1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
𝑐1, 𝐶2 , 𝐶3 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
C1 value :
Precast=0.12-0.5
Steel=0.04-0.16
Timber=0.05-0.2
𝑄𝑎 𝐿
𝐶2 =
𝐴𝐸
C3 value:
C3 =0.1=average value
C3 =0=hard soil
C3 =0.3=residual soil
W+e2 P
ηb = ,W>ep
W+p

W+e2 P W−ep 2
ηb = –( ) ,W<ep
W+p w+p

P=weight of pile helmet/cap

e= coefficient of restitution value
For timber pile e=0
For steel pile e=0.5
ηh = 100% = drop hammer
ηh = 75 − 85% = single acting hammer
ηh = 100% = Diesel hammer
1. For single acting hammer
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e=0 to 0.25
2. Double acting hammer
𝑄𝑢
𝐶1 = 1.77.
𝐴
𝑄𝑢 𝐿
𝐶2 = 0.0657
𝐴
𝑄𝑢
𝐶3 = 3.55
𝐴
A=Area of pile in cm2
L=length of pile in m
R= resistance
Safe load on pile:
𝑄
𝑄𝑠 =
𝐹
Problems:
Dynamic Analysis:
1. A wooden pile is being driven with a drop hammer weight 20KN and having a free
fall of1m.the penetration in the last blow is 5mm.Determine the load carrying capacity
of pile according to engineering news formula.
Given data:
W=20KN
H=1m=100cm
S=5mm=5/10cm=0.5cm
To find:
Qa=?
Soln:
i)Engineering news formula
𝑊𝐻
𝑄𝑎 =
𝐹(𝑆 + 𝐶)
W.K.T F=6,C=2.5
20𝑥100
𝑄𝑎 = = 111.11𝐾𝑁
6(0.5 + 2.5)
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2.A reinforced concrete pile weighing 30KN inclusive of pile cap and a dolly driven by
drop hammer of weight 40KN and having a effective fall of 0.8m .The average set per
blow is 1.4cm .The temporary elastic compression is 1.8cm.assume the coefficient of
restitution as 0.25and FOS of 2.Determine the allowable load.
Given data:
concrete pile weighing (p)=30KN
drop hammer of weight (W)=40KN
H=0.8m=80cm
S=1.4cm
C=1.8cm
e=0.25
FOS=2
To find:
Allowable load(Q)=?
Soln:
Hileys formula
𝑊𝐻ηh ηb
𝑄𝑓 = 𝐶
𝑠+
2
W+e2 P
ηb = ,W>ep
W+p

W+e2 P W−ep 2
ηb = –( ) ,W<ep
W+p w+p

ep=0.25x30=7.5KN
W=40KN
W>ep, therefore
W + e2 P
ηb =
W+p
(40 + (0.252 )x30) 41.87
ηb = = = 0.598
30 + 40 70
ηh = 100% = 1 = drop hammer
40𝑥80𝑥1x0.598 1913.6
𝑄𝑓 = 1.8 = = 832𝐾𝑁
1.4 + 2.3
2
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𝑄𝑓 832
𝑄𝑎 = = = 416𝐾𝑁
𝐹 2
3. A reinforced concrete pie weighing 30 kN is driven by a drop hammer weighing 40
kN and having an effective fall of 0.80m. The average set per bow is 1.40 cm. The total
temporary elastic compression is 1.80 cm, assuming the coefficient of restitution as
0.25 and factor of safety of 2. Determine the ultimate bearing capacity and the
allowable load for the pile.
Given:
P = 30 k W
W = 40 K W
𝜂n H = 0.8 m = 80 cmS = 1.4 cm
C = 1.8 cm
𝜂n = 1 for drop hammer.
P x e = 30 x 0.25
= 7.5 k w
∴ w> p e
Efficiency hammer blow
∴ 𝜂b = w + e 2 p / (w + p)
= 40 + 0.252 x 30 / (40 + 30)
𝜂b = 0.598
Ultimate load on pile
Qf = 𝜂n w H 𝜂b / (s + c/2)
= 1 x 40 x 80 x0.598/ (1.4 + 1.8/2)
= 1914.286 / (1.4 + 0.9)
Qf = 832.3 k W
Allowable load = Qf/ FOS
= 832.3 /2.0
Qa=416.2 k W
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4.3 Load carrying capacity of pile:

 The ultimate Load carrying capacity of pile or ultimate Load bearing resistance
of pile is the maximum load which it can be carry without failure.
 The pile transfer the load in two ways
1) Through the tip in compression is called end bearing or point bearing
2) By shear along the surface is called as skin friction
 All type of pile behave both end bearing and skin friction
The Load carrying capacity of pile can be determined by following method
1. Dynamic Analysis
2. Static Analysis
3. Pile load test
4. Penetration test
1. Dynamic Analysis:
The load carrying capacity of a driven pile can be estimated from the resistance
against penetration developed during driving operation with a hammer.
2.Static Analysis:
Sum of end bearing pile/point bearing pile and friction pile
𝑄𝑢𝑝 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑝 𝐴𝑝
As=Surface area of pile
Ap= Area of cross section of pile
rf=Average skin friction
rp=end/point/tip bearing of pile
For circular Pile:
𝜋 2
𝐴𝑝 = 𝐷
4
𝐴𝑠 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿
For rectangular Pile:
𝐴𝑝 = 𝐵𝑥𝐷
𝐴𝑠 = 2(𝐵 + 𝐷 )𝐿
i)Cohesive soil:
𝑟𝑓 = 𝛼. 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑐
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𝑟𝑝 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑁𝑐 , 𝑁𝑐 = 9
𝑟𝑝 = 9𝐶𝑝
𝑄𝑢𝑝 = 𝛼𝐶𝐴𝑠 + 9𝐶𝑝 𝐴𝑝
Where, α=Reduction factor
𝑄𝑢𝑝
𝑄𝑎 =
𝐹
𝛼𝐶𝐴𝑠 + 9𝐶𝑝 𝐴𝑝
𝑄𝑎 =
𝐹

ii) Cohesionless soil

𝑟𝑓 = 𝑘𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑(𝛾. 𝑍 + 𝑞)
For circular pile:
𝑟𝑝 = 0.3𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾
For rectangular and square pile:
𝛾𝐵
𝑟𝑝 = 𝑁
2 𝛾
Where,
rf=average skin friction
𝛾 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙.
q= surcharge on the ground
𝜑 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
Static Analysis: Problems
1.A reinforced concrete square pile of size 30x30cm and 10cm long is driven into
saturated sand extending to great depth. The average effective unit weight
=16KN/m3.average FS=2.5 .Find Qs
Given data:
square pile of size 30x30cm=0.3x0.3m
Z=10cm
𝛾 = 16𝐾𝑁/𝑚3
F=2.5
To find:
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Safe Load Qs=?

Solution:
Assume K=1.5,N 𝛾 = 25,𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 = 0.6
𝑄𝑢𝑝 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑝 𝐴𝑝
cohesionless soil
𝑟𝑓 = 𝑘𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑(𝛾. 𝑍 + 𝑞)
𝑟𝑓 = 1.5𝑥0.6𝑥 (16𝑥10 + 0) = 144
For rectangular and square pile:
𝛾𝐵
𝑟𝑝 = 𝑁
2 𝛾
16𝑥0.3
𝑟𝑝 = 𝑥25 = 60
2
𝐴𝑝 = 0.3𝑥0.3 = 0.09𝑚2
𝐴𝑠 = 𝑏𝑥𝑍 = 0.3𝑥10 = 3𝑚2
𝑄𝑢𝑝 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑝 𝐴𝑝
𝑄𝑢𝑝 = 0.09𝑥60 + 144𝑥3 = 437.4𝐾𝑁
𝑄𝑢𝑝 437.4
𝑄𝑎 = = = 174.96𝐾𝑁
𝐹 2.5
2. A pile is driven in a uniform clay of large depth .UCC=90KN/m2,30 cm dia and 6m
long,FS=3,α=0.7.Determine the frictional resistance.
Given data:
UCC=90KN/m2
D=30cm=0.3m
Z=6m
F=3
α=0.7
To find :
frictional resistance=?
Soln:
𝑄𝑢𝑝 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑝 𝐴𝑝
𝑄𝑢𝑝 = 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑒𝑛𝑑/𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡/𝑡𝑖𝑝 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 pile
 16

𝐴𝑠 𝑅𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑝 𝐴𝑝 = 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 pile
Given clay soil therefore it is cohesive soil
For circular Pile:
𝐴𝑠 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿 = 𝜋𝑥0.3𝑥6 = 5.6𝑚2
Cohesive soil:
𝑟𝑓 = 𝛼. 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑐
UCC:
𝑞𝑢 90
𝐶= = = 45𝐾𝑁/𝑚2
2 2
𝑅𝑓 = 0.7𝑥45 = 31.5
𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑅𝑓 = 5.6𝑥31.5 = 176.4𝐾𝑁
As Rf 176.4
Safe frictional resistance = = = 58.8KN
F 3

3. A 30cm diameter concrete pile is driven normally consolidated clay deposit 15m
thick .Estimate the safe load. Take Cu=70KN/m2.
Given data:
Diameter D=30cm=0.3m
Clay-cohesive
Z=15m
Cu=70KN/m2.
To find:
Safe load=?
Solution:
𝑄𝑢𝑝 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑝 𝐴𝑝
For circular Pile:
𝜋 2
𝐴𝑝 = 𝐷
4
𝜋
= 0.32 = 0.070𝑚2
4

𝐴𝑠 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿 = 𝜋𝑥0.3𝑥15 = 14.13𝑚2

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Cohesive soil:
Assume 𝛼 = 0.9, 𝐹 = 2.5
𝑟𝑓 = 𝛼. 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑐
=0.9x70
=63KN/m2
𝑟𝑝 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑁𝑐 , 𝑁𝑐 = 9
𝑟𝑝 = 9𝑥70 = 630𝐾𝑁
𝑄𝑢𝑝 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑟𝑓 + 𝑟𝑝 𝐴𝑝
𝑄𝑢𝑝 = 14.13𝑥63 + 630𝑥0.070
= 934.29𝐾𝑁
𝑄𝑢𝑝 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Where,α=Reduction factor
934.29
𝑄𝑎 = = 373.716𝐾𝑁
2.5
𝑄𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑄𝑠 = 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
4.A concrete pile of 45cm dia is driven through a system of layered cohesive soil.The
length of the pile=16m
1.Stiff clay=8m,Cu=30,α=0.9
2.Medium Stiff clay=6m,Cu=50,α=0.75
3.silt stratum =to creator depth ,C u=105,α=0.5,As=0.159m2.
Given data:
D=45=0.45m
Cohesive soil
Length L=16m
As=0.159m2
To find:
Safe load=?
Solution:
silt stratum =to creator depth=16-(8+6)=2m
𝑄𝑢𝑝 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑟𝑓 + 𝑟𝑝 𝐴𝑝
 18

𝑟𝑓 = 𝛼. 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑐
=[(0.9x30x8)+(0.75x50x6)+(0.5x105x2)]=357 KN/m2
𝑟𝑝 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑁𝑐 , 𝑁𝑐 = 9
𝑟𝑝 = 9𝑥105 = 945𝐾𝑁
𝜋 2
𝐴𝑝 = 𝐷
4
𝜋
= 0.452 = 0.158𝑚2
4
𝑄𝑢𝑝 = 0.159𝑥357 + 945𝑥0.158 = 202.86𝐾𝑁
202.86
𝑄𝑎 = = 81.144𝐾𝑁
2.5
5. A group of 9 piles with 3 piles in a row is driven into soft clay extending from
ground level to a great depth. The diameter and length of piles were 30 cm and 10 cm
respectively. The unconfined compression strength of clay is 70 kN/m2. If the piles
were spaced at 90cm centre to centre, compute the allowable load on the pile group on
the basis of shear failure criteria for a factor of safety of 2.5, neglect bearing at the tip of
piles, take m = 0.6 for shear mobilization around each pile.

Given Data:
n = 9 piles with 3 piles in a row. S= 90cm = 0.9 m c/c
D=30cm = 0.3m L=10m
qu =70kN/m2
𝑞𝑢 70
𝑐= = = 35𝐾𝑁/𝑚2
2 2
F.S. =2.5,m =0.6
To Find:
Qa=?
Solution:
Ultimate load on pile based on individual action::
 19

Size of pile group = BXB

=2.1m x 2.1m
Qup=Asrf+Aprp
Asrf=Friction pile
Aprp= end/point/tip bearing
In question neglect bearing at the tip of piles,therefore
Qup=Asrf
As=πdL= πx0.3x10=9.42m2.
rf=αC=mc=0.6x35=21
= 9.42x21=197.82 kN
Qun=nxQug=9x197.82=1780.38KN
Ultimate load on pile based on group action:
Qup=Asrf
As=4BL=4x2.1x10=84m2
Qup=84x21=1764KN
Ultimate load on pile = least = 1780.3 kN
When the pile acting individually,
1780.3
Safe load on pile = = 712.5KN
2.5

6. A group of 16 friction piles is to support a column load of 4000kN. The piles will be
driven in four rows with four numbers in each column. The piles are 35 cm diameter
and the c/c spacing is 1m both ways. What set value must be attained by the piles when
driven by a single acting 22.5kN steam hammer with 90cm stroke so that the pile group
can carry the column load? Assuming L= 10m
Solution:
 20

Case1)i)Load carried by group action

Qup=Asrf+ Aprp
As=4BL
=4x3.35x10
=134m2
Qup=84x21=1764KN
𝐴𝑝 = 𝐵 2 = 3.352 = 11.22𝑚2
rp=CNc=9C
rf=αC=mc=0.7xC
In group load is 4000KN
Qug=Asrf+Aprp
4000=134x0.7 C+11.22x9C
C=22KN/m2
ii)Load carried by individual action:
Qup=Asrf+ Aprp
𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋𝑥 (0.35)2
𝐴𝑝 = = = 0.096𝑚2
4 4
rp=CNc=22x9=198KN/m2
rf=αC=mc=0.7x22=15.4KN/m2
As=πdL=πx0.35x10=10.99m2
Qup=10.99x15.4+0.096x198=188.254KN
Qun=nxQup
=16x188.25
=3012.064
Individual pile fails first.
Caseii)Engineering news formula
Qu =WH/6(S+C) for stream hammer C=0.254
2628 = [22.5 x 0.9 x 100]/ [6(S + 0254)]
2628 = 20.25/ [6S+1.524]
2628(6S + 1.524) = 20.25 x 100 (neglect the sign)
6S + 1.524 = 0.77
 21

6S = 0.752
S = 0.125 cm
S = 1.25 mm
7. Design a friction pile group to carry a load of 3000 KN including the weight of the
pile cap at a site where the soil is uniform clay to a depth of 20 m underlain by rock.
Average unconfined compressive strength of the clay is 70kN/m2. The clay may be
assumed to be of normal sensitivity and normally loaded, with liquid limit of 60%. A
factor safety of 3 is required against shear failure.
Given
Qug = 3000k W
C = qu/2 =70/2 =35 kN/m2
𝑐
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶 =
𝐹
Permission C = 35/3 kN/m2
Assume,Let the length of pile =10 m
Diameter of the pile =0.5 m
Spacing of pile = 3 d =3 x 0.5 =1.5 m = 150 cm
Let the no. Of piles = n
Qup=C 𝜋dL
Qug = n Qup
Qug = n x 35/3 x 𝜋 x 0.5 x 10
n = 16.37
For square arrangement keep n = 16
The modified length L will then have to increase by the ratio16.37 /16
L= 10 x 16.37 /16
L =10.23 L = 11 m
Check for group action
 22

B = 3 s+d = 3 x 150 + 50 = 500 cm = 50 m

Load taken by group action
= 4 BL x C + A P. C Nc
= 4 x 5 x 11 x(35/3) + [(5 x 5) x (39/3) x 9]
=2566.7 + 2625
Qug = 5191.7 kN > 3000 KN
Hence safe,
 23

4.4 Capacity from insitu tests:

1. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
2. Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
3. Pile load test
1.Standard Penetration Test (SPT): The load carrying capacity of a pile can be
estimated from the SPT value(N)
i)For Driven pile:
𝐷
𝑞𝑝 = 40𝑁 ( ) ≤ 400𝑁 − − − −(1)
𝐵
Where,
qp=Point resistance(KN/m2)
D=Length of pile
B=width of pile
The value of qp is usually limited to 400N
The average unit frictional resistance (fs) is related to the average value of the blow
̅
count 𝑁
For High displacement piles,
̅𝐾𝑁/𝑚2
𝑓𝑠 = 2𝑁
For low displacement piles,
̅𝐾𝑁/𝑚2
𝑓𝑠 = 1𝑁
̅ is the average uncorrected value
Where 𝑁
ii)For bored pile in sand:
𝐷𝑏
𝑞𝑝 = 14𝑁 ( ) 𝐾𝑁/𝑚2 − − − −(2)
𝐵
Db=actual penetration into the granular soil
For bored piles in sand,
̅𝐾𝑁/𝑚2
𝑓𝑠 = 0.67𝑁
2) Dutch cone test:
Meyerhof (1965) relates the unit point resistance (qp) and the unit skin traction(fs)
of driven pile to cone point resistance (q c)
𝑞𝑐 𝐷
Point resistance,𝑞𝑝 = ( 𝑏 ) − − − (3)
10 𝐵
 24

Unit skin friction:

a) fs (dense sand) = qc/200------(4)
b) fs (loose sand) = qc/400------(5)
c) fs (silt) = qc/150------(6)
3. Pile Load test:
 The Pile Load Test is the most reliable method of determining the load carrying
of a pile. This test can be performed either on a working pile that forms the
foundation of the structure or on a test pile.
 Loads Acting on Piles
Following are the loads which are to be taken into account while designing a pile.
 Direct vertical load coming from the superstructure.
 Impact stresses developed during the process of pile driving.
 Stresses developed during handling operations.
 Bending stress developed due to the curvature of a pile.
 Bending stresses developed due to the eccentricity of loads coming onthe pile.
 Lateral forces due to the wind, waves, currents of water, etc.
 Impact forces due to the ice sheets or bergs.
 Impact forces due to ships, in case of marine structures.
 Force due to the uplift pressure.
 Earthquake forces.
 25

Fig1 Pile Load Test

[Fig1 https://civiconcepts.com/blog/pile-load-test]

Fig 2 Jack Loading reaction by loading platform

[Fig 2https://bestengineeringprojects.com/pile-load-test/]

Fig 3 Jack Loading reaction by anchor

[Fig 3 https://bestengineeringprojects.com/pile-load-test/]
 26

The following the procedure of pile load test,

 The sets up for the load test on a pile consist of two anchor piles provided with
an anchor girder or a reaction girder at their top as shown in Figure above.
 The test pile is generally installed between two anchor piles in such a manner
in which the foundation piles are to be installed.
 The test pit should be at least 3B or 2.5 m clear from the anchor piles.
 The load is applied through a hydraulic jack resting on the reaction girder. The
measurements of the settlement of the pile are recorded with the help of three dial
gauges, with respect to a fixed reference mark.
 The test is conducted after a period of 3 days after installation of the test pile in
sandy soils, and after a period of one month after the installation of the test pile
in silts and soft days.
 This is because by driving the test pile the soil properties are altered and with
the passage of time much of the original properties are restored.
 The load is generally applied in an equal amount of increment and that is about
one fifth of the allowable load. Settlements should be recorded with three dial
gauges.
 Each load increment is kept for sufficient time till the rate of settlement of the
becomes less than 0.02 mm per hour.
 Each load increment is maintained till the rate of movement of the pile is not
more than 0.1 mm per hour in sandy soils and 0.02 mm per hour in layer soils or
a maximum of two hours.
 For each load inclement settlements are observed at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20,
60 minutes.
 The test pile is loaded until ultimate load is reached.
 The test load is increased to a value 2.5 times the estimated allowable load or to
a load whichever failure occur earlier.
 The load is removed in the same decrements at 1hour interval and the final
rebound is recorded after 24 hours after the entire load has been removed.
 27

 The measured values of the settlement are plotted against the corresponding values
of Load to obtain the load settlement curve. Fig. shows a typical load settlement
curve (firm line) for loading as well as unloading obtained from a pile load test.

Fig 4 Load Settlement curve

[Fig4 https://civiconcepts.com/blog/pile-load-test]
 The ultimate load is clearly indicated by the load settlement curve approaching
vertical.
 If the ultimate load cannot be obtained from the settlement curve the allowable
load is taken as follows,
 one-half to one third the final load which cause settlement equal to 10% of the
pile diameter.
 Two third of the final load which cause a total settlement of 12mm.
 Two third of final load which causes a net settlement (residual settlement after
the removal of load) of 6mm.
For given load, the net settlement (Sn) is given by,Sn = St – Se
Where, Sn = Net Settlement
St = Total Settlement or Gross Settlement
Se = Elastic Settlement (rebound)
 Fig. shows two loads-settlement curves obtained from a pile load tests on two
different soils. The ultimate load Qu may be determined as the abscissa of the
pointwhere the load settlement curve changes to a steep straight line.
 28

 Alternatively, the ultimate load Qu is the abscissa of the point of intersection of

initial and final tangents of the load settlement curve. The allowable load is
usually taken as one-half of the ultimate load.

Fig5 Settlement curve for pile

Causes of Failure of Piles:

Following are the most common causes of failure of piles:
 Absence of statistical data regarding the nature of soil strata through which the
pile is to be driven.
 The actual load coming on the pile is more than the design load.
 Bad workmanship in case of cast-in-situ cements concrete piles.
 Attack by insert etc. on wooden piles.
 Breakage due to over especially in case of the timber piles.
 Buckling of piles due to removal of side support, inadequate lateral support,etc.
 Lateral forces (wind, waves, currents, etc.)
 Damage due to abrasion resulting from the absence of suitable protective
covering.
 Improper choice of types of piles.
 Improper choice of the method of driving the pile.
 29

 Improper classification.
 Insufficient reinforcement or misplacement in the case of the R. C. C. piles.
 The pressure of soft strata just below the tips of piles.
 Misinterpretation of the results obtained during the pile load test.
 Wrongful use of pile formula for determining its load-bearing capacity.
12.17 Pile Load Tests
High-rise buildings often require several piles to support the building loads. We have
seen in previous sections that there are different methods for predicting the load-
carrying capacities of the pile point and pile shaft, and the ultimate load Qu thus
determined can vary significantly depending on the method and the factors used.
Varying soil conditions, unreliable soil parameters, and the assumptions and simpli-
fications in the theoretical model used in the prediction contribute to the variability
in the ultimate load Qu. The pile load test is a good way to verify the load-carrying
capacity of a pile.
Figure 12.32 shows schematic diagrams of two different pile load test arrange-
ments for testing axial compression in the field. The main difference between the
two is the way the horizontal reaction beam is held in place. In Figure 12.32a, a kent-
ledge, consisting of heavy weights, is required to hold the reaction beam in place,
and the hydraulic jack is used to jack against the beam and hence apply the pile load.
In Figure 12.32b, two reaction piles, located far away from the test pile, anchor the
horizontal reaction beam to the ground.
The loads are applied in increments as specified by the relevant standards,
with sufficient time between the load increments. Generally, the piles are loaded
well beyond their working loads (e.g., 2 times). On reaching the maximum load
for the test, the pile is unloaded in steps. The dial gauges measure the settle-
ment of the pile head where they are mounted. This is the total or gross settle-
ment, denoted as st. Due to the compressibility of the pile material, the pile itself
undergoes some elastic compression, known as the elastic shortening or elastic
compression of the pile, denoted here as se. The net settlement of the pile is the
settlement of the pile point, which is slightly less and is denoted as snet. Therefore,
at any load,

snet 5 st 2 se (12.81)
Figure 12.32c shows a load-settlement diagram obtained from field loading and
unloading. For any load Q, the net pile settlement can be calculated as follows:
When Q 5 Q1 ,

Net settlement, snets1d 5 sts1d 2 ses1d

 Kentledge

Reaction beam
Reaction beam Load cell
Dial gauge Hydraulic jack

GL GL

Reference beam

Test pile Reaction pile Test pile

(a) (b)

Q1 Q2 Load, Q
Load, Q
st(1)
st(2)

Loading Qu

se(1) se(2) Qu

Unloading
1 2
Settlement Net settlement, snet
(c) (d)

Figure 12.32 Pile load test: (a) using kentledge, (b) using reaction pile, (c) load vs. total
settlement plots, and (d) load vs. net settlement

When Q 5 Q2 ,

Net settlement, snets2d 5 sts2d 2 ses2d

.
.
.
These values of Q can be plotted in a graph against the corresponding net settlement,
snet , as shown in Figure 12.32d. The ultimate load of the pile can then be determined
from the graph. Pile settlement may increase with load to a certain point, beyond
which the load-settlement curve becomes vertical. The load corresponding to the
point where the curve of Q versus snet becomes vertical is the ultimate load, Qu , for
the pile; it is shown by curve 1 in Figure 12.32d. In many cases, the latter stage of
the load-settlement curve is almost linear, showing a large degree of settlement for
a small increment of load; this is shown by curve 2 in the figure. The ultimate load,
Qu , for such a case is determined from the point of the curve of Q versus snet where
this steep linear portion starts.
One of the methods to obtain the ultimate load Qu from the load-settlement plot
is that proposed by Davisson (1973). Davisson’s method is used more often in the
field and is described here. Referring to Figure 12.33, the ultimate load occurs at a
total settlement level ssud of

D smmd Q uL
su smmd 5 4 1 1 (12.82)
120 ApEp
 Qu Load, Q (kN)

D (mm)
4+
120

QuL
Ap Ep
Eq. (12.82)

Settlement, st (mm)

Figure 12.33 Davisson’s method for determination of Qu

where
Qu 5 ultimate load (kN)
D 5 pile diameter or width (mm)
L 5 pile length (mm)
Ap 5 area of pile cross section smm2d
Ep 5 Young’s modulus of pile material skN/mm2d
The application of this procedure is shown in Example 12.12.
The load test procedure just described requires the application of step loads on
the piles and the measurement of settlement and is called a load-controlled test.
Another technique used for a pile load test is the constant-rate-of-penetration test,
wherein the load on the pile is continuously increased to maintain a constant rate
of penetration, which can vary from 0.25 to 2.5 mm/min. This test gives a load-
settlement plot similar to that obtained from the load-controlled test. Another type
of pile load test is cyclic loading, in which an incremental load is repeatedly applied
and removed.
In order to conduct a load test on piles, it is important to take into account
the time lapse after the end of driving (EOD). When piles are driven into soft
clay, a certain zone surrounding the clay becomes remolded or compressed, as
shown in Figure 12.34a. This results in a reduction of undrained shear strength, cu
(Figure 12.34b). With time, the loss of undrained shear strength is partially or fully
regained. The time lapse may range from 30 to 60 days.
For piles driven in dilative (dense to very dense) saturated fine sands, relaxation
is possible. Negative pore water pressure, if developed during pile driving, will dis-
sipate over time, resulting in a reduction in pile capacity with time after the driving
operation is completed. At the same time, excess pore water pressure may be gener-
ated in contractive fine sands during pile driving. The excess pore water pressure will
dissipate over time, which will result in greater pile capacity.
 Remolded Compressed Intact
Pile
zone zone zone

< 1.5 D < 0.5 D D 5 diameter < 0.5 D < 1.5 D

(a)

cu
Remolded Compressed Intact
zone zone zone

Sometime
after
driving Immediately
after
driving

Distance from pile

(b)

Figure 12.34 (a) Remolded or compacted zone around a pile driven into soft clay;
(b) nature of variation of undrained shear strength scud with time around a pile driven into
soft clay

Several empirical relationships have been developed to predict changes in pile

capacity with time. An excellent review of most of the works has been given by
Sawant et al. (2013).

Example 12.12
Figure 12.35 shows the load test results of a 20 m long concrete pile (406 mm 3
406 mm) embedded in sand. Using Davisson’s method, determine the ultimate load
Qu. Given: Ep 5 30 3 106 kN/m2.

Solution
From Eq. (12.82),
D QuL
su 5 4 1 1
120 ApEp

D 5 406 mm, L 5 20 m 5 20,000 mm, Ap 5 406 mm 3 406 mm 5 164,836 mm2,

and Ep 5 30 3 106 kN/m2. Hence,

406 sQuds20,000d
su 5 4 1 1
120 s30ds164,836d
5 4 1 3.4 1 0.004Qu 5 7.4 1 0.004Qu

The line susmmd 5 7.4 1 0.004Qu is drawn in Figure 12.35. The intersection of this
line with the load-settlement curve gives the failure load Qu 5 1630 kN.
 800 1600 2400
Q (kN)

7.4 mm

10

Qu = 1630 kN

15

20
Settlement, s (mm)

Figure 12.35
■