STRAND 1: Lines and angles

Lines
A point can be thought of as an idea of a location. It has neither breadth nor width
represented by a dot (.) and denoted by a capital letter. Continuous set of points trace a
path which extends in both directions unendingly representing a line. Lines are simply
made up of continuous points. If the continuous points are made in a constant direction
whether opposite or forward, then straight lines are formed. Straight lines therefore have
two unending ends. The direction of the points with respect to the location gives the name
of the line as Horizontal, Vertical, Diagonal, etc

Horizontal

Fig 1. 1
diagonal

vertical Fig. 1.3

Fig. 1.2
Rays are special straight lines with one ending point and one unending end like below:

Rays

Fig.1.4
A set of rays is called a beam. A real object that can be seen to show a set of rays is the
touch light (try to view it at home).
When a line has two end points, it is called a line segment. Below are line segments:
C
A B F
Fig.1.5
Fig.1.6 Fig.1.7
D E
Angles
Angles are formed when two lines meet at a common point or when a ray turns or rotates
around a fixed point. When you turn a door or window on their hinges, the hinge that the
door rotates on is the fixed line or axis of rotation. The amount the door or window moves or
turns is the angle it turns through. An angle measures a change in direction. The change of
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ to 𝑂𝐵
direction from 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ may be achieved in two ways:

a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ into the position ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

By an anticlockwise rotation of the ray 𝑂𝐴 𝑂𝐵
b) By a clockwise rotation.
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 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑂𝐵
Either of these rotations defines an angle between 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
B B
• •

Anticlockwise O •
O • A
A
Clockwise
Fig. 1.8 Fig. 1.9

The angle in Fig.1.8 may be named in three different ways:

a) Angle AOB
b) 𝐴𝑂̂𝐵
c) ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 H •

Types of angles

i. Right angle (square angle): H •

A full turn is made up of A right angle G
3600. Therefore a quarter Fig. 1.10
3600
turn has 4 𝑜𝑟 900 . The
illustration is as below. X
•

ii. An Acute angle: An angle

which is less than 900 is called Y •
an acute angle. It is illustrated Z
in Fig. 1.4 Fig. 1.11

iii. Obtuse angle: Obtuse angles are angles that are greater than 900 but less than 1800, as
in Fig. 1.5
S•
Obtuse angle
R •
Q
Fig. 1.12

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 iv. Reflex angle: This is an angle that is greater than 1800 but less than 3600, as in Fig.
1.6

M• •O

Fig. 1.13
v. Straight angle: A straight angle is formed in a half turn as in Fig. 1.7

• • •
A B C
S•
Fig. 1.14 Q
•

Notes R
Vertically Opposite angles are equal. In
Fig. 1. 8, the line ST and PS intersect at
•T
the point R. A pair of angles such as
P•
∠𝑄𝑅𝑆 and ∠𝑇𝑅𝑃 are called vertically
opposite angles and they are equal.
Fig. 1.15

C•
•
Two angles with a common vertex and a B
common side are adjacent angles.

O •
A
Fig. 1.16
0
Any two angles that sum up to 180 are supplementary angles.

•
B

• • •
A O C
Fig. 1.17
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 Perpendicular lines
Two lines that intersect to form four right angles are said to be perpendicular

Fig. 1.18

Parallel lines and Transversals

Two or more lines in a plane which never meet no matter how far they are extended in a
plane are said to be parallel. The distance between parallel lines are the same throughout the
length of their travel. The line that crosses two or more parallel lines are called transversals.
Given two or more parallel lines, if a transversal is drawn across them, the following angles
are formed.
i. Alternate angles,
ii. Corresponding angles E
iii. Co-interior angles
A M B
x0z0
A) Draw two parallel line AB
and CD. Draw a line EF
across AB and CD to meet N y0 D
AB and CD at M and N C
respectively.
1. Measure
∠𝐴𝑀𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐷𝑁𝑀
2. Measure F Fig. 1.20
∠𝐵𝑀𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐶𝑁𝑀
3. What is your
observation of the
two results?

The line EF in Fig. 1.20 is called a transversal. We note that ∠𝐴𝑀𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐷𝑁𝑀 are
alternate angles. Also from our measurement, ∠𝐴𝑀𝑁 = ∠𝐷𝑁𝑀. Similarly, the alternate
angles ∠𝐵𝑀𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐶𝑁𝑀 are also equal.
In conclusion, alternate angles between any two parallel lines and a given transversal
are equal.

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 i. A measurement of ∠𝐵𝑀𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐷𝑁𝑀 , ∠𝑁𝑀𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐹𝑁𝐷 give same results.
∠𝐵𝑀𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐷𝑁𝑀 are corresponding angles, and so also are ∠𝑁𝑀𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐹𝑁𝐷.

In conclusion therefore, corresponding angles formed by any two parallel lines and
a given transversal are equal.

ii. Co-interior angles as in the case of y0 and z0 in Fig. 1.20 are supplementary, that is y0
and z0 add up to 1800. Again in summary, interior opposite angles between any two
parallel lines and a given transversal are supplementary.
F • H0
Example 1.2 A • p B
AB and CD are parallel lines in Fig.1.21, • 700 0
q r 0 •
EF and GH are transversals. Find x, y,
z, p, q, and r giving reasons for your
answers. x0 z0 1000
• y0 •
C D
Solution •E G•
0
𝑟 = 80 , interior and opposite or co-interior
𝑦 = 700 , y alternate z and its on a straight line with x. Fig. 1.21
0
𝑧 = 70 , either angles on a straight line or alternating angles.
𝑥 = 1100 , interior and opposite or co-interior angles are supplementary.
𝑝 = 𝑞 = 1000 , p is on a straight line with r, p alternates with q, also alternates with 1000
etc.

Example 1.3 1200

Find the values of the angle marked x
x0

450
Fig. 1.22
Solution m0 1200

0 0
m00
𝑚 = 60 , straight line with 120 , n
𝑛 = 450 , alternating
∴ 𝑥 = 𝑚 + 𝑛 = 600 + 450 = 1050 . 450
Fig. 1.23

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 Example 1.4
Find the values of the angles indicated by letters in the following diagrams.

b0
130
0
3500
100 a c
0 0

450 140
0
Fig. 1.25
Solution Fig. 1.24
b = 145 angles on a straight line b0
a = 450 alternating angles

3500
100 a
0

450

130
0
x = 50 alternating angles 0
y = 400 alternating angles x
c = x + y = 50 + 40 = 900. y c
0

140
0
Find the size of the angles marked with a letter in the different diagrams below.
R
1) 2)
P X Y Q
y 700b c
P Q e
d
550 120
400 B a 500 S
M L C D

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 3)
105
140 4) 0
0
x0
y0 123
0 m0
120
0
Polygons
Polygon is a plane figure bounded by line segments. They are special plane figures of the
family of geometric shapes. The straight line segments which form a polygon are called
sides of the polygon and the point where two lines meet are the vertices. For instance,
triangle is a polygon with 3 sides, a quadrilateral is a polygon with 4 sides, pentagon is a
polygon of 5sides, etc.

Below are examples of polygons;

Triangle
Fig 1.1 Quadrilateral
Fig 1.2

Pentagon
Triangles Fig 1.3 Hexagon
Fig 1.4
A triangle is a closed figure formed by three line segments. We shall now consider the
angle properties of a triangle. There are various types of triangle depending on the angles
or the lengths of the sides of the triangle.

Types of triangles
𝑥0

𝑦0 𝑧0
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 1) Acute angled triangle: This is a
triangle with each of the three angles
being less than 900.

2) Right angled triangle: A triangle with one of its angles equal to 900. It could be a
right-angled isosceles or a right angled scalene.

450
z
y

450
Right-angled x
Right-angled
isosceles
scalene
Fig. 1.27
𝑦0
3) Isosceles triangle: A triangle with two
equal sides and two equal angles. It has
one line of symmetry.

𝑥0 𝑥0
4) Equilateral triangle: A triangle with Fig. 1.28
three equal sides and three equal angles.
It has three lines of symmetry. 𝑥0

𝑥0 𝑥0
Fig. 1.29
a0 𝑎0 > 900
5) Obtuse-angled triangle: A triangle
with one side being greater than 900
but less than 1800.

Fig. 1.30

6) Scalene triangle: A triangle with no two

sides and no two angles being equal.
Scalene has no axis of symmetry.

Fig. 1.31
Angle properties of triangles.
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 1) Angles on a straight line sum up to 1800.

3x 3x
5x 2x x 2x

Fig. 1.32

5x + 3x + 2x = 1800 and x + 3x + 2x = 1800 respectively.

2) The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 1800. 750

75 + 45 + x = 180
x = 180 – 120
x = 60. x0 450
Fig. 1.33
3) The exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two interior opposite angles.

Example 1.1
Use the interior angles property of
450
triangles to find the values of x, y and z.

x y z
Solution 10
𝑥 = 𝑧 + 450 , 𝑧 = 800 , angles on a straight line. Fig. 1.34
∴ 𝑥 = 80 + 45 = 125 and similarly
𝑦 + 45 = 100, 𝑦 = 100 − 45 = 55
∴ x = 1250, y = 550 and z = 800.

4) Angles in equilateral triangle are equal and each is 600.

𝑥0

𝑥0 𝑥0
Fig. 1.35

5) 6) A
500 B
2n 700

C D
9 x0
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T
 7)
6) b0

760

a0 650 c0370 760 k0

8)
700

3x y z 2x

Polygons
Polygon is a plane figure bounded by line segments. They are special plane figures of the
family of geometric shapes. The straight line segments which form a polygon are called
sides of the polygon and the point where two lines meet are the vertices. For instance,
triangle is a polygon with 3 sides, a quadrilateral is a polygon with 4 sides, pentagon is a
polygon of 5sides, etc. Below are examples of polygons;

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 Triangle
Fig 1.1 Quadrilateral
Fig 1.2

Pentagon
Fig 1.3 Hexagon
Fig 1.4

Sum of Angles in a Triangle

You must go through different activities to help you find out that the sum of the interior angles
of a triangle is 180o
To discover that the sum of interior angles of a triangle is 180o using paper cut outs
• Draw a reasonable triangle on a card
• Indicate the three angles and label them sey ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’
• Use scissors to cut out the angles and arrange them side by side.
• You will realize that the angles cut out can be arranged on a line
• Since the angle of a straight line is 180o the sum of the interior angles of a triangle is
180o

Making a paper model of the sum of interior angles of a triangle

B
A B A
C

Fig 1.11 Fig 1.12

To discover that the sum of interior angles of a triangle is 180o using protractor

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Since we are able to draw triangles, let us engage in an activity of drawing and measuring the
interior angles of triangles using the protractor. Record the outcome on a table for analyses
as below;

student Angle A Angle B Angle C Total

1 60 61 59 180
2 72 85 23 180
3 90 45 45 180
4 90 60 30 180
Table 1.1
When you study the table, you realize that the sum of interior angles of a triangle is 180 o.

Exterior Angle Properties

Draw any triangle on a card and extend each of the three sides to form three exterior angles.
As you can already measure angles, measure the exterior angles and find the sum. You will
realize that, the sum of exterior angles of a triangle is 360o
Study the diagram below

z
c

a b y

x Fig. 1.13
The angle a, b, c are interior angles and the angles x, y, z, are exterior angles. Investigate these
six angles, compare and make an inference. You will notice that:
(i) angle y = a + c (ii) x = b + c (iii) z = a + b

Example 1

1) Find x in the figure below;

750

x0 450
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 Solution
The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 1800.

75 + 45 + x = 180
x = 180 – 120
Example 2 x = 60.
Use the interior angles property of triangles to find the values of x, y and z.

Quadrilateral
450
Fig 1.18

x y z
1000
Fig. 1.15
Solution

The exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two interior opposite angles.

450

x y z
1000
Fig. 1.16
𝑥 = 𝑧 + 450 , 𝑧 = 800 , angles on a straight line.
∴ 𝑥 = 80 + 45 = 125 and similarly
𝑦 + 45 = 100, 𝑦 = 100 − 45 = 55
∴ x = 1250, y = 550 and z = 800.

Sum of Interior and Exterior Angles of other Polygons

The interior angles and exterior angles lies on a straight line and are supplementary. Draw
polygons of sides 3, 4, 5, 6 then ask them to draw diagonals from one vertex to all the others
such a way as to split the polygons into triangles as below;

Sum of interior angles of polygons

Name of polygon No. of No. of triangles drawn from Sum of interior angles
sides only one vertex
Triangle 3 1 1 × 180 = 1800
Quadrilateral 4 2 2 × 180 = 3600
Pentagon 5 3 3 × 180 = 5400
Hexagon 6 4 4 × 180 = 7200
Heptagon 7 5 5 × 180 = 9000
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 Octagon 8 6 6 × 180 = 10800
Nonagon 9 7 7 × 180 = 12600
Decagon 10 8 8 × 180 = 14400
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
Polygon n n–2 (n − 2) × 180
Table 1.2

This pattern gives the number of triangles always two less than the number of sides. Therefore,
the sum of the interior angles of any polygon with n sides as (n – 2) x 180
Example 3
1) Find the sum of the interior angles of a polygon with
a) 7 sides b) 13 sides c) 30 sides

Solution
a) The sum of interior angles of a polygon with n sides is given by (n − 2) × 180,
n = 7 means (7 – 2) x 180 = 9000
b) n = 13, 11 x 180 = 19800
c) n = 30, 28 x 180 = 50400
In some special polygons, the sides are congruent and all the angles are also the same.
Such polygons are referred to as regular polygons. Examples are equilateral triangle and
square.
Since the sum of the interior angles of n sides of a polygon is (n – 2) 1800 and all the angles
of the regular polygons are of the same size, each interior angle of the regular n sided
polygon is given as;

(n − 2) × 180
n

Example 4
Calculate the size of each interior angle of a regular 10 - sided polygon.

Solution
(n − 2) × 180 8 × 180
= = 8 × 18 = 1440
n 10
Example 5

A regular polygon is such that each interior angle is 1500. How many sides has the
polygon?
Solution
Let the number of sides be n, each angle is 1500 and the sum = (n – 2)180
150𝑛 = (𝑛 − 2) × 180
150𝑛 = 180𝑛 − 360
360 = 180𝑛 − 150𝑛
360 = 30𝑛
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 360
n= = 120
30
Example 6
Determine the number of sides of a regular polygon if each interior angle is 1250

Solution
(n − 2) × 180
1250 =
n
125𝑛 = (𝑛 − 2) × 180
125𝑛 = 180𝑛 − 360
360 = 180𝑛 − 125𝑛
360 = 55𝑛
360
n= =7
55
Example 7
Three angles of an irregular octagon are 1000, 1200, and 1400. The remaining angles
are congruent. Find the size of each of the remaining angles.
Solution
Let each equal angle of the octagon be x hence 5x.
Sum of interior angle of an octagon is = (n - 2) 180
6 x 180 = 1080
100 + 120 + 140 + 5x = 1080
5x=1080 – 360
5x = 720
720
x= 5
x = 144o
Extend the lesson learnt from sum of interior angles to the sum of exterior angles by extending
the sides of the polygons to produce exterior angles on the polygon.

Fig. 1.21
The exterior angles are distinguished by shading. Children are asked to cut all the exterior
angles of each polygon. For each polygon on the cut out angles are placed sides by side such
that the vertices of the angles involve meet at a common point.
Using the fact that exterior angle plus interior angle = 180, calculate the angles of the exterior
angles and find the sum of the exterior angles for each polygon as in figures below;

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 120
120
80

100 60
140 100

70
80
Fig. 1.22
80

60
70
You will realize that no matter the size of the polygon the sum of exterior angles = 360 0

Example 8
A regular polygon has 18 sides,
i. calculate the size of one exterior angle
ii. what is the sum of its interior angles?
iii. From ii, find the size of one interior angle

Solution
The sum of exterior angle of a polygon is 360o
360
i) Hence one exterior angle = = 20o
18
ii) sum of interior angles = (n- 2)180
(18 – 2)180
16 x 180 =2880o
(n−2)180
iii) one interior angle = n
2880
= = 160o
18

Try these

1) Find the value of the letters in the figures below.

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 2x 120
a) 130 y
b)
40 0
z 69 x
0
98

135 3x
x
p 1250 q
Fig. 1150 Fig.
x
1.21 c) 400 1.22
v y
u 1120

500 w 470
z

2) Find the sum of the interior angles of a regular polygon with an exterior angle of 72 0
3) The interior angles of a pentagon are in the ratio 2 : 3 : 4 : 4 : 5.
Find the value of the largest angle.
4) The interior angles of a quadrilateral are 𝑦 0 , (2𝑦 + 5)0 , (𝑦 + 15)0 , and (3𝑦 − 10)0 .
Find the value of 𝑦.
5) Determine the number of sides of a regular polygon if the interior angle is 165.60
6) The interior angle of a regular polygon is twice its exterior angle. Find the number of
sides of the polygon.
7) A regular hexagon is inscribed in a circle of radius 7m. Find the area of the polygon.
8) Find x in the following

2x 2x
1) 2) 3)
2x

4x 2x x + 20 4x

600 3x
4x x 2x + 30
3x
3x
3x

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 STRAND 2 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION
Introduction
A geometric construction is a drawing of geometric shapes using a compass and a
straightedge. When performing a geometric construction, only a compass (with a pencil)
and a straightedge are allowed to be used. Most of the ideas we have studied in geometry
have been introduced by a Greek mathematician, Euclid, who defined a point as that
which has position but no magnitude. Meaning a point has no dimension. For the purpose
of construction, a point will be represented by the intersection of two lines. Points are
named or referred to by capital letters by Mathematical convention. A line may be
straight or curved. A line has length but no width. Again, for the purpose of construction
a line will always be understood to be a straight line unless otherwise stated.

A B
Fig 2.1

The portion of the line from A to B in Fig 3.1 above is called a line segment and is denoted
as ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵
There are seven basic geometric constructions.
1. congruent segment
2. segment bisector
3. congruent angle
4. angle bisector
5. a line perpendicular to a given line through a point not on the line.
6. a line perpendicular to a given line through a point on the line.
7. a line parallel to a given line through a point not on the line.

Other geometric shapes or figures, such as right triangles or equilateral triangles, can be
constructed using these seven basic constructions.

Constructing a line segment

To construct a line segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 of length 6cm,
a. Draw a line of length greater than 6cm.
b. Using a ruler and a pencil cut the line towards the left end and label that point A.
c. With your pair of compasses, measure 6cm on your ruler.
d. With the point A as origin, draw an arc to cut the line towards the right-hand end.
e. Label the point of intersection of the arc with the line as B
f. Using dividers, check that the line segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 you have constructed is of length 6cm.
Segment Bisector or Perpendicular Bisector
Constructing a perpendicular bisector of a line segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 of length 7cm,
a. Draw your line segment 𝐴𝐵.̅̅̅̅

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 b. Open your compass to a measure
which is more than half of the length
of your segment i.e. 7cm. X
c. Put the point of the compass on one
end of the segment and construct an
arc above and below the segment
d. Without changing the measure of the
compass put the point of the compass Z
on the other end of the segment and
construct an arc above and below the A 7cm B
segment.
e. Draw a segment connecting the two
intersections of the arcs.
Note that in the figure AXBY
|𝐴𝑋|=|𝐴𝑌|=|𝐵𝑋|=|𝐵𝑌| since they are Y
all equal radii drawn with the same
compass setting.
Therefore AXBY is a rhombus
AB and XY are therefore diagonals of a rhombus.
Fig 2.2
Construction and bisection of angles
We have learnt earlier that an angle is formed by two intersecting lines.

Congruent angles / Copying angles

a. Draw a reasonable angle of your choice
A
Original
∅ Angle
B
C

b. Construct an arc on the

original angle with the point
of the compass on the vertex
of the angle and the arc
crossing both sides of the A
angle.

B
c. Without changing the C
compass, construct the same
arc on the ray putting the A
point of the compass on the
end of the ray.
B B
C

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 d. Measure the width of the
original angle using the
compass.

A A
e. Without changing the
measure on the compass mark
off that width on your ray. Put
the point of the compass on B B
the point where the arc C
crosses the ray and construct
C
an arc crossing your arc.

A A
f. Draw the second side of the
angle by connecting the
endpoint of the ray (your
vertex) with the point where B B
the two arcs intersect. C C Fig. 2.3

Angle Bisector
Construct an arc crossing both sides of
the angle. Put the point of the compass
on the vertex of the angle.

a. Construct an arc in the interior of the

angle putting the compass on one side of
the angle where the arc crosses it.

b. Without changing the compass measure

from step 2, put the point if the compass
on the other side of the angle where the
arc crosses it and draw an arc on the
interior of the angle.
c. Draw the angle bisector by connecting the
vertex of the angle with the point where
the two arcs from steps 2 and 3 cross.
Fig. 2.4
0 0
Construction of 120 and 60 .

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 We will construct 600 and 1200 using the following steps.
a. Draw a line segment say ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 as shown C
in the Fig 3.5 D
b. Locate point X on the ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵
c. With the origin or centre as X with a
convenient radius, draw a semi-circle to cut
the ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 at Y
T R
d. Now with Y as the centre or origin and using
the same radius in (c), draw an arc to cut the A Z X Y B
semi-circle at R.
e. From the point X, draw the line ̅̅̅̅
𝑋𝐶 through R. Fig.2.5
0
f. Measure angle BXC. You are smiling because you had ∠BXC as 60 .
g. With the origin or centre as R with the same radius in (c), draw another arc to cut the
semi-circle at T.
h. From the point X, draw the line ̅̅̅̅
𝑋𝐷 through T.
i. Measure the angle BXD. With accurate geometric construction, angle BXD is expected
to be 1200.

Construction of 300 and 150.

D
a. Construct 600
b. Bisect 600 to get 300
c. Bisect 300 to get 150.
C
Construction of 1350, 900 and 450. M
To construct 900,
N
a. Draw a line segment say ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵
b. With the point of your compasses or
origin at Z on ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐵 and with a X Y
A Z B
convenient radius, draw a semi-circle
to cut ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 at X and Y Fig. 2.6
c. With X as the centre or origin, open a
convenient radius with your compasses and
draw an arc
d. With the same radius, describe another arc using Y as the centre, to intersect the first
arc in (c) at M
e. From the point Z, draw the line ̅̅̅̅
𝑍𝐷 through M. The angle AZD = angle DZB = 900.
̅̅̅̅ which is the bisector of angle AZD. Therefore, angle AZC = 450
f. Construct the line 𝑍𝐶
and angle BZC = 1350.
E D
0
Constructing 75
̅̅̅̅ .
C
a. Draw a line segment 𝐴𝐵
0 ̅̅̅̅ .
b. Construct 60 on 𝐴𝐵
150
150
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600
A X B
 c. Construct 900 again using the same
origin say M used in constructing the
600.
d. Draw the line ̅̅̅̅
𝑋𝐷 which is a bisector of
angle EXC

e. Hopefully, angle BXC = 600, angle

BXD = 750, angle BXE = 900.

Bisecting a line segment or a Perpendicular Bisector

a. Open your compass to a measure which
is more than half of the length of the line C
segment 𝐴𝐵̅̅̅̅ .
b. With the origin as A, construct an arc
above and below the segment.
c. Without changing the measure of the
compass and with the origin or center as
B, construct another arc intersecting the A B
first one above and below the segment.
d. Draw a segment connecting the two
intersections of the arcs at C and D.
D
A line perpendicular to a line through a point on the line
a. Put the point of the compass on the Fig. 2.8
point and construct two arcs crossing
the line one on each side of the point.
Construct a perpendicular bisector of
the line segment.
b. Open your compass to a measure
which is more than half of the length of
your segment.
c. Put the point of the compass on one end
of the segment and construct an arc
above or below the segment.
d. Without changing the measure of the
compass put the point of the compass
on the other end of the segment and
construct an arc above or below the Fig. 2.8
segment.
e. Draw a segment connecting the
intersection of the arcs and the given
point.

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 A line perpendicular to a line through a point not on the line
a. Put the point of the compass on the point
and construct an arc crossing the line
twice once on each side of the point.
Construct a perpendicular bisector of the
line segment.
b. Open your compass to a measure which
is more than half of the length of your
segment.
c. Put the point of the compass on one end
of the segment and construct an arc
above or below the segment.
d. Without changing the measure of the Fig2.9
compass put the point of the compass on
the other end of the segment and
construct an arc above or below the
segment.
e. Draw a segment connecting the
intersection of the arcs and the given
point.
Construct a line parallel to a given line through a given point
a. Draw a transversal through the point
intersecting the line. Construct a
congruent angle because if the
corresponding angles are congruent then
the lines must be parallel.
b. Construct an arc on the angle formed by the
transversal and line with the point of the
compass on the vertex of the angle and the arc
crossing both sides of the angle.

c. Without changing the compass, construct the same arc at Fig

the 2.10
point crossing the
transversal
d. Measure the width of the angle formed by the transversal and the line using the
compass.

e. Without changing the measure on the compass mark off that width at the original point.
Put the point of the compass on the point where the arc crosses the transversal and
construct an arc crossing your arc.
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 f. Draw line through the point where the two arcs cross and the given point. Process
demonstration
Constructing the lines parallel to a given line at a given distance.
a. Draw the line segment ̅̅̅̅𝐴𝐵 of length say 7cm.
b. Construct two perpendicular lines at A and B.
c. Open your compass to a radius of 4.5cm and P Q
with A as the center or origin, draw an arc to cut
the perpendicular drawn through A at P.
d. With B as the centre or origin and with the same
radius, (i.e. 4.5cm) draw another arc to cut B at
Q.
e. Join P and Q with a straight edge. The line
segment ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑄 is parallel to ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵.
Constructing triangles A B
Triangles can be constructed when the following conditions are given Fig 2.10
Three sides (SSS)
Two sides and the included angle (SAS)
Two angles and a side (AAS)
Right angle, hypotenuse and another side (RHS)

Three sides given

Construct triangle PQR such that PQ = 8cm QR = 5cm PR = 6cm
R
Steps
a. Make a rough sketch of the triangle
b. Construct the line ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑄 = 8 cm
c. With centre P and radius 6cm draw an arc
d. With centre Q and radius 5cm draw
another arc to intersect the first arc at R.
The point R will then be 5cm from the Q
P Q
and 6cm P
e. Join P to R and to Q to form the right Fig. 2.11
angle.
Triangle with two sides and one angle
Construct triangle ABC with ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 450 , ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐵 = 8𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐶 = 6.5𝑐𝑚.
(i) Make a rough sketch of the triangle
(ii) Draw AB = 8cm,
(iii) Construct angle 450 at B (You first construct the side that contains the angle)
(iii) With centre B and radius 6.5cm with an arc intersecting the line making 45 with
AB at C C
(iv) Join AC to complete the triangle
6.5cm

450
24
COMPILED BY MRS MILLICENT NARH - KERT A 8cm B
Fig 2.12
 Triangle with one side and two angles given

Construct triangle STR such that ST = 7cm,

<STR, 450, TSR = 300

a. Draw the side ST = 7cm

b. Construct angle 450 at T
c. Construct angle 600 at S R
d. Let the two lines meet at R to describe the
require triangle

300 450
Triangle with three sides and given S 7cm B T

a. Draw the side AB = 7cm Fig. 2.13

b. Measure 6cm with the compass and standing C
at A strike an arc
c. Measure 7cm with the compass and standing
at B strike an arc to cross the first arc 5cm
d. Name the intersection C 6cm
e. Join the points A and C, also B and C

Try the following A B

7cm
1) Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, construct triangle ABC such that |𝐴𝐵| =
8𝑐𝑚, |𝐵𝐶 | = 7𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 1050 . Measure |𝐴𝐶 |.
2) Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, construct ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 such that |𝐴𝐵| =
7𝑐𝑚, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 750 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 600 . Measure |𝐴𝐶| 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐵𝐶| .
3) Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, construct ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 such that |𝐴𝐵| = 10.4𝑐𝑚,
∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 900 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 300 . Measure |𝐴𝐶| 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐵𝐶| .
4) Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, construct ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 such that |𝐴𝐵| = 5.5𝑐𝑚,
|𝐴𝐶| = 6𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 1350 . Measure |𝐵𝐶| .
Construction of Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral has four sides and four angles. To construct a quadrilateral you need the
three conditions as given in the construction of a triangle, plus a fourth condition. For the
four vertices of the quadrilateral, three of them can be determined as we construct a
triangle. The fourth condition will fix the fourth vertex of the quadrilateral.
Construct the rectangle PQRS, with |𝑃𝑄| = 6𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑄𝑅| = 5𝑐𝑚

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 Steps
1. Construct the line segment ̅̅̅̅𝑃𝑄 of length
6cm
2. Construct 900 at P S R
3. Construct another 900 at Q
4. With P as the origin or center and a 5cm
radius, draw an arc to cut the perpendicular
at P at the point S
5. Also with Q as the centre or origin and with
same radius draw an arc to cut the
perpendicular at Q at the point R P Q
6. Join R to S as shown in Fig. 3.14 Fig.2.14
PQRS is the required rectangle with
dimension 5cm by 6cm.

With the aid of a pair of compasses and a ruler, construct a parallelogram ABCD such that
|𝐴𝐵| = 7𝑐𝑚, ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 600 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 750 . Measure |𝐵𝐶|

Steps
1. Construct the line segment 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ = 7𝑐𝑚
0
2. Construct and angle of 60 at A
D
3. Construct an angle of 750 at B C
4. Extend the lines that make angles of 600 at
A and 750 at B to meet at C.
5. With a radius of 7cm and with your origin
at C, draw an arc on the left of C
6. With same radius or magnitude as BC, and
with your origin as A, draw another arc to
intersect the first arc in (5) at D.
The quadrilateral ABCD is as shown in fig.
A B
3.15
Fig. 2.15
Construct a quadrilateral ABCD with AB = 4cm, BC = 6cm, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 600
CD = 6.5cm and AD = 7.0cm

Steps;
Make rough sketch
1. Construct the line AB = 4cm
2. Construct angle 600 at B. With 6cm radius and B as the origin locate C on the 600 line
from B.
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 3. With centre at C and radius 6.5cm draw an D C
arc
4. With centre A and radius 7.0 draw an arc
to meet the first arc at D
5. Join DC and DA to complete the
quadrilateral

Construction of a Regular Hexagon

A B
A hexagon is polygonal with six sides.
Construct a regular hexagon of side 3cm Fig. 2.16

Steps
Draw a circle of radius 3cm
Using the same radius of the circle place the
compass point anywhere on the circumference
and draw an arc on the circumference
Fig. 2.17
Place the point of the compasses on at the end of the arc, and draw another arc on the
circumference.
Repeat the process until you come to the point where you started
Join the arcs with straight lines as in the diagram in fig. 3.17

Circumcircle and Inscribed Circle

A circle is said to a circumscribe when it passes through the three points of a triangle. A
circle is called an inscribed circle when it touches all the sides of a triangle
Circumcircle
The locus of point P equidistant from three points A, B and C is the point of intersection
of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of the triangle ABC.

A circle drawn through one of the points way A with center P will pass through the other
two points B and C of the triangle. The circle drawn is called the circumcircle of triangle
ABC and the centre P is called the circumcentre.

To Construct a Circle through The Vertices of A

A, B and C of the Triangle, Bisect all the three
sides of a triangle
Locate where the bisects meet
With this point as a centre draw a circle P
passing through all the three points C B

27 Circumcircle
COMPILED BY MRS MILLICENT NARH - KERT

Fig 2.18
Inscribed or incircle
The points A, B and C are the vertices of a
triangle. If the point P is equidistant from the
three line segments |𝐴𝐵|, |𝐵𝐶| 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐴𝐶|,
then the locus of P is the point of intersection C
of the bisectors of the angles of the triangle
formed by the lines. A circle drawn with P as
the centre to touch any of the sides say |𝐴𝐵|,
will also touch the other sides |𝐵𝐶| 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐴𝐶|.
The circle is called incircle of the triangle ABC
and the centre P is called the incentre. To
locate the point P which is equidistant from
|𝐴𝐵|, |𝐵𝐶| 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐴𝐶|,
A B
Incircle or inscribed circle

Fig. 2.19
Bisect the three angles of the triangle, find the point where the bisectors meet. Draw a circle
from this point to which all the sides of the triangle see Fig 2.19 Note that it is not necessary
to find all three bisectors. Two bisectors are enough to determine the centre of the circle.

Elementary Ideas of Locus

Locus is the path of points which move in a plane in relation to other points in the plane.
At the elementary work, we talk about four different types of locus. These loci are usually
derived from our basic constructions
(i) The Circle: This is the locus (path) of points
P
which moves in such a way that its distances
from a fixed point say 0 is always the same
i.e. The circle is the locus which is equidistant r
from one point. O

Note: The fixed point is the centre and the distance is the radius

Fig. 2.20

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 Example 1
Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only,
a) Construct triangle ABC in which |𝐴𝐵| = 10𝑐𝑚, |𝐵𝐶 | = 6𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 450
b) Locate a point D inside the triangle ABC such that D is equidistant from ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶
and 5cm from B.
c) Construct a straight line through D to cut AB at X and AC at Y such that ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝑋 = ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝑌
d) Measure |𝐴𝑌. |
Solution
a) To construct the triangle,
1. Draw a line segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 of length 10cm
0
2. Construct 45 on B and locate C which is
6cm on the 450 line from B.
3. Joint A to B and to C to form the triangle.
C
b) If D is equidistant from the intersecting Y
straight lines ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 , then D is on the
D
line bisecting ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 and 5cm from B.
c) Construct a perpendicular line at D to cut A X B
̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 𝑎𝑡 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐶 𝑎𝑡 𝑌.
d) From Fig. 3.20, |𝐴𝑌| = 6.1𝑐𝑚.
Fig. 2.21
Example 2
Using a pair of compass and a ruler only,
a) Construct ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 such that |𝑃𝑄| = 9𝑐𝑚, ∠𝑃𝑄𝑅 = 750 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝑄𝑃𝑅 = 600
b) Locate a point T, inside ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 such that it is equidistant from 𝑅𝑄 ̅̅̅̅, 𝑅𝑃 ̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑄
c) Construct a circle which touches the three sides of ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 and measure its radius.
Solution
a) Construct ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 by
1. Constructing the line segment 𝑃𝑄 ̅̅̅̅ = 9𝑐𝑚.
0 0
2. Construct 60 on P and 75 on Q. The intersection of the lines forming the two
angles is R.
b) If the point T is equidistant from the three line segments ̅̅̅̅ 𝑅𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ̅̅̅̅
𝑅𝑄, ̅̅̅̅ 𝑃𝑄, the T is
the poi t of intersection of the bisector of the angles of the triangle formed by the lines.
c) From T, draw a perpendicular to PQ and with the perpendicular distance from T as
radius, and T as centre, draw a circle which will touch all the three sides of ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅.

600 29 750
P
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9cm
 The radius of the circle is 3cm.
Example 3
a) Using a ruler and a pair of compass only, construct
1. Triangle ABC, with |𝐴𝐵| = 7𝑐𝑚, |𝐴𝐶| = 8𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 1050 .
2. X, the locus of points 6cm from C.
3. Y, the locus of points equidistant from ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐶 to cut X in P and R
b) Measure
1. |𝐵𝐶|
X
2. |𝑃𝑅|

Solution C
a) Construct
1. ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶
2. X is a circle with centre C and R Y
radius 6cm. P
3. Y is a straight line bisecting the
angel formed by ̅̅̅̅𝐴𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐶 , 1050
A 7cm B
which cut x in P and R
b) 1. |𝐵𝐶| = 11.8cm
2. |𝑃𝑅| = 8.5cm Fig. 2.23
Example 4
Using a ruler and a pair of
compasses only
a) Construct
i. Triangle ABC such that |𝐴𝐵| = 8𝑐𝑚, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 300 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 1050
ii. The locus l1 of points equidistant from A and B
iii. The locus l2 of points equidistant from B and C
b) Locate P, the point of intersection of l1 and l2.
c) Using PC as radius draw a circle
d) Measure
l2
i. |𝐵𝐶|
ii. The radius of the circle.
Solution
a) Construct C
1. ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶
2. The locus l1 is the bisection of
P
the line segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵.
3. The locus l2 is the bisection of
the line segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐶 .

30 A 8cm B
COMPILED BY MRS MILLICENT NARH - KERT
 b) P is the point of intersection of l1 and
l2 .
c) The required circle with P as centre
and CP as radius is shown in Fig.
3.23
d) 1. |𝐵𝐶| = 11𝑐𝑚
2. The radius of the circle is 5.7cm.
Example 5
a) Using a ruler and pair of compasses only
1. Construct ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 such that |𝐴𝐵| = 8𝑐𝑚, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 600 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 750
2. Locate the point O inside triangle ABC equidistant from A, B and C.
3. Construct the circle with centre O, which passes through A

b) Measure
1. |𝑂𝐴|
2. Angle ACD
C
Solution
a) Construct
1. ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶
2. O is equidistant from three points A,
B and C. Meaning it is the point of
intersection of the perpendicular
O
bisectors of sides of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶.
3. A circle drawn through A, with
centre O will pass through the other 600 750
two points B and C of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶. B A
b) 1. |𝑂𝐴| = 5.7𝑐𝑚
2. angle ACD = 450
Fig. 2.25
Example 6
a) Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, construct
i. ∆𝐺𝐵𝐶 with ∠𝐺𝐵𝐶 = 300 , |𝐵𝐶| = 9.5𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐵𝐺| = 12𝑐𝑚
ii. 𝑙1 , the locus of points 6cm from C.
i. 𝑙2 , the perpendicular from C to BG.
b) 1. Locate A and D, the intersection of 𝑙1 and BG.
2. Measure |𝐴𝐷| 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐴𝐶𝐷
3. Calculate, correct to two significant figures, the area of the minor sector ACD.
[Take 𝜋 = 3.142]

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 Solution
a) Construct l2
i. ∆𝐺𝐵𝐶 DG
ii. The locus 𝑙1
iii. The locus 𝑙2
b) Locate 12cm
l1
1. A and D
2. |𝐴𝐷| = 7.3𝑐𝑚,
∠𝐴𝐶𝐷 = 760 300
3. 𝑟 = 6𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 760 B 9.5cm C
𝜃
Area of a sector = 360 × 𝜋𝑟 2
76
= × 3.142 × 62
360
= 23.9cm2 = 24cm2 (2 s.f.)

Try these Fig. 2.26

1. a) Using a ruler and a pair of compass only, construct a quadrilateral PQRS such that
|𝑃𝑄| = 8𝑐𝑚, 𝑄𝑃̂ 𝑆 = 105, ∠𝑃𝑄𝑆 = 300 , |𝑃𝑅| = 9𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑅𝑆| = |𝑅𝑄. |
b) Measure:
i. |𝑅𝑆|
ii. |𝑃𝑆|
iii. Angle QRS.
2. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, construct triangle ABC in which ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 =
450 , |𝐴𝐵| = 7𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐴𝐶| = 9𝑐𝑚. Locate P, inside the triangle ABC, 5cm from A
and equidistant from B and C.
3. a) Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, construct:
i. A quadrilateral ABCD, with |𝐴𝐵| = 8𝑐𝑚, |𝐴𝐷| = 6𝑐𝑚, |𝐵𝐶| = 10𝑐𝑚,
∠𝐵𝐴𝐷 = 600 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐴𝐷𝐶 = 1350
ii. The locus 𝑙1 , of points equidistant from |𝐵𝐶| and |𝐶𝐷|.
iii. The line 𝑙2 , from B perpendicular to l1.
b) i. Locate E, the point of intersection between l1 and l2
ii. Measure |𝐷𝐸|.
4. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only,
a) Construct:
i. ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 with |𝐴𝐵| = 8𝑐𝑚, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 300 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 1200 .
ii. The locus 𝑙1 , of points equidistant from A and C
iii. The locus 𝑙2 , of points equidistant from AB and AC
b) Locate the point of intersection D, of 𝑙2 and BC
c) i. Construct locus 𝑙3 of points 2.5cm from D
ii. Locate E and F, the point of intersection of 𝑙1 and 𝑙3 and measure |𝐸𝐹|.
5. a) Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, construct
i. Triangle ABC in which |𝐴𝐵| = 7𝑐𝑚, |𝐴𝐶| = 8𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 1050 .
ii. 𝑙1 , The locus of points 5cm from C
iii. ̅̅̅̅ and 𝐵𝐶
𝑙2 , the locus of points equidistant from 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ to cut 𝑙1 in P and
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COMPILED BY MRS MILLICENT NARH - KERT
 b) Measure;
i. |BC|
ii. |PR|
6. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only,
a) construct triangle PQR such that| 𝑃𝑄| = 10cm, |𝑄𝑅| = 12cm and ∠𝑃𝑄𝑅 = 600
b) Locate a point T, inside ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 such that it is equidistant from |𝑅𝑄|, | 𝑅𝑃| and
|𝑃𝑄|.
c) Construct a circle which touches the three sides of ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 and measure its radius.
7. A point P is in the same plane as the fixed line segment XY.
a) Construct the locus L of the point P if it moves in the plane such that ∠𝑋𝑍𝑌 =
900 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑋𝑌| = 10cm
b) Locate a point Z on the locus L such that |𝑋𝑍 |= 7cm. Measure |𝑌𝑍|
8. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only,
a) Construct:
i. ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 such that |𝑃𝑄| = 10𝑐𝑚, |𝑄𝑅| = 12𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝑃𝑄𝑅 = 600
ii. The locus 𝑙1 of the set of points equidistant from |𝑅𝑃| 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑅𝑄|
iii. The perpendicular 𝑙2 from P to 𝑄𝑅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ .
b) X is the intersection of 𝑙1 and the perpendicular 𝑙2 to 𝑄𝑅
c) Measure |𝑅𝑋|
9. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only,
i. Construct a parallelogram PQRS with |PQ| = 10cm, |PS| =
0
8𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝑄𝑃𝑆 = 120
ii. Construct the bisectors of ∠𝑃𝑆𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝑄𝑃𝑆 and mark their point of intersection
O:
iii. Construct the line OA from O to meet SR at right angle at the point A
iv. Hence draw a circle to touch the sides PQ, PS and SR. Shade the region which
lies within the circle and less than 8cm from Q
10. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, construct ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 with AB = 6cm, AC =
8cm, and BAC = 75o.
a) Construct
i. The locus 𝑙1 of points equidistant from AB and AC
ii. The locus 𝑙2 of points equidistant from A and B.
iii. Locus 𝑙3 of points 4.5cm from B.
b) Locate
i. The point of intersection P1, of 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 .
ii. The point of intersection P2 of 𝑙1 and 𝑙3 inside ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶
iii. The point of intersection P3 of 𝑙2 and 𝑙3 inside the triangle.
c) Measure ∠P2 P1 P3

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 STRAND 3: BASIC TRIGONOMETRY:

LEARNING, TEACHING AND APPLYING

Pythagoras Theorem

Pythagoras theorem states that the sum of the squares of the two shorter sides of a right- angled
triangle equals the square of the longer side which is called the hypotenuse. You may go
through the following activities to establish the formula.
Activity 1: Using Geoboard
Construct right angled triangle of shorter sides 3 cm and 4 cm on the geoboard.
On each side of this triangle they should construct squares whose sides are equal to the sides
of the triangle. The two smaller sides or the shorter sides to be the length 3 + 4 i.e. the side 3
is extended by 3 to form a square of side 7 and of area = 49 squares

. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .

Each corner triangles has an area of ½ x 4 x 3 = 6 squares

=> Area of the 4 corner triangles = 4 x 6 = 24 squares

This gives the area of the larger square to be 49 – 24 = 25 squares. Repeat the activity for
about three other right angled triangles and put your results on a table like below:

Area of Squares on Shorter Sum of squares on Area of squares of

shouter side hypotenuse
4 x 4 = 16 3x3=9 16 + 9 = 25 25
5 x 5 = 25 2x2=4 25 + 4 = 29 29
1x1=1 3x3=9 1 + 9 = 10 10
2x2=4 3x3=9 4 + 9 = 13 13
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From the table, we notice that the sum of the areas on the squares of the two shorter sides =
the area of the square on the hypothenus
Activity 2: Using Constructions:
Construct a right angled triangle ABC of sides BC = 4cm and AB = 3cm and a right angle at
B on a square paper
Join A to C. Measure AC. Square AB, BC, and AC

A
a c b a2 c2 b2 a2 +c2
3 4 5 9 16 25 9 + 16 = 25
c b 8 6
5 12
8 15
B C
a
Repeat this activity for other right -angled triangles of the following sizes.
(i) AB = 2 units BC = 3 units <B = 900 (ii) AB = 4 units BC = 2 units <B = 900
(iii) AB = 5unit BC = 3 units B = 900 (iv) AB = 2 units, BC = 5 unit <B
= 900.

Right angled-triangle A c B
A
b a b
W
X
c c
a a
Z
a c
Y
b a b
B b C D c C

Fig. 3.1a Fig. 3.1b

Cut out four congruent right-angled triangles and rearrange them so that their hypotenuses
form the sides of a square as shown in Fig. 4.1 a and b.
From the triangles |𝐷𝑊| = |𝐶𝑍| = |𝐵𝑌| = |𝐴𝑋| = 𝑎 – 𝑏
Area of 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 = 𝑐 × 𝑐 = 𝑐 2 but the area of ABCD is made up of a square WXYZ and
four right-angled triangle.
Area of 𝑊𝑋𝑌𝑍 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)2
1 1
Area of each right angled-triangle = 2 × 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 2 𝑎𝑏
1
Area of the 4 right angled-triangle = 2 𝑎𝑏 × 4 = 2𝑎𝑏.
Area of 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑋𝑌𝑍 + 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 4 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝑐 2 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)2 + 2𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 2𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 .

𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
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 The implications are that, for any right angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is
equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.
Example 1
Find the length of the y in the figures below.
10 √44
y 13
4 y
5
Solution
132 = 52 + 𝑦 2
𝑦 2 = 132 − 52 = 169 − 25 = 144
𝑦 = √144 = 12
𝑦 = 12
2
b) (4 + 𝑦)2 = 102 + (√44) = 100 + 44
4 + 𝑦 = √144 = 12
𝑦 = 12 − 4 = 8
Example 2
The width of a garage is 3.0m, and the roof rises symmetrically to a ridge. The length of
one half of the sloping roof is 1.7m. The walls are 2.0m high above ground level. Calculate
the distance of the highest point of the roof from the floor of the garage.
Solution
B
The diagram of the garage is as shown in Fig. 5.2 1.7m
|𝐴𝐷|2 + |𝐵𝐷|2 = |𝐴𝐵|2 A D C
1.5m
|𝐵𝐷|2 = |𝐴𝐵 |2 – |𝐴𝐷|2 = 1.72 – 1.52 = 2.89 − 2.25
2.0m
|𝐵𝐷 | = √0.64 = 0.8
The height of the garage is 2.0m + 0.8m = 2.8m.
3.0m
Example 3 Fig. 3.2
The length of the diagonal of a square is (a + b) units. Show that the area of the square is
1
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 squared units
2
Solution
From Pythagoras theorem,
l2 + l2 = (a + b)2
2 l2 = (a + b)2
1 (𝑎 + 𝑏) l2
l2 = (a + b)2
2

Try these l2

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COMPILED BY MRS MILLICENT NARH - KERT
 1) A boy placed a ladder of length 3m so that one end just reaches the top of a wall. He
measured the distance from the foot of the ladder to the wall and found it to be 2.5m.
Calculate the height of the wall.
2) The position of three villages X, Y and Z form a right angled triangle. Village Y is
6km directly south of village X and 6km west of the village Z. A road is to be
constructed from village X to Z to link the three villages. What is the shortest distance
from Y to the road?
3) A solar collector and its stand are in the shape of a right triangle. The collector is 5.00
m long, the upright leg is 2.00 m long, and the base leg is 4.58 m long. Because of
inefficiencies in the collector’s position, it needs to be lowered by 0.50 m on the upright
leg. How long will the new base leg be? Round to the nearest tenth.
4) A builder wants to buy some corrugated
aluminum sheets to make a roof of a 50cm 2m 50cm
garage 3.6m wide, as indicated in the
diagram. The roof is to slope
symmetrically to a ridge 2m above the top
of the walls, allowing 50cm overlap at 3.6m
each end. Find the length of sheet he Fig.3.3
should buy.
5) Find the length and the perimeter of a rectangle whose diagonal is 9 in. and width 6 in.

Trigonometric Functions
Signs of the trigonometrical ratios or functions depend on the quadrant in which the terminal
side of the angle lies. The quadrants of the circle are counted in anti-clockwise direction as
shown below.

2nd Quadrant 1st Quadrant

Sin is positive All are positive

900 − 1800 0
− 900
3rd Quadrant 4th0Quadrant

Tan is positiveCos is positive

1800 − 2700 2700 − 3600

Fig. 3.4
𝑦
In First quadrant : 𝑥 > 0, 𝑦 > 0 ⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑟 > 0,
𝑥 𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑟 > 0, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑥 > 0.

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COMPILED BY MRS MILLICENT NARH - KERT
 𝑦

(0, r)
P(x, y)

Thus, in the first quadrant all trigonometry functions are

positive. 𝑟
𝑦
In Second quadrant : 𝑥 < 0 , 𝑦 > 0 ⇒
𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = > 0, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = < 0, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = < 𝜃0
𝑟 𝑟 𝑥 𝑥
0. 𝑂 𝑥 (r, 0)

Thus, in the second quadrant sin function is positive and all

others are negative.

Fig. 3.5
𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
In Third quadrant : 𝑥 < 0 , 𝑦 < 0 ⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑟 < 0, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑟 < 0, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑥 > 0.

Thus, in the third quadrant all trigonometric functions are negative except tangent

In Fourth quadrant
𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
: 𝑥 > 0 , 𝑦 < 0 ⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = < 0, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = > 0, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = < 0.
𝑟 𝑟 𝑥
Thus, in the fourth quadrant all trigonometric functions are negative except cos.

𝑦7
𝑦6
𝑦5
𝑦4
𝑦3
𝑦2
𝑦1

𝜃 x
O 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 𝑥6 𝑥7

Fig. 3.6
Consider the figure above, with the same acute angle 𝜃, measure the side of each right
angled-triangle. By computing the values of the ratios
𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑥4 𝑦4 𝑥5𝑦5 𝑥6 𝑦6 𝑥7 𝑦7
= = = = = = they are all equal to a constant.
𝑂𝑥1 𝑂𝑥 2 𝑂𝑥 3 𝑂𝑥 4 𝑂𝑥 5 𝑂𝑥 𝑂𝑥
6 7

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 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
The constant depends on the value of the angle 𝜃. In conclusion, 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 =
𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. The constant for the direct linear variation is called the tangent of 𝜃 and is
denoted by tan 𝜃.

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝜃

tan 𝜃 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝜃.
𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥3𝑦3 𝑥4 𝑦4 𝑥5𝑦5 𝑥6 𝑦6 𝑥7 𝑦7
Same way, = = = = = = they are also equal to a
𝑂𝑦1 𝑂𝑦2 𝑂𝑦3 𝑂𝑦4 𝑂𝑦5 𝑂𝑦6 𝑂𝑦7
constant. The constant depends on the value of the acute angle 𝜃 . In conclusion,
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
= 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. The constant for the direct linear variation is called
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
the sine of 𝜃 and is denoted by sin 𝜃.

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝜃

sin 𝜃 = .
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝜃

Similarly, cos 𝜃 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
.

It will help if you have a way of recalling these definitions. One of these ways is by
remembering a nonsense word: SOH TOA CAH sine is opposite over hypotenuse; tangent is
opposite over adjacent and cosine is adjacent over hypotenuse. Some people remember it as
SOH CAH TOA Simply changing the syllables around. Others remember it by a little
verse:

Tom’s Old Aunt (TOA)

Sat On Him (SOH)

Cursing At Him. (CAH). Whichever way you learn it, it will be helpful in order to remember
these ratios.

𝑦
sin 𝜃 =
√𝑥 2−𝑦 2 900 − 𝜃
√𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2
𝑥
cos 𝜃 = 𝑦
√𝑥 2 −𝑦 2

𝑦
tan 𝜃 = 𝑥 …………(1)
𝜃
𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑦 √𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 𝑦
= × = 𝑥 ……….(2)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 √𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 𝑥
Fig. 3.7

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 Comparing equations (1) and (2), we can conclude A
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
that 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

sin 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(900 − 𝜃) 6.1cm

3.5cm
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = sin(900 − 𝜃)

350
B C
5.0cm

Fig. 3.8
Example 1
Find the tangent cosine of 350. Hence find the sin550

Solution
Using a sharp pencil, a ruler and a protractor, we
draw a right angled-triangle ABC in which the acute
angle at C is 350. Fig. 6.3
|𝐵𝐶| = 50𝑐𝑚, |𝐴𝐶| = 6.1𝑐𝑚, |𝐴𝐵| = 3.5𝑐𝑚
|𝐴𝐵| 3.5
tan 350 = |𝐵𝐶|
= 5.0 = 0.7 tan 350 = 0.7
|𝐵𝐶| 5.0
cos 350 = |𝐴𝐶| = 6.1 = 0.82
cos 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(900 − 𝜃) ⟹ cos 350 = sin 550 =
0.82

𝑦
In Fig. 6.6, Ox and Oy are two perpendicular axes. The coordinates of P with respect to these
axes are (x, y) and angle POQ = 𝜃

By Pythagoras’ theorem, (0, r)

P(x, y)
|𝑂𝑃| = 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ⇒ 𝑟 2 =
𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝑦 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑟 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑟
𝑟
𝑥 2 𝑦 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 = ( 𝑟 ) + ( 𝑟 ) 𝑦
𝑥 2+𝑦 2
= 𝑟2
2 2
But 𝑟 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 𝜃0 𝑥
𝑂 𝑥 (r, 0)
𝑥 2+𝑦 2
⟹ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 = 𝑥 2+𝑦 2 = 1

Fig. 3.9

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 When OP is rotated about O in the plane Oxy, from Ox to Oy and r is kept constant.
We note that P lies on OX, (x, y) = (r, 0) and 𝜃 = 0. Therefore
0 𝑟 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛00 = 𝑟 = 0, 𝑐𝑜𝑠00 = 𝑟 = 1 and 𝑡𝑎𝑛00 = 𝑟 = 0

When P lies on Oy, 𝜃 = 900 and (x, y) = (0, r). Therefore

𝑟 0 𝑟
𝑠𝑖𝑛900 = 𝑟 = 1, 𝑐𝑜𝑠900 = 𝑟 = 0 and 𝑡𝑎𝑛900 = 0 = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑

Common angles (450, 600, 300)

Consider the following equilateral triangle of side 2
units with an altitude constructed. 300 300
2 2
√3 1
sin 600 = , cos 600 = , and 𝑡𝑎𝑛600 = √3 √3
2 2

600 600
1 √3 1 1 1
sin 300 = 2, cos 300 = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛300 = Fig.3.10
2 √3

450
1 1
sin 450 = , cos 450 = , √2
√2 √2
0 1
and 𝑡𝑎𝑛45 = 1

1
The table below gives a summary of the ratios of the special angles. You must always
remember them off-head
0o 30o 45o 60o 90o
sine 0 1 1 √3 1
2 √2 2
cosine 1 √3 1 1 0
2 √2 2
tangent 0 1 1 √3 undefined
√2

Example 3
Find 𝜃 in the following
4cm
𝜃
13cm
15cm 𝜃
3cm
Solution 4
13 tan 𝜃 = 3 = 1.3333
sin 𝜃 = 15 = 0.8667
𝜃 = tan−1 (1.3333) = 53. 10
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 𝜃 = sin−1 (0.8667) = 60. 10

Try these A
1. Fig 5.9a shows a cross section of a factory roof.
One side of the roof slopes at an angle of 300 and
the other side slopes at an angle of 550. The total h
width of the roof is 5m. Calculate the height h of 300 550
the roof correct to two decimal places. C D B
5m
2. Fig. 6.8b is a rectangle ABCD and OA is A Fig. 3.10a
perpendicular to OB, |𝐵𝐶| = 2𝑐𝑚, |𝐶𝐷| =
3 6cm
6𝑐𝑚 and 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 0 = 4 . Without using
calculator, find the values of B
0 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 . Find also the length of OL. D
2cm

x y
To Find the Trigonometric ratio of an Angle O C L

• Sketch the angle in relation to the x and y axis Fig. 3.10b

• Find the associated acute angle, ie the acute angle the radius makes with the x- axis.
Find the required ratio of the angle
• Find the appropriate sign using the CAST diagram. This shows which ratios are
positive in each quadrant.

Example 4

Find the value of sin 120

Solution

Sketch the 120o, remember that in Trigonometry, angles are measured in anti-clockwise
direction

120

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Fig.3.11
COMPILED BY MRS MILLICENT NARH - KERT
120 is in the second quadrant, therefore its sine ratio is positive. The associated acute angle
with the x- axis is 60o

√3
Therefore, sin 120 = + sin 60 = 2

Example 5

Find the value of cos 240

240

Fig.3.12
240 is in the third quadrant, therefore its cosine ratio is negative. The associated acute angle
with the x- axis is 60o
1
Therefore, cos 240 = -cos 60 = − 2

Basic Trigonometric Identities

An identity is a relationship which is true for all values of the variable. The circle with centre
‘O’ and radius ‘r’ drwn on the x-y axis helps to identify some of the identities.

Draw a circle with radius ‘r’ and centre O as the origin, embedded on the X-Y axes as shown
below;
Y

P(x,y)

r
∅
X X
(0,0)

Fig.3.13

If P is the point (x,y) on the circle, then the equation

Y of the circle with centre (0,0) and radius
r is given as

43
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x2 + y2 = r2…………………………………..(A)
x y
But we know that cos ∅ = and sin ∅ =
r r

Dividing both sides of the of the circle by r2, we obtain

x2 y2 r2 𝑥 2 𝑦 2
+ r2 = r2 (𝑟 ) + (𝑟 ) = 1
r2

Therefore, 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 ∅ + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 ∅ = 1………………..(1)

This is the first identity. From the first identity, we can deduce that;

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅ = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∅

Again from equation (A), x2 + y2 = r2, dividing both sides x2 , we get

𝑦 2 𝑟 2
1 + (𝑥 ) = (𝑥 )

1 + (tan∅)2 = (sec∅)2

Therefore, 1 + (𝐭𝐚𝐧∅)2 = (𝐬𝐞𝐜∅)𝟐 ………….(2)

Similarly, if we divide the (A) by y2, we get

𝑥 2 𝑟 2
(𝑦 ) + 1 = (𝑦 ) (𝑐𝑜𝑠∅)2 + 1 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐∅)2

Therefore 𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟐 ∅ = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 ∅ …………….(3)

y⁄
sin∅ r y
Also, cos∅ = x⁄ = x = tan∅
r

𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
Therefore, 𝒕𝒂𝒏∅ = 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅……………………….(4)

Converting one trigonometric ratio to another

These types of problems are often solved by drawing the appropriate right-angled triangle and
using Pythagoras theorem.

44
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Example 6

If sin∅ lies in the second quadrant, find cos ∅ and sin∅

solution

√3
We have sin ∅ = , from the sketch,
2 2
√3
let the unknown side be x.
∅
By Pythagoras theorem, 22 = (√3)2 + x2 2
√3
x = 4 - 3, x = 1 ∅
1 1
cos ∅ =± and tan ∅ = - √3 since ∅ lies in the second quadrant
2

Example 7
8
Given that sin A = 17 and that A is an obtuse angle, find cos A and tan A without using tables

solution

Since A is in the second quadrant, it means both cosine and tangent are both negative. From
the right-angled right angle, we can find the third side

√172 − 82 = √225 = 15
15 8
cosA = − 17 and tan A = − 15 8 17

Example 8 A
15
If 270 < ∅ < 360 and cos ∅ 0.6, find sin ∅ and tan ∅ without using tables

Solution
6 2
Note that 0.6 = 10 = 5

∅ is in the fourth quadrant since 270 < ∅ < 360 . therefore, both sine and tan are negative

√52 − 32 = √16 = 4
4 4 4 5
sin∅ = − 5 and tan ∅ = − 3
∅
Example 9
3
Eliminate ∅ from the equations

x = 3cos ∅ and y = 2 sin ∅

solution
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 x
x = 3cos implies 3 = cos ∅ ………………….(1)

y
y = 2 sin ∅ implies 2 = sin ∅…………………(2)

𝑥 2 𝑦 2
(1)2 + (2)2 ( 3) + ( 2 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 +𝑠𝑖𝑛2

But 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 +𝑠𝑖𝑛2 = 1,

x2 y2
therefore, + =1
9 4

Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

The graphs of the three trigonometric functions are drawn to show the behavior of each of
them as x varies. Below are the graphs of y = sin x, y = cos x and y = tanx.

Graph of y = sin x

Using the scale of – 𝜋 < x < 𝜋, the table below can be generated for the values of x and y:

x 0 π π π 2π 3π 5π 𝜋
6 4 2 3 4 6
0 0
sinx 0.5 0.71 0.5
71 1.0 0.87

Using the results sin(-x) = -sinx, we can write down the tables for the values of x between -𝜋
and 0 as:

x −5π −3π −2π −π

−𝜋 2
6 4 3
0
sinx - 0.5 -0.71 - -1.0
0.87

x −π −π 0
−𝜋/3 4 6
0
sinx - 0.5 -0.71 0

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The graph corresponding to these points is as given:
Y

X 0 X
−π π
2 2

-1

Y
Sin ∅ has values between -1 and 1 inclusive and increases from 0 to 1

Graph of y = cos x

Using the scale of – 𝜋 < x < 𝜋, the table below can be generated for the values of x and y:

x 0 π π π π 2π 3π 5π 𝜋
6 4 3 2 3 4 6
cosx 1.0 0.87 0.5 0 -0.5 -0.71 0.87 -1.0
0.71
Using the results cos(-x) = -cosx, we can write down the tables for the values of x between -𝜋
and 0 as:

x −5π −3π −2π −π

−𝜋 2
6 4 3
cosx - 1.0 - -0.71 -0.5 0
0.87 −π −π
x 0
−𝜋/3 4 6
sinx - 0.5 0.71 0.87 1

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 Y

The graph of the corresponding values is given as:

1

−𝜋 0 𝜋
X −π π X
2 2

-1

Y
Cos ∅ has values between -1 and 1 inclusive and decreases from1 to 0

Graph of y = tan x

Using the scale of – 𝜋/2 < x < 𝜋/2, the table below can be generated for the values of x and
y:

Note that tanx does not exist for x = ±𝜋/2. Since sinx increases from 0 to 1 and cosx decreases
sinx
from1 to 0, and tan x = cosx, tanx will increase indefinitely as x (staring from the value of 0)
approaches 𝜋/2. Similarly, as x (starting from the value 0) approaches −𝜋/2, tanx decreases
indefinitely.

x π π π 0 π π π
− − −
3 4 6 6 4 3
tanx -1.73 -1.0 -0.58 0 0.58 1.0 1.73

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The graph of the corresponding values is given as:

X 0 X
−π π
2 2

Remember that tan 90𝑜 and tan 270𝑜 do no exist.

General Solutions of trigonometric equations

• The general Solutions of 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = a is

𝜃 = 𝑛𝜋 + (−1)𝑛 𝛼 , where 𝛼 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝛼 in radians. Or 𝜃 = 180𝑛 + (−1)𝑛 𝛼 , where 𝛼 =

𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝛼 in degrees.

• The general Solutions of 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = b is

𝜃 = 2𝑛𝜋 ± 𝛽, where 𝛽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑏 in radians. Or 𝜃 = 360𝑛 ± 𝛽 where 𝛽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑏 in

degrees.

• The general Solutions of 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = c is

𝜃 = 𝑛𝜋 + 𝛾, where 𝛾 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑐 in radians. Or 𝜃 = 180𝑛 + 𝛾 where 𝛾 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑐 in degrees.

Note that n = 0,1,2,3,……

Example 10
49
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Find the general solution of sin ∅ = 1

Solution
𝜋
The principal solution of the equation sin ∅ = 1 is ∅ = or 90o
2

So the general solution is;

𝜋
𝜃 = 𝑛𝜋 + (−1)𝑛 in radians or 𝜃 = 180𝑛 + (−1)𝑛 90𝑜 in degrees.
2

Example 11
1
Find the general solution of cos ∅ = 2

Solution
1 𝜋
The principal solution of the equation cos ∅ = 2 is 𝜃 = 3 or 60o

𝜋
So the general solution is; 𝜃 = 2𝑛𝜋 ± 3 in radians or 𝜃 = 360𝑛 ± 60𝑜 in degrees.

Example 12

Find the general solution of 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 = 1

Solution
𝜋
The principal solution of the equation tanx = 1 is 𝑥 = 4 or 45𝑜

𝜋
So the general solution is; 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 ± 4 in radians or 𝑥 = 180𝑛 ± 45𝑜 in degrees.

Example 13
1
Find the general solution of 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 1

Solution
1 1 1 1
2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 1 implies 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 2, let 2 x = θ

1 𝜋
The principal solution of the equation cos∅ = 2 is ∅ = 3 or 60𝑜

𝜋 1 π
So the general solution is; ∅ = 2𝑛𝜋 ± 3 x = 2nπ ± 3
2

2𝜋 1
Hence the general solution is 𝑥 = 4𝑛𝜋 ± in radians or 2 𝑥 = 360𝑛 ± 60𝑜
3

𝑥 = 720𝑛 ± 120 in degrees.

50
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Try this

Draw the graph of y = sinx +cosx for values of x from 0𝑜 to 360𝑜 using intervals of 30. Use
your graph to find:

• the values of x correct to the nearest degree for which sinx + cosx = 0.75
• the minimum and maximum values of y, stating the values of x for which they
occur.

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 STRAND 4: VECTORS AND BEARING:

LEARNING, TEACHING AND APPLYING

Vectors

Quantities that are determined only by magnitude, i.e., length, mass, temperature, etc., are
called scalars. A vector is a line segment (with magnitude) and an assigned direction. An
arrow is used to specify the direction. Vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 has initial point A and terminal point B.
The magnitude or length of the vector is the length of the segment AB and is denoted by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Two vectors are equal if they have equal magnitude and the same direction.
|𝐴𝐵|
A scalar is a number which expresses quantity. Scalars may or may not have units associated
with them. Examples: mass, volume, energy, money
A vector is a quantity which has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude of a vector
is a scalar. Examples: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, electric field etc.
Vectors are denoted as a symbol with an arrow over the top: 𝑋
Vectors can be written as a magnitude and direction: (20𝑘𝑚, 1500 )
Vector Representation
Vectors are represented by an arrow pointing in the direction of the vector. For example,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , where O is the starting or
we represent the movement from O to A in a given plane as 𝑂𝐴
initial point and A is the destination point. The arrow gives the direction of the vector.
The length of the vector represents the magnitude of the vector.
Note that, the length of the arrow does not necessarily represent a length.

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 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ may be represented by (magnitude and direction) as stated before. See
a) The vector 𝑂𝐴
Fig. 4.1

B A
N

13 units 13 units

12N
12N

230
5W 670 5E
W O 670
230
12S

13 units 13 units

12S
P S
Q

Fig. 4.1

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (13 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠, 0230 ). This form is called directional vector since it
From fig. 4,1, 𝑂𝐴
specifies the direction of movement from O to A. similarly, 𝑂𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (13 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠, 3370 ),
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = (13 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠, 2030 ) and 𝑂𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (13 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠, 1570 )
b) The vector , 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ can also be represented by two rational numbers called components.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( 5 ), where 5 is the x-component and 12 is the y-component. The x-
i.e. , 𝑂𝐴
12
component indicates how far east B is from A and whilst the y-component indicate how
far north B is from A. In other words, the point B is 5 units to the east of A and 12 units
to the north of A. Vectors in component form are also called column vectors.
Negative sign is assign to indicate that the movement is either to the west or the south.
5𝑊 −5 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( 5𝐸 ) = ( −5 )
Example, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 = ( )=( ), and 𝑂𝑄
12𝑁 −12 12𝑆 −12

Magnitude bearing form (𝒓, 𝜽𝟎 )

B
A quantity expressed in the for (magnitude,
direction) is called a directional vector. The position 6cm
of the point B from A is denoted by 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Note that
600
53 A
COMPILED BY MRS. MILLICENT NARH - KERT Fig. 4.2
 we write the starting point of the vector before the
destination point.
If the magnitude or length |𝐴𝐵| of the vector 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is 6cm and the bearing of the point B from
A is 0600, as in Fig 4.2, then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = (6𝑐𝑚, 0600 ). In general, if |𝐴𝐵| = 𝑟 and the bearing
of B from A is 𝜃, then the vector 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ may be expressed in the (magnitude, direction form as
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = (𝑟, 𝜃).

𝑥
Component form (𝑦) B
The vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 in Fig. 4.3 has magnitude of 5cm and
the bearing of B from A is 500. The directional vector 5cm
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 is therefore written as (5𝑐𝑚, 500 ). When we use 4cm
the Cartesian coordinates system to describe the vector 500

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 , and state the x-component and y-component
between A and B, B is 3cm to the east of A and 4cm to A 3cm
the north of A. therefore, for the movement from A to Fig. 4.3 a
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3), where 3cm is measured along
B, we write 𝐴𝐵
4
the x-axis and 4cm along the y-axis from A to B. B

If however, the position of B is 3cm to the west of A

5cm
and 4 com to the north of A as shown in Fig 4.3b, then 4cm
−3
the movement from A to B is written as ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = ( ).
4
3cm A
In Fig. 7.18c, the position of B is 3cm to the west of A and
Fig. 4.3 b
−3
4cm to the south of A. Therefore, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = ( ) . A
−4 3cm
Vectors in component form are also called column

vectors. The movement to the west is a negative scalar 4cm

5cm
multiple of a movement to the east. Similarly, a

movement to the south is a negative scalar multiple of B

a movement to the north. Fig. 4.3 c

Magnitude of a column vector.

The magnitude of a vector say ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵, is the length of the line segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵. The magnitude of
𝑥
a vector, say ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |or |𝐴𝐵|. If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 is denoted by |𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵 = (𝑦) , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝐴𝐵| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

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 Example 14
Find the magnitude of the following vectors
3
a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = ( )
4
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 10
b) 𝑃𝑄 = ( )
24
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 15
c) 𝑋𝑌 = ( )
8
Solution
a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = √32 + 42 = √9 + 16 = √25 = 5
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = √102 + 242 = √100 + 576 = √676 = 26
b) 𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = √152 + 82 = √225 + 64 = √289 = 17
c) 𝑋𝑌

Zero vectors
0
A vector is said to be zero vector if its components are both zero. Example 𝑎 = ( )
0
Addition and subtraction of vectors
Resultant of vectors: A
The sums of two vectors represent the resultant of the
two vectors. The resultant is drawn from the tail of
the first to the head of the last vector. Example the
resultant of the vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝐴𝐶⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Therefore
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝐴𝐶⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Resultant vectors in component form: C
B
𝑥1 𝑥2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎 = ( ) , 𝐵𝐶
Given 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏 = ( ) and 𝑐 = 𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , it follows that
𝑦1 𝑦2 Fig. 4.4
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥1 + 𝑥2
𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 = (𝑦 ) + (𝑦 ) = (𝑦 + 𝑦 ) (Add the corresponding components
1 2 1 2
Example 15
3 5
If 𝑎 = ( ) and 𝑏 = ( ), find 𝑎 + 𝑏
−4 6

Solution
3 5 3+5 8
𝑎+𝑏 =( )+( )=( ) =( )
−4 6 −4 + 6 2

Example 16
2 −6
If 𝑎 = ( ) and 𝑏 = ( ), find 𝑎 + 𝑏
3 5

Solution
2 −6 2−6 −4
𝑎+𝑏 =( )+( )=( ) =( )
3 5 3+5 8

Parallel and Perpendicular vectors

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 Two non-zero vectors are said to be parallel if one is a scalar multiple of the other. If the
scalar multiple is positive, it implies the vectors are in the same direction but if the scalar
−4 −8
multiple is negative, it implies they have opposite directions. Example ( ) and ( ) are
2 4
parallel vectors.
A vector is said to be perpendicular to another if found to have rotated 900 or 2700. Example
2 −3 3 −3𝑘
the vector ( ) is perpendicular to the vector ( ) and ( ) or their multiples ( ) and
3 2 −2 2𝑘
3𝑘
( ) where 𝑘 is a positive number.
−2𝑘
𝑦 −𝑦 𝑘𝑦 −𝑘𝑦
The vectors ( ) and ( ) or their positive scalar multiples ( ) and ( ) are
−𝑥 𝑥 −𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑥
𝑥
perpendicular to the vector (𝑦).

Resultant vectors in directional form.

Vectors in directional form cannot be added in the same way the component vectors are
added. This is because vectors in this form are represented by both magnitude and direction
and in carrying such an operation, the magnitudes and the directions need to be taken into
account. The resultant in this case can be determined geometrically or by converting the
directional vectors to component vectors.
Geometric Approach:
Example 17
By drawing, find the resultant 𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ of the vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = (5𝑐𝑚, 0550 ) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐵𝐶 =
(4.5𝑐𝑚, 1600 )
Solution 0
1. Choose a point A on a plain paper B 160
̅̅̅̅ and locate 5cm
2. Draw the directed line segment 𝐴𝐵
the point B as in Fig. 4.5 4.5cm
3. Draw the directed line segment 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ and locate C 550 1030
4. Measure the magnitude and bearing of ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐶 . This 0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . A 48
is the resultant of 𝐴𝐵
The bearing of C from A = 0420 + 0530 = 0950 5.9cm
C
(to the nearest degree). The distance from A to
Fig.4.5
C = 10cm.
Therefore 𝐴𝐶⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (5.9𝑐𝑚, 1030 )

Negative Vectors
The negative of a vector are just the same vector but in the opposite direction. Example if
𝑦 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵, then – 𝑦 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴

Negative vectors in component form

𝑥 −𝑥
If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = (𝑦 ), then the negation of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 is given by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( )
𝐵𝐴 = −𝐴𝐵 −𝑦

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−5) and 𝐵𝐴

Example If 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( 5 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝐴𝐵
6 −6
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 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (7) then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
If 𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−7)
𝑄𝑃 = −𝑃𝑄
5 −5

Negative vector in directional form

If 𝑥 = (5𝑁, 0320 ) then −𝑥 = (5𝑁, 0320 + 1800 ) i.e. −𝑥 = (5𝑁, 2120 )
If 𝑥 = (6𝑘𝑚, 3200 ) then −𝑥 = (6𝑘𝑚, 3200 − 1800 ) i.e. −𝑥 = (6𝑘𝑚, 1400 )
If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = (𝑟, 𝜃)and 00 < 𝜃 < 1800 then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴 = −𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑟, 𝜃 + 1800 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑟, 𝜃)and 1800 < 𝜃 < 3600 then 𝐵𝐴
If 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑟, 𝜃 − 1800 )

Example 18
If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = (8𝑘𝑚, 0850 ) then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (8𝑘𝑚, 0850 + 1800 ) = (8𝑘𝑚, 2650 )
𝐵𝐴 = −𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (8𝑘𝑚, 2850 ) then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
If 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (8𝑘𝑚, 2850 − 1800 ) = (8𝑘𝑚, 1050 )
𝐵𝐴 = −𝐴𝐵

Subtraction of Vectors
The difference of two vectors a-b is equal to 𝑎 + (−𝑏). The difference is therefore seen as
the resultant of 𝑎 and – 𝑏.
The resultant is drawn from the tail of the first to the head of the last vector.

Subtraction of vectors in component form.

𝑤 𝑦 𝑤 𝑦 𝑤−𝑦
If 𝑎 = ( ) and 𝑏 = ( ), then 𝑎 − 𝑏 = ( ) − ( ) = ( )
𝑥 𝑧 𝑥 𝑧 𝑥−𝑧
Example 19
8 6
If 𝑎 = ( ) and 𝑏 = ( ), find 𝑎 − 𝑏
−10 12
Solution
8 6 2
𝑎−𝑏=( )−( )= ( )
−10 12 −22

Subtraction of vectors in direction form.

If 𝑥 = (𝑎, 𝜇) and 𝑦 = (𝑏, 𝛾) then 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑥 ± 𝑦 = (𝑎, 𝜇) + (𝑏, 𝛾 ± 1800 )

Example 20
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ of the vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
By drawing, find the resultant 𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐵 = (40𝑘𝑚, 3200 ) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐵 =
0
(80𝑘𝑚, 050 )

Solution
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐵𝐶
𝐶𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐶 = −(80km, 0500 ) = (80𝑘𝑚, 1800 + 0500 ) = (80𝑘𝑚, 2300 )
∴ 𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (40𝑘𝑚, 3200 ) + (80𝑘𝑚, 2300 )

Use the steps below to draw the required figure.

1. On a plain sheet, choose point A
2. Using a scale of 2cm to 10km, draw directed line segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 and locate the point B as
shown in Fig. 8.6
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 3. Draw the directed line segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐶 and locate the point C.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . This is the resultant of 𝐴𝐵
4. Measure the magnitude and bearing of 𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and BC
̅̅̅̅
The distance of C from A = 89.4km
The bearing of C from A = 3200 – 0630 = 2570
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (89.4𝑘𝑚, 2570 ) we can as well write ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∴ 𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐵 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(40𝑘𝑚, 3200 ) − (80𝑘𝑚, 2300 ) = (89.4𝑘𝑚, 2570 )

We could also resolve the vectors into its components and use them to determine the vector
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶

Example 21
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (5) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ −6
1) If AB BC = ( ), find
6 7
i. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AC
ii. |AC|
2) If AB⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3) and CB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (6), evaluate CA
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
5 2
3) Find 𝑃𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−2 ) , 𝑄𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗ given that 𝑄𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−3 ) and 𝑆𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−5 ).
−1 4 3

Solution
1)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 5 −6 −1
i. AC = AB BC = ( ) + ( ) = ( )
6 7 13
ii. |𝐴𝐶| = √−12 + 132 = √170 = 13.0384 ≈ 13
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = CB
2) CA ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + BA
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( ) ⇒ BA ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−3)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −AB
AB
5 −5
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 6 −3 3
CA = ( ) + ( ) = ( )
2 −5 −3

2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ −3 5
3) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = ( ) , 𝑄𝑅 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝑆 = ( ).
1 4 −3
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2 −3 5 4
4) 𝑃𝑆 = 𝑃𝑄 + 𝑄𝑅 + 𝑅𝑆 = ( ) + ( ) +( )=( )
1 4 −3 2

Scalar multiple of a vector

Vectors in component form:
x
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( ) and k is a scalar, then the scalar multiple of 𝐴𝐵
If a vector 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ by k is given by
y
x
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = k ( ) = (kx)
𝑘 𝐴𝐵 y ky

Example 21
4 −4
1) If 𝑝 = ( ) and q = ( ), find 4𝑝 − 3𝑞
5 8
−14
2) What can you say about your answer in (1) and the vector ( )
2
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 Solution
4 16 −4 −12
1) If 𝑝 = ( ) ⟹ 4p = ( ) and q = ( ) ⟹ 3q = ( ),
5 20 8 24
16 −12 28
∴ 4𝑝 − 3𝑞 = ( ) − ( )=( )
20 24 −4
28 −14
2) 4𝑝 − 3𝑞 = ( ) = −2 ( )
−4 2
28 −14
Hence the vector ( ) is parallel but opposite in direction to ( )
−4 2
Vector in directional form
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (r, θ) and k is a positive scalar, then 𝑘 𝐴𝐵
If the vector 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (kr, θ)

Example 22
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (5cm, 0300 ) it implies that 3AB
Given AB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3 × 5cm, 0300 ) = (15cm, 0300 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ but the direction remains the same.
The magnitude is 3 times that of AB

When a vector𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (r, θ) is multiplied by a negative scalar, the direction is opposite to that
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . That is if 𝑘 > 0, then -𝑘 𝐴𝐵
of 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (kr, ±1800 )

Example 23
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (5cm, 0300 ) it implies that −3AB
1) Given AB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3 × 5cm, 0300 + 1800 ) =
(15cm, 210 ) 0

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (5cm, 3300 ) it implies that −3AB

2) Given AB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3 × 5cm, 3300 − 1800 ) =
(15cm, 1500 )

Example 24
3 𝑢 −2
If 𝑎 = ( ) , 𝑏 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = ( ), find the values of 𝑢 and 𝑣 such that 2𝑎 = 𝑏 + 𝑐
2 −4 𝑣

Solution
3 𝑢 −2 6 𝑢−2
2𝑎 = 𝑏 + 𝑐 ⟺ 2 ( ) = ( ) + ( ) ⟹ ( ) = ( )
2 −4 𝑣 4 −4 + 𝑣
6 =𝑢−2 ⟹ 𝑢 =6+2 =8
4 = −4 + 𝑣 ⟹ 𝑣 = 4 + 4 = 8.
𝑢 = 8 and 𝑣 = 8

Position Vector
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , where O is a
In general, a vector has no specific location in space. However, if 𝑎 = 𝑂𝐴
fixed origin, then 𝑎 is referred to as the position vector of A relative to O.

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 Expressing two given points as a vector. y 𝐴(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 )
Fig. 8.6 shows position vectors a and b of the
points A and B respectively. The vector
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐴
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 − 𝑎
𝐵(𝑏1 , 𝑏2 )
𝑏 𝑎1 𝑏 − 𝑎1
= ( 1 ) − (𝑎 ) = ( 1 )
𝑏2 2 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 a b
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = position verctor B – position vector A

O x
Example 25
4 7
1) Find the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 if 𝑎 = ( ) and 𝑏 = ( ) Fig.4.6
−3 10

Solution
7 4 3
1) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑏 − 𝑎 = ( ) − ( ) = ( )
10 −3 13

The position vector of the mid-point of a line segment

Consider the line joining the points A and B with position vectors a and b respectively
relative to the origin O. Let M be the midpoint of AB with position vector m relative to the
same origin O. From the Fig 7.7:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 1 AB
𝐴𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ A M B
2
1
⟹ 𝑚 − 𝑎 = 2 (𝑏 − 𝑎)
1 1 1 1 1
𝑚 = 2 𝑏 − 2 𝑎 + 𝑎 = 2 𝑏 + 2 𝑎 = 2 (𝑏 + 𝑎 ) m b
a
1
𝑚= (𝑎 + 𝑏) (addition is commutative)
2
1
𝑚= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝑂𝐴 𝑂𝐵)
2 O
Fig. 4.7
In general, given any line segment say ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵, the midpoint of the line AB is given by 𝑚 =
1
(𝑎 + 𝑏) where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are the position vectors of the points A and B respectively relative
2
to the origin O.

Example 26
If P is the midpoint of QR where Q(-1, 4) and R(3, 6), find the position vector of P

Solution
By the mid-point theorem,
1 1 −1 3 1 2 1
𝑝 = (𝑞 + 𝑟) = {( ) + ( )} = ( ) = ( )
2 2 4 6 2 10 5

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Parallelogram
D C
If ABCD is a parallelogram then in terms of vectors
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷𝐶 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐶 . Note the following
special parallelograms.
1. A Square is a parallelogram with all the sides
A B
equal and all the angles being 900.
2. A Rectangle is a parallelogram with all the Fig. 4.7
angles equal to 900.
3. A Rhombus is a parallelogram with all the sides equal but the angles are not right angle.
The above properties would be helpful when dealing with any of the above figures.

Example 27
A parallelogram ABCD has vertices A(1, 3) B(-2, 5) and C(1, 8). Find the co-ordinates of
the vertex D

Solution
1 −2 1
The position vector of A, B and C are 𝑎 = ( ) , b = ( ) and c = ( ) respectively.
3 5 8
Let (𝑥, 𝑦) be the co-ordinates of D. ABCD is a parallelogram, it follows that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐴𝐷
𝐷𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ −2 1 −3
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑏 − 𝑎 = ( ) − ( ) = ( )
5 3 2
1 𝑥 1 − 𝑥
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷𝐶 = 𝑐 − 𝑑 = ( ) − (𝑦 ) = ( )
8 8−𝑦
−3 1−𝑥 A B
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷𝐶 ⟹ ( ) = ( )
2 8−𝑦
From equality of vectors,
⟹ −3 = 1 − x ⟹ x = 4 and
D C E
2 =8−𝑦 ⟹ y=6
Therefore the co-ordinates of D are (4, 6) Fig. 4.8

Example 28

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝐸

In the Figure 7.24, ABCD is a parallelogram. If 𝐷𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (2), find 𝐵𝐸
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
5 3
Solution

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + CE
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝐶
From the figure, 𝐵𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ but 𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝐷𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝐷𝐴 3 2 −1
𝐵𝐸 𝐶𝐸 = − ( ) + ( ) = ( )
5 3 −2
Example 29

The coordinates of the vertices of a parallelogram QRST are Q(1, 6), R(2, 2), S(5, 4) and T(x,
y).

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 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑇𝑆
Find 𝑄𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ and hence determine the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦.
Calculate the magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝑆

Solution
T(x, y) S(5, 4)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑟 − 𝑞 = (2) − (1) = ( 1 )
i. 𝑄𝑅
2 6 −4
𝑥
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑠 − 𝑡 = (5) − ( ) = (5 − 𝑥 )
𝑇𝑆
4 𝑦 4−𝑦 R(1, 6) R(2, 2)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 1 5−𝑥

𝑄𝑅 𝑇𝑆 ⟹ ( ) = ( )
−4 4−𝑦

1 =5−𝑥 ⟹ 𝑥 =4

−4 = 4 − 𝑦 ⟹ 𝑦 = 8

𝑥 = 4, 𝑦 = 8

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑠 − 𝑟 = (5) − (2) = (3)

ii. 𝑅𝑆
4 2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √32 + 22 = √13𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
|𝑅𝑆

Example 30

2 1 13
If 𝑝 = ( ) , 𝑞 = ( ) , 𝑟 = ( ) and 𝑘𝑝 + 𝑚𝑞 = 𝑟, where 𝑘 and 𝑚
1 1 7

Solution

2 1 13 2𝑘 𝑚 13
𝑘𝑝 + 𝑚𝑞 = 𝑟 ⟹ 𝑘 ( ) + 𝑚 ( ) = ( ) ⟹ ( ) + ( ) = ( )
1 1 7 𝑘 𝑚 7
2𝑘 + 𝑚 13
( ) = ( ) Equating corresponding components
𝑘+𝑚 7
⟹ 2𝑘 + 𝑚 = 13 … … … (1) and

𝑘 + 𝑚 = 7 … … … (2)

Solving equations (1) and (2) simultaneously,

(1) − (2) ⟹ 𝑘 = 6

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Substituting 𝑘 = 6 into (2), 𝑚 = 1

Therefore 𝑘 = 6 and 𝑚 = 1

Example 31

−4 3
i. Given that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = ( ) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝑃 = ( ) evaluate 𝑄𝑅
7 −5

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ −3

ii. Describe precisely the relationship between 𝑄𝑅 𝑍𝑀 = ( )
6
Solution

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
From the vectors given, 𝑄𝑅 𝑄𝑃 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑅

But ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( 4 ) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑄𝑃 = −𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−3) Negative vectors
𝑃𝑅 = −𝑅𝑃
−7 5

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( 4 ) + (−3) = ( 1 )
∴ 𝑄𝑅
−7 5 −2

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( 1 −3 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
ii. 𝑄𝑅 ) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑍𝑀 = ( ) ⟹ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑍𝑀 = −3𝑄𝑅
−2 6
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is parallel to the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Hence 𝑄𝑅 𝑍𝑀 and are in opposite direction to each other.

Try these

A(9, 5) and B(3, 11) are points in the OXY plane. If C is the midpoint of AB, find
The value of the acute angle between 𝑂𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and the x-axis
hey don’t have any particular order

PRQ is an isosceles triangle in which PQ = QR and M is the midpoint of PR.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑄𝑅
Show that 𝑄𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝑄𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
−3 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (4)
If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = ( ) and 𝑄𝑅
4 3

i. Express ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑄𝑀 as a column vector

ii. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | correct to three significant figures.

Find |𝑄𝑀

If A(4, 7) is the vertex of a triangle ABC, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

5 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( 4 ),
𝐵𝐴 = ( ) and 𝐴𝐶
3 −3
Find the co-ordinates of B and C
If M is the midpoint of the line BC, find ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑀
2 3 2
Given that 𝑎 = ( ) , 𝑏 = ( ) and 𝑐 = ( ), evaluate
1 4 5
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 3𝑎 − 4𝑐
2𝑏 + 3𝑐
3 −2
If 𝑝 = ( ) and 𝑞 = ( ),
4 7
Find
i. 4𝑝 − 2𝑞
ii. | 4𝑝 − 2𝑞|
−1
What can you say about your answer in 𝑎(𝑖) above and the vector ( )?
8
−7 10 1 −51
Given 𝑝 = ( ) , 𝑞 = ( ) and 𝑘 (𝑝 − 𝑞 ) = 2 ( ) find k
6 −11 51
If 𝑂(0,0), A(3, 1) and B(2, -1)are the co-ordinates of a quadrilateral OABC and if ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐵𝐶 =
3
( ), find the coordinates of C
−2
ABCD is a quadrilateral, A, B and D have coordinates (0, 2), (2, 5) and (8, 0)
respectively. If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷 = 2𝐵𝐶⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , find the coordinates of C
P(-1, 2) and Q(x, y) are point on the Oxy plane such that 𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( 3 ), find
−4
The coordinates of Q
The bearing of Q from Q to the nearest degree.
XYZ is a triangle with vertices X(1, -3), Y(7, 5) and Z(-3, 5). L is the midpoint of the
side XZ.
If O is the origin, express ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑋𝑌, 𝑌𝑍 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ZX
⃗⃗⃗⃗ as column vectors. Hence show that XYZ is
isosceles.

Each class in the table consists of a single value.

Bearings
N (0000) P
A bearing is used to represent the
direction of one-point relative to
another point. A bearing is measured in
a clockwise direction from North. You 𝜃
might remember the cardinal points;
North, South, East and West. W (2700) E (0900)
0

S (1800)
Fig. 4.9

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 Bearings are a way of describing the position
of places/objects with respect to the cardinal N
points. They are read by using clockwise
angles relative to the North Pole. D
In bearing, we always use three digits, so a A
bearing of 40 is written as 0040, a bearing of
650 is written as 0650, a bearing of 2150 is 540
300
written as 2150. Using bearing, a direction is 42 0
0
written in terms 450
of an angle 𝜃 , where (0000 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360) .
Here, N, E, S and W are use to denote north,
east, south and west respectively. C
B
Fig. 5.11 gives an illustrations of the positions N
of A, B, C and D as bearing from O. Z Fig. 4.10 W
The bearing of A from O = 900 – 0300 = 0600.
The bearing of B from O = 1800 – 0450 = 1350.
The bearing of C from O = 2700 – 0420 = 2280.
The bearing of D from O = 3600 – 0540 = 0600. 400
In general, if the bearing of B from A is 𝜃, and is 650
less than 1800, (𝑖. 𝑒. 0000 < 𝜃 < 1800 ), then the 200 0
bearing of A from B is (180 + 𝜃)0 350

Fig. 4.11
Example 5
P, Q and R are three villages on a level ground. Q is 4km on the bearing 0400 from P, while
R is 3km on the bearing 1300 from Q. Calculate the distance and bearing of P from R.
Solution
The problem is as illustrated in Fig 6.12.
Q
∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 is a right-angled triangle, with ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑃𝑅
being the hypotenuse. By Pythagoras’
0
theorem, 400 50
|𝑃𝑅|2 = |𝑃𝑄|2 + |𝑄𝑅|2 ⇒ |𝑃𝑅|2 = 42 + 32 = 3km
16 + 9 = 25 4km
500
|𝑅𝑄| = √25 = 5𝑘𝑚 𝜃
The distance of P from R = 5km. R
Let ∠𝑃𝑅𝑄 = 𝜃 400
|𝑃𝑄| 4
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = |𝑄𝑅| = 3 = 1.33333,
𝜃 = tan−1 1.33333 = 530 P
approximately. Fig. 4.12
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 Thus the bearing of P from R
= 3600 − 𝜃 − 500
= 360 − 53 − 50 = 2570 .
The bearing of R from P = 2570 – 1800 = 0770.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (5𝑘𝑚, 0770 )
∴ 𝑃𝑅

Example 6
Y is 25 km from X on a bearing of 0750. Determine the bearing to X from Y
Solution:
Draw a representative sketch. XA ‖ Y B since both lines are drawn to north. Therefore,
∠𝐴𝑋𝑌 + ∠𝐵𝑌𝑋 add to 1800. It follows that ∠𝐵𝑌𝑋 = 1050.
The required bearing is the reflex angle∠𝐵𝑌𝑋 = 3600 − 1050 = 2250 .

Drawing the axes in at the points is very useful in helping to find information.
B

A Y

25km

4.13
750

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Example 7
A ship sails from Port R on a bearing of 0650 to Port S a distance of 54km. It then sails on
a bearing of 1550 from Port S to Port Q, a distance of 80km.
Find, correct to one decimal place:
The distance between R and Q
The bearing of Q from R. N

S 1550

54𝑘𝑚
N

650 80𝑘𝑚
𝜃0
R

Q
Fig. 4.14

Solution
a. Fig.6.13 shows the diagram for the problem. ∆𝑅𝑆𝑄 is right-angled triangle with
∆𝑅𝑆𝑄 = 900 .
By Pythagoras’ theorem,
|𝑅𝑄|2 = |𝑅𝑆|2 + |𝑆𝑄|2 ⇒ |𝑅𝑄|2 = 542 + 802 = 9316
|𝑅𝑄| = √9316 = 96.52𝑘𝑚
b. Let ∠𝑆𝑅𝑄 = 𝜃
|𝑆𝑄| 80
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = |𝑃𝑆| = 54 = 1.4815 𝜃 = tan−1 1.4815 = 55.98 ≈ 56
Thus the bearing of Q from R = 0650 + 0560 = 1210.
Try these
P, Q and R are three points on level ground with P due north of R. Angle QPR = 40º
and PQ = PR. Calculate the bearing of

(a) Q from P, (b) P from Q, (c) Q from R, (d) R from P.

2) Points A, B, C and D lie on level ground. The point D is due north of A. ∠𝐷𝐴𝐶 = 1400 ,
∠ 𝐶𝐴𝐵 = 900 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 750 .

Find the bearing of

(a) A from C, (b) A from B, (c) C from A, (d) C from B

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3) Jeffery walks 3 km due east from a point P to Q. From Q, he walks a further distance of 5
km on a bearing of 054ο to a point R. Calculate the distance of PR and find the bearing of R
from P.

4) Two ships leave a port at the same time. One sails at 22 km/h on a bearing of 047ο and the
other at 18 km/h on a bearing of 148ο . Find the distance between the two ships after 4 hours.

5) The points P, Q and R are in the same plane. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑃𝑄 = (𝑥 𝑘𝑚, 0300 ), ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝑃 = (12 𝑘𝑚, 3000 )
and |𝑄𝑅| = 20𝑘𝑚.

a. Find x

b. If the point S is on ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑃𝑅 such that ∠𝑃𝑄𝑆 = 450, find |𝑄𝑆| in the form 𝑝√𝑞, where p and
q are integers.

Angle of Elevation and Depression

When a person looks at something above his or her location, the angle between the line of
sight and the horizontal is called the angle of elevation. In this case, the line of sight is
“elevated” above the horizontal.
When a person looks at something below his or her location, the angle between the line of
sight and the horizontal is called the angle of depression. In this case, the line of sight is
“depressed” below the horizontal. Horizontal
Angle of
depression

Line of sight Line of sight

Angle of
elevation Horizontal

Fig. 4.15
Example 8
A person stands at the window of a building so that his eyes are 12.6 m above the level
ground in the vicinity of the building. An object is 58.5 m away from the building on a line
directly beneath the person. Compute the angle of depression of the person’s line of sight
to the object on the ground.
Solution:
horizontal
The angle of depression of the line of sight
𝜃
is the angle, θ, that the line of sight makes
with the horizontal, as shown in the Fig. 4.6. Line of sight
12.6m

Since the ground is level, it is parallel to any

horizontal line, and so the angle that the line
of sight makes with the ground is equal to θ
Ground 𝜃
as well
As a result, 58.5m

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Fig. 4.16
COMPILED BY MRS. MILLICENT NARH - KERT
 12.6
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 58.5
12.6
𝜃 = tan−1 58.5 = 12.150
The angle of depression of the line of sight to the object is 12.150 rounded to two decimal
places.
Example 9
Calculate the angle of elevation of the line of sight of a person whose eye is 1.7 m above the
ground, and is looking at the top of a tree which is 27.5 m away on level ground and 18.6 m
high.

Solution

The angle of elevation is the angle the line of sight makes with the horizontal when the line
of sight is upwards or above the horizontal (in contrast to the situation where we use the
term “angle of depression” to refer to a line of sight which is downwards, or below the
horizontal). So, schematically, the situation here is as shown in the figure to the right, with
the symbol θ indicating the required angle of elevation.
Note that the right triangle for which the line of sight forms the hypotenuse is 16.9 m high after
we take into account the 1.7 m distance that the observer’s eye is above the ground.

Thus
16.9
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = Line of sight
27.5
16.9m
18.6m
so that
16.9
𝜃 = tan−1 (27.5 ) ≅ 31.570

Eye
level

person 27.5m
tree
Fig. 4.17

Thus, to two decimal places, the angle of elevation of this person’s line of sight is 31.570 .
Try these
1) A campsite is 9.41 miles from a point directly below the mountain top. If the angle
of elevation is 12º from the camp to the top of the mountain, how high is the
mountain?
2) How far from the door must a ramp begin in order to rise three feet with an 8º angle
of elevation?
1) An A-frame cabin is 26.23 feet high at the center, and the angle the roof makes with
the base is 53º15'. How wide is the base?

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 2) The side of a lake has a uniform angle of elevation of 15º 30'. How far up the side of
the lake does the water rise if, during the flood season, the height of the lake increases
by 7.3 feet?
3) A building casts a shadow of 110 feet. If the angle of elevation from that point to the
top of the building is 29º 3', find the height of the building.
4) From a point 120 feet from the base of a church, the angles of elevation of the top of
the building and the top of a cross on the building are 38º and 43º respectively. Find
the height to the top of the cross. (The ground is flat.)
5) From the top of a fence, a person sites a lion on the ground at an angle of depression
of 240 . If the man and the fence is 4.2 meters high, how far is the man from the
lion?

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 STRAND 5 Mensuration: Learning, teaching and applying

Area of a rectangle
The measure of the amount of surface occupied by an object is termed as it’ Area. Area is
therefore the measurement of the amount of surface occupy by an object. It is a two-
dimensional measure.
A Unit square, preferably square centimeter is used to cover the surface of the rectangular
figure.

Fig. 5.1

In the diagram, supposing each box is a unit square, then the area of the rectangle will be
how many of the small boxes we have in the rectangle, by counting the column, we have 7
boxes and the rows give 4, instead of counting from beginning to end, we could just multiply
the number on row by column which is 7 x 4 = 28
This is just like multiplying the how long the length (L) is by how long the breadth (B) is.
Therefore, the area of a rectangle is given as
A=LxB
Example 1
Find the area of a rectangle whose length is 8cm and breadth is 4cm

Solution 8cm
Area A = L x B
= 8cm x 4cm
4cm
= 32cm2

Example 2 Fig. 5.2

A rectangle has an area of 171cm2. If the length is 19cm, find the how long the breadth is.
Solution
Area A of the rectangle = L x B
171cm2 = 19cm x B
171cm2
B= = 9cm
19cm

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 Example 3 14
Find the area of the Fig. 5.3

11

Solution:
8
This figure is not a single rectangle. It can,
however, be broken up into two rectangles. We
Fig. 4.3
then will need to find the area of each of the
rectangles and add them together to calculate the
area of the whole figure.
There is more than one way to break this figure into
rectangles. We will only illustrate one below.
we know that, the trea of a Rectangle
A = LxB 6 8 14

4 1 4
4 1

2 11
2 7

A1 = L  B =84 14 = 56
A1 = L  B = 4  68= 24 A2 = L  B = 8  7 = 56
A2 = L  B = 8 11 = 88 A1 + A2 = 56 + 56 = 112units
Example 4 A1 + A2 = 24 + 88 = 112units
A rectangular park of length 30 m and breadth 24 m is surrounded by a 4 m wide path. Find
the area of the path.
E F

A 30m B

24m

D C

H G
Fig.5.4
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Solution:

Let ABCD be the park and shaded portion is the path surrounding it (See Fig. 4.16).

So, length of rectangle EFGH = (30 + 4 + 4) m = 38 m, Breadth of rectangle EFGH = (24 + 4

+ 4) m = 32 m

Therefore, area of the path = area of rectangle EFGH – area of rectangle ABCD

= (38 × 32 – 30 × 24) m2

= (1216 – 720) m2

= 496 m2

Try these

1. The length of a diagonal a rectangle is 13cm. If its length is 12cm, find the area of
the rectangle.
Find the area of the each of the following

10cm a) 10cm
b)
2cm
6cm
3cm
12cm 14cm

3cm

4cm

Fig. 5.6 Fig. 5.7

2. A square 7cm is removed from a rectangular sheet of dimension 9cm by 12cm. Find
the area of the remaining portion.
3. The length of a rectangular sheet of metal is twice its breadth. If the perimeter of the
rectangle is 18cm, find the area of the rectangle.
4. The perimeter of a rectangle is 36cm. If the area is 80cm2, determine the length and
breadth of the rectangle.
5. A rectangular sheet of metal, of negligible thickness, made of uniform material is
14cm long and 10 cm wide. Six square holes of dimension rcm are drilled through
the sheet.
6. Find an expression, in terms of r, for the area of the metal left after the drilling.
7. If the ratio of the new weight of the sheet to the original weight is 11:35, find the
value of r.

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 The Area of a Triangle

To find the area of a triangle, we apply the concept of the area of a rectangle. Let us first
consider the area of a right-angled triangle
Draw a rectangular shape of given length (L) and breath (W), cut it out.
L
A L B
W

D Fig. 5.8 Fig. 5.9

C
(i) (ii)
Cut along of its diagonal say BD to obtain two right angle triangles. When we compare the two
right angled triangles, we will discover that the two areas are equal. This means the area of the
right angled triangle = ½ of the area of the rectangle = ½ L x W

Comparing the right-angled triangle formed from the rectangle we will see that the width of the
rectangle is the height of the triangle whilst the length becomes the base of the triangle

Area of the right angled triangle = ½bh.

To find the area of any triangle, make another rectangle cut out with length L and width W.
Mark a point P on the side of the rectangle

A P B A P B P CD

C D C DC DP AB P
Fig.5.10 Fig. 5.11 Fig. 5.12
Fig.5.13
Join the point P to the opposite corners of the rectangle, Shade the triangle formed within the
figure 5.10 Cut out the shaded triangle and join the two unshaded triangles together to form one
triangle.
When we compare the shaded triangle with the unshaded triangle, we will discover that the
unshaded triangle fit exactly on the shaded triangle and hence will have the same area. As the
triangle stands, the width becomes a height whilst the length becomes a base. The area of the
triangle will therefore be equal to half the area of the rectangle. Area of triangle = ½ bh.

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Example 6

Find the area of the triangle whose base is 8cm and height 12 cm.

Solution

1 1
Area of the triangle = b  h =  8  12 = 48cm
2 2

Example 7

The area of a triangle is 108cm2 and the height is 27cm, find its base.

Solution

1
A= bh 27cm
2
2 A 2 108
b= = = 7.71cm 8cm
h 28
or 4.25
1
A= bh
2
1
108 =  b  28  108 = b 14
2
108
b= = 7.71cm 8cm
14
Area of a Parallelogram.

Our next formula will be for the area of a parallelogram. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with
opposite sides parallel. It therefore follows that, a rectangle, which has four right angles, with
the opposite sides being equal and parallel is an example of a parallelogram.

THEOREM 1

If both pairs of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are congruent and parallel, then the quadrilateral
is a parallelogram. A
B

D C
Fig 5.14

THEOREM 2

If both pairs of opposite angles of a quadrilateral are congruent, then the quadrilateral is a
parallelogram.
A B

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Fig 5.15
THEOREM 3

If an angle of a quadrilateral is supplementary to both of its consecutive angles, then the

quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
A B
1800 – x x
THEOREM 4 x
D C
Fig 5.16

If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

A B

D C
Fig 5.17
The parallelogram ABCD in Fig. 5.17 below is composite figure of two congruent triangles,
that is ∆𝐴𝐸𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐷𝐵𝐶 and a rectangle ABDE.

A B C z
y h
x y z x

F E D l
Fig 5.18
Fig 5.19
Cut triangle DBC and join it at the other side like we have in Fig 4.31 to get a rectangle
whose area is 𝑙 × 𝑏. Hence
The area of a parallelogram ACDF is given by the length of the base (l) x the perpendicular
height (h)

𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎
=𝒍 ×𝒉

A 100m B
Example 8

Fig. 4.32 shows a field ABCD in a 50m

parallelogram shape. Calculate
• The length of AT
30m C
• The area of the field. D T

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COMPILED BY MRS. MILLICENT NARH - KERT
 Solution
a) ATD is a right-angled triangle with AB being the hypotenuse. By Pythagoras’
theorem,
AD = DT + AT
2 2 2

AT = AD − DT = 502 − 302 = 1600

2 2 2

AT = 1600 = 40
b) The length of the base (l) = 100m
The height of the parallelogram (h) = 40m.
Area of the parallelogram = l × h

= 100m × 40m = 4000𝑚2

Example 9
90m
Find the area of the shaded portion in Fig. 4.33

30m
60m
Solution
1
Area of the triangle = 2 × 𝑏 × ℎ
1
60m
= 2 × 60𝑚 × 30𝑚 = 900𝑚2
Fig. 5.21
Area of parallelogram = 𝑙 × ℎ
= 90𝑚 × 60𝑚 = 5400𝑚2
Area of the shaded portion = Area of Parallelogram – Area of triangle
= 5400𝑚2 − 900𝑚2 = 4500𝑚2
Area of a Rhombus
Area of a rhombus is also the base x the perpendicular
height. This is because a rhombus is a parallelogram
D
with all four sides equal. Or
Considering Fig.4.34, ABCD is a rhombus. The
diagonals AC and BD bisect each other at right
angle. That is |𝐴𝑇| = |𝑇𝐶| 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐵𝑇| =
|𝑇𝐷| 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐷𝑇𝐶 = 90 0
A C
When you divided the rhombus into two congruent T
isosceles triangles, i.e. ∆𝐴𝐶𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐴𝐶𝐵:
1
The height of ∆𝐴𝐶𝐷 = |𝐷𝑇| = 2 |𝐷𝐵|
B
Fig. 5.22
1 1 1 1
The area of ∆𝐴𝐶𝐷 = × 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = × |𝐴𝐶| × |𝐷𝐵| = × |𝐴𝐶||𝐷𝐵|
2 2 2 4

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 The two triangles are congruent, therefore the area of ∆𝐴𝐶𝐷 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ∆𝐴𝐶𝐵
1 1
The area of the rhombus = ∆𝐴𝐶𝐷 + ∆𝐴𝐶𝐵 = 2 × (4 × |𝐴𝐶||𝐷𝐵|) = 2 |𝐴𝐶||𝐷𝐵|

1
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠 = × 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠.
2

Example 10
If the length of the diagonals of a rhombus are 24cm and 10cm, find:
i. the area of the rhombus,
ii. the perimeter of the rhombus
Solution
1
i. The area of the rhombus = 2 × 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠.
1
= × 24 × 10 = 120𝑐𝑚2
2
ii. ∆𝐴𝑇𝐵 is a right angled triangle with AB being the
hypotenuse. By Pythagoras’ theorem,
|𝐴𝐵|2 = |𝐴𝑇|2 + |𝐵𝑇|2 = 122 + 52 = 169

⟹ |𝐴𝐵| = √169 = 13𝑐𝑚 A

This means that each side of the rhombus is 13cm. The
perimeter therefore = |𝐴𝐵 | + |𝐵𝐶| + |𝐶𝐷| +
|𝐷𝐴| = 4 × 13 = 52𝑐𝑚 12cm
D B
T
5cm

C
Area of a Trapezium
1
Area of ∆𝐴𝑁𝐷 = 2 × |𝐴𝑁| × ℎ
1
b
Area of ∆𝐶𝑀𝐵 = 2 × |𝑀𝐵| × ℎ D C
Area of rectangle DCMN = |𝑁𝑀| × ℎ
1 1
Total Area = 2 × |𝐴𝑁| × ℎ + |𝑁𝑀| × ℎ + 2 × |𝑀𝐵| × ℎ
h
1
= 2 ℎ(|𝐴𝑁| + 2|𝑁𝑀| + |𝑀𝐵|)
But |𝐴𝑁| + |𝑁𝑀| + |𝑀𝐵| = 𝑎
1
A N M B
⟹ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2 ℎ(𝑎 + |𝑁𝑀|) a
Again |𝑁𝑀| = |𝐷𝐶| = 𝑏 Fig 5.23
1
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2 ℎ(𝑎 + 𝑏)

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 Example 11
The parallel sides of a trapezium are 11cm and 8cm. If the distance between the parallel
lines is 9cm, find the area of the trapezium.
8cm
Solution
𝑎 = 11𝑐𝑚, 𝑏 = 8𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ = 9𝑐𝑚
1 9cm
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑢𝑚 = 2 ℎ(𝑎 + 𝑏)
1 1
= 2 × 9𝑐𝑚(11𝑐𝑚 + 8𝑐𝑚) = (2 × 9 × 19) 𝑐𝑚2 = 85.5𝑐𝑚2 11cm
Example 12

Length of the two parallel sides of a trapezium are 20 cm and 12 cm and the distance between
them is 5 cm. Find the area of the trapezium

Solution:
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑢𝑚 = 2 ℎ(𝑎 + 𝑏)
1 1
= 2 × 5(20 + 12) = 2 × 5 × 32 = 80𝑐𝑚2
Try these
1. Length and breadth of a rectangular field are 22.5 m and 12.5 m respectively. Find:

(i) Area of the field (ii) Length of the barbed wire required to fence the field

1. The length and breadth of rectangle are in the ratio 3 : 2. If the area of the rectangle is
726 m2, find its perimeter.
2. Find the area of a parallelogram whose base and corresponding altitude are respectively
20 cm and 12 cm.
3. Area of a triangle is 280 cm2. If base of the triangle is 70 cm, find its corresponding
altitude.
4. Find the area of a trapezium, the distance between whose parallel sides of lengths 26cm
and 12 cm is 10 cm.
5. The Perimeter of a rhombus is 146 cm and the length of one of its diagonals is 48 cm.
Find the length of its other diagonal.
6. The perimeter of a rhombus is 40cm. If one of its diagonal is 16cm, find the area of the
rhombus.
7. Two parallel sides of a trapezium are 60cm and 77cm and the other sides are 25cm and
26cm. find the area of the trapezium
8. If the sides of a rhombus are each 5m long and length of one of the diagonals is 8m long,
find the length of the other diagonal

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 9. If the diagonals of a rhombus are 8cm and 6cm long, find:

i. The area of the rhombus

ii. The length of the sides of the rhombus A B
10.The acute angle between the sides.

Find the area of the figure ABCDEFG (See Fig. 4.36

in which ABCG is a rectangle, AB = 3 cm, BC = 5 cm,
M C D
GF = 2.5 cm = DE = CF., CD = 3.5 cm, EF = 4.5cm, G
and CD || EF.

F E
Fig. 5.24
Area of Solid Figures
Solid figure is a three dimensional (3-D) figure (length, width and height); 2nd grade solid
figures include prisms, pyramids, cylinders, cones, and spheres. Measuring the surface (or
boundary) constituting the solid. It is called the surface area of the solid figure.

CUBOIDS AND CUBES

a
Cuboid H
Cube b
B
L
Fig. 5.25

l
b

b a
b

h h

b b

h h
h h
l
Fig. 5.27
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 We can see that the cuboid is made up of three pairs of congruent faces. The dimension of
the pairs are (𝑙 by 𝑏), (𝑙 by ℎ) and (𝑏 by ℎ). Therefore the total surface area S of the cuboid
is 2(𝑙 × 𝑏) + 2(𝑙 × ℎ) + 2(𝑏 × ℎ)
𝑆 = 2{(𝑙 × 𝑏) + (𝑙 × ℎ) + (𝑏 × ℎ)}

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 = 𝑙 × 𝑏 × ℎ

Example 13
The toolbox with a lid has dimensions 22cm by 30cm by 16cm. Find the total surface area
of the box.

Solution
The total surface are = 2{(22 × 30) + (22 × 16) + (30 × 16)}𝑐𝑚2
= 2(660 + 352 + 480)𝑐𝑚2 = 2984𝑐𝑚2
Example 14 A B
Fig. 5.28 is a model church auditorium in C D
Accra College of Education. The model is in
F
the shape of a cuboid with a triangular prism on E 3cm 6cm
top. Find
4cm
i. the cross sectional area.
ii. the volume of the model church. P Q
S R
8cm
Fig 5.28

Solution
The cross sectional is a composite figure consisting of a triangle BDE and a rectangle
DQRE.
i. The base of the triangle = 3cm, The height of the triangle = 2cm
1
Area of triangle = ½ x base x height = 2 × 3 × 2 = 3𝑐𝑚2
The length of the rectangle = 4cm, The breadth = 3cm
B
Area of the rectangle = length x breadth = 4 × 3 = 12𝑐𝑚2
Hence the cross sectional area = 3cm2 + 12cm2 = 15cm2 2cm
D E
ii. The length of the model church is 8cm,
The volume = cross sectional area x length of the model 4cm
= 15𝑐𝑚2 × 8𝑐𝑚 = 120𝑐𝑚3

Q 3cm R

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 CIRCLE
A circle is a plane figure bounded by a curved line called the CIRCUMFERENCE. Any
point on the circumference is equidistant from a fixed point called the CENTER.

Semi circle : this a half of a circle.

The other parts of a circle
are illustrated and described Segment
in Fig. 3.1.

Tangent
Chord
Chord: This is a straight line joining any Diameter
two points on the
circumference. The chord
divides the circle into segments. Quadrant Circumference
The bisector of the chord passes
through the center of the circle.

Radius
Radius: This is a straight line drawn Sector
from the centre of the circle to
any point on the circumference.
Plural is radii.
Fig. 5.30

Diameter: It is a special chord that pass through the centre of the circle. It is twice the radius
in length. It is the axes of symmetry and divides the circle in to semi circles.
Secant: The secant is a line which does not pass through the centre of a circle and which
intersects the circumference and splits the circle into two regions.
Arcs: The arc is the circumference of any incomplete circle.
Tangent: This is a straight line which TOUCHES but does NOT CUT the circumference
or arc. The tangent touches the circumference at one and only one point called
the point of contact.
Congruency: Two circles with the same radius but different centres are said to be
congruent. In particular, they have the same area and can be completely
superimposed on each other.
Segment: This is the area bounded by a chord Minor segment
and an arc that cuts it off.

Major segment

A chord divides the circle into two,

a) The Minor (smaller) segment Fig5.31
b) The Major (bigger or larger) segment
Concentric Circles: Two circles with the
same centre but different radius are said to
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 be concentric. The diameter of the larger
circle contains the corresponding diameter Concentric circles
of the smallest circle. The line joining the
centres of the two circles of different radius
is an axis of symmetry for both circles.

Fig. 5.32

Sector: A sector is the area bounded by two

radii of a circle and the arc they cut off i.e.
Major sector
Minor and Major sectors.

Minor
sector

Fig. 3.33
Quadrant: This is the area bounded
by two radii of a circle which are at
right angles to each other and the arc Fourth First
they cut off. It is a quarter of the total Quadrant Quadrant
area of a circle. Third Second
Quadrant Quadrant

Fig. 5.34

Pi (π): For any circle, the ratio of the circumference to the diameter (also the area to the
square of the radius is a constant, and this constant is called Pi.

Circumference of a Circle

To determine the circumference of a circle, try to perform activities with circular objects like
milk tin, milo tin, torch battery etc.
• measure the diameter of each of the circular objects. The measurement of the diameter
is done by placing the circular object length in between two cards of the same lengths
and record.

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 • measure the circumference (perimeter) of each of the circular objects. The measurement
of the circumference is done by placing a length of string, rope or thread around the
object, cut and measure on a measuring instrument and record.

Circumferenc
measuring diameter and circumference e

Diameter and circumference

Object Circumference Diameter C/d
Milk tin 21.4 6.9 3.147
Milo tin 81.4 10.0 3.140
Torch battery 10.7 3.4 3.147
Nido tin 32.3 10.3 3.127
Geisha tin 17.2 5.5 3.14

The ratios of the circumference to the diameter of each of the circular objects are calculated and
the results recorded in a table. Discover that in each circular object the ratio c/d are
approximately the same and that, this ratio is constant. We call this constant pi denoted by 𝜋. 𝜋
therefore has an approximate value of 3.14 which is about 22/7
The circumference, the distance round the circle C is therefore given as
C
= π , where C is the circumference, D is the diameter and π is the constant 3.14. making C
D
the subject, C = πD. Remembering that two radii makes a diameter, replace D with 2r
∴ the circumference of a circle is given by C = 2𝜋r or 𝜋d

C = 𝜋 x 2r C=2𝜋r

Example 1
22
Find the circumference of a circle with radius 14cm. (𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝜋 = )
7
Solution
The circumference C is given by
22
𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟, and 𝜋 = , 𝑟 = 14
7
22
𝐶 =2× × 14 = 88cm.
7
Example 2
22
The circumference of a circle is 132cm. find the radius of the circle if 𝜋 = 7

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 Solution
The circumference C of the circle is given by
22
𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟, and 𝑐 = 132, 𝜋 = ,
7
22
∴ 132 = 2 × ×𝑟
7
132 7
𝑟= × = 21
2 22

Area of a Circle
Draw a circle with radius of about 4cm on a card. Cut out the circle to obtain a circular cut out.
Fold the circular cutout along a diameter into halves and then colour one half. Fold again to
form quarters and again and again to eighths and sixteenths, cut the sectors out and arrange to
form a rectangle as shown below;

r r

𝜋r
(i) (ii)
What shape is (ii) approximately? What is the approximate width of this shape? What is the
length of the shape?

We note that the curved edge of each semi-circle is half the circumference and is therefore of
length ½ x 2𝜋 r = 𝜋r
When we cut along the folded lines we will obtain 8 coloured sectors and 8 uncoloured sectors.
Arrange the sectors together to form a rectangle (ii) This shape is approximately a rectangle
with length 𝜋r and breadth r. giving the area of a circle as:

Area = 𝜋 𝑟 𝑥 𝑟 ∴ 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2

Since all the sectors in (i) are arranged in (ii), the area of the circle is equal to the area of the
shape in (ii). If the number of sectors is large, the shape in (ii) will look more like a rectangle.
Its length will then be half of the circumference of the circle. The width will then be equal to
the radius, r, of the circle.
Therefore the area of circle A = area of rectangle = 𝜋𝑟 × 𝑟 = 𝜋𝑟 2 as shown earlier.
This can also be written as
4𝜋
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 × 𝑟 × (Any number divided by itself = 1 and also one times any number is
4𝜋
the same number.

2 ×2𝜋 2 𝜋𝑟×2𝜋𝑟
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 × 𝑟 × = , we learnt that 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟
4𝜋 4𝜋
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 𝐶 ×𝐶 𝐶2
We can conclude that 𝐴 = =
4𝜋 4𝜋
2 4
Also from 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 we can say that 𝐴 = 𝜋 × 𝑟 × 𝑟 = 𝜋𝑟 × 𝑟 ×
4
𝜋×𝑟×𝑟×2×2 𝜋×2𝑟×2𝑟
𝐴= = but 2r = d
4 4
𝜋×𝑑×𝑑 𝜋𝑑2
∴𝐴= =
4 4
𝐶 𝐶 𝑟
From 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟, we can say that 2 = 𝜋𝑟. We can also say that 2 = 𝜋𝑟 × 𝑟 .
𝐶 𝜋𝑟 2
∴ = But 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝐴
2 𝑟
𝐶 𝐴 1 𝐴
⟹ = or 𝐶=
2 𝑟 2 𝑟
From the deduction above, we can make the following implications
𝐶𝑟
1) 𝐴 = 2
2𝐴
2) 𝐶 = 𝑟

3) 𝐶𝑟 = 2𝐴

Example 3
Find the area of a circle of radius 5cm

Solution
22
The area of a circle of radius r is given by 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 , 𝑟 = 5𝑐𝑚, 𝜋 = ,
7
22
∴ 𝐴= × 5 × 5 = 78.57cm2
7
Example 4
22
The circumference of a circle is 44cm. Find the area of the circle. Take 𝜋 = .
7
Solution
𝐶2 442 44 ×44 44 ×44 ×7
𝐴= , C = 44 ∴ 𝐴 = 22 = 22 = = 11 × 2 × 7 = 154𝑐𝑚2
4𝜋 4× 4× 4 ×22
7 7
Example 5
22
The diameter of a circle is 14cm. Find the area of the circle given that 𝜋 = .
7
Solution
𝜋𝑑2 22
A= , d = 14, 𝜋 = .
4 7

22
× 142 22× 14 ×14
7
A= = = 22 x 7 = 154cm2.
4 4 ×7
In the bid to solve the questions, find and use the result to find the required parameter. (i.e.
A or C)

Length of an Arc
Draw a circle of radius 6cm and cut it out.
9. Fold the cut-out into two along a diameter.
10. What do you observe?

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 Since the two shapes are congruent, their arcs are also congruent. That is, the length of the
arc of the semicircles is half the length of the circumference of the circle.
We note also that the angle subtended at the centre by each of the semicircle is 1800, that is
half of 3600.
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 1 1800
𝑆𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 2 3600

If you further fold the two into two portions such that the portions fix exactly on top of each
other, the fraction of each portion or sector is one quarter of the area of the circle, remember
a quadrant is formed. The angle of the quadrant is 900, i.e. ¼ of the angle at the centre of
the circle.
Note also that the length of the arc of each quadrant is ¼ of the length of the circumference
of the circle.
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 1 900
= =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 4 3600

O
We observe from fig. 6 that arc PQ of length l 𝜃0
subtends an angle 𝜃 at the center of the circle, as a r r
results
𝑙 𝜃 𝜃
2𝜋𝑟
= 3600
∴𝑙= 3600
× 2𝜋𝑟 P Q
l
Example 1 Fig. 5.38
An arc of length 8.5cm subtends an angle 𝜃 at the center of a circle with radius 6cm. Find
22
the angle it subtends at the centre. Take 𝜋 = .
7

Solution
The angle subtended by an arc of length l with a centre of radius r is given by
𝜃
𝑙= × 2𝜋𝑟, 3600 × 𝑙 = 𝜃 × 2𝜋𝑟
3600
360 × 𝑙 22
⟹ 𝜃= , l = 8.5cm, r = 6cm, 𝜋 = .
2𝜋𝑟 7
360 × 8.5 360 × 8.5 ×7 21420
⟹ 𝜃= 22 = = = 81.140. The angle therefore is 81.140
2× ×6 2 ×22 ×6 264
7

Example 2
The radius of a circle is 21cm. An arc subtends an angle of 810 at the centre. Find the length
22
of the arc. (𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝜋 = )
7
Solution
Let lcm be the length of the arc.
𝑙 810
=
2𝜋𝑟 3600
810 22 297
𝑙= ×2 × × 21𝑐𝑚 = 𝑐𝑚 =29.7cm
3600 7 10
The length therefore is 29.7cm

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Example 3

O
𝜃
8cm

P 6cm N 6cm Q

Fig.5.39
PQ is a chord of a circle, centre O. The radius of the circle is 8cm. |𝑃𝑄| = 12𝑐𝑚. Find
a) The angle subtended at the center by the minor arc PQ
b) The perimeter of the minor sector OPQ
c) The perimeter of the minor segment. (Take 𝜋 =
3.142)

Solution
̅̅̅̅ bisects 𝑃𝑄
a) Triangle POQ is isosceles. The perpendicular 𝑂𝑁 ̅̅̅̅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝑃𝑂𝑄 = 𝜃
1 6
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃 = 8 = 0.75
1
𝜃 = 48.59
2
𝜃 = 97.180 The angle therefore subtended at the centre is 97.180
b) If l is the length of the arc, then
𝑙 97.180
=
2𝜋𝑟 3600
97.18 ×16 ×3.142
𝑙= 𝑐𝑚 = 13.57cm.
360
Perimeter of the sector = 2 x 8 + 13.57cm = 16 + 13.57cm = 29.57cm
c) Perimeter of segment = 12 + 13.57cm = 25.57cm

Area of a Sector of a Circle

We have already found out that the angle subtended by an arc at the centre of a circle is
proportional to the length of the arc. Similarly, the angle subtended at the centre, i.e. the
sectorial angle is proportional to the area of the sector. Considering a circle of radius r, if
the area of the sector is A and the sectorial angle is 𝜃, then
𝐴 𝜃° 𝜃
= and thus 𝐴 = × 𝜋𝑟 2
𝜋𝑟 2 3600 360

Also we know that if l is the length of the arc of the sector,

𝑙 𝜃0 𝐴 𝜃
= and 𝜋𝑟 2 = 360 . By implication we can say that
2𝜋𝑟 3600

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 𝐴 𝑙 1
= 2𝜋𝑟 and therefore 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑟
𝜋𝑟 2 2
Example 1
Calculate the area of a sector of a circle with radius 8cm which subtend an angle of 60 0 at
the centre O.

Solution
The area of a sector of a circle is given by 𝐴 =
𝜃
O
× 𝜋𝑟 2 , in our case, 𝜃 = 600 , r = 8, 𝜋 =
360 600
22 8cm 8cm
7

P Q

Fig. 5.40
600 22 84480
Area of the sector 𝐴 = × × 82 = 𝑐𝑚2 = 33.52 𝑐𝑚2
3600 7 2520
Example 4
The area of a sector of a circle with radius 10cm is 98.5cm2. Find the angle it subtends at
the centre.

Solution
The area of a sector of a circle with radius r is given by
𝜃
𝐴= × 𝜋𝑟 2 , O
360
0
10cm 𝜃 10cm
2
Where A = 98.5cm , r = 10cm
∴ 𝜃 × 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝐴 × 3600
𝜃 × 𝜋𝑟 2 = 98.5𝑐𝑚2 × 3600 P Q
98.5×3600 ×7 248220
𝜃= = = 112.830 Fig. 5.41
22×10×10 2200

Example 3
From the diagram, calculate
i. The length of arc PQ
ii. The area of sector OPQ O
750 13cm

Solution P Q
𝜃
i. The length of arc PQ is given by 𝑙 = × 2𝜋𝑟
3600 Fig. 5.42
𝜃 = 750 , 𝑟 = 13𝑐𝑚
750 22 715
The length of arc PQ = 3600 × 2 × 7
× 13 = 42
𝑐𝑚 = 17.02𝑐𝑚
𝜃
ii. The area of a sector is given by 𝐴 = × 𝜋𝑟 2
360

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 750 22 9295
Area of sector OPQ = 3600 × × 132 = 𝑐𝑚2 = 110.65cm2
7 84
Example 5
An arc AB subtends an angle of 1000 at the centre of a circle with radius 14cm. Calculate
22
the area of the major sector AOB taking 𝜋 = .
7
Solution
The major arc subtends an angle of (360 –
100) = 2600 at the centre of the circle.
2600 22
Area of major arc A = × × 142 = O
3600 7
4004
9
𝑐𝑚2 = 444.89𝑐𝑚2 1000 14cm

A B

Fig. 5.43
Example 6
Find the area of the shaded portion in Fig.3. 14
Solution 5c
The area of the square = 5 x 5 = 25cm2 m
1 1 22
The area of the quadrant = 4 𝜋𝑟 2 = 4 × × 25𝑐𝑚2 = 5c
7
275 m
𝑐𝑚2 = 19.64 𝑐𝑚2
14
So the area of the quadrant is 19.64cm2
Area of shaded portion = area of square – area of quadrant
= 25 – 19.64 = 5.36cm2
Fig. 5.44
Example 7
If a circle with a radius of 9cm has its area of sector to be 55.08cm 2, find the length of the
arc which it subtends at the centre.
Solution
1
The relationship between the length of an arc and the area of its sector is given by 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑟
2
Where A = 55.08cm2, r = 9cm
1
55.08𝑐𝑚2 = × 9 × 𝑙𝑐𝑚
2
55.08×2
𝑙= = 12.24cm
9

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CYLINDERS
r is the radius of the base of the cylinder
h is the height of the cylinder.

A cylinder has two plane circular ends each of area 𝜋𝑟 2

r
The net of both ends closed, one end closed and both ends
open cylinders are as shown in Fig. 4.40, Fig. 4.41 and
Fig. 4.42 respectively.
h

𝜋𝑟 2 r
2𝜋𝑟

Fig. 5.44
2𝜋𝑟 × ℎ = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ ℎ

2𝜋𝑟

𝜋𝑟 2 2𝜋𝑟 × ℎ = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ ℎ
2𝜋𝑟
Fig. 4.41

2𝜋𝑟 × ℎ = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ ℎ 𝜋𝑟 2

Fig. 5.44

Fig. 5.43

The total surface area = curved surface area only = 2𝜋𝑟 × ℎ = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
That is a cylinder with both ends open

For a one end open and the other closed cylinder, as shown in Fig. 4.31,
Total surface area A is given by area of base + area of curved surface.
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ = 𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + 2ℎ)

For a both end closed cylinder like we have in Fig 4.32, the total surface area A will be the
sum of the three parts.
𝐴 = 2 × 𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ = 2𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + ℎ)
The volume V of the cylinder = the base area x the height
But the base area 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 , therefore, the volume V of a cylinder is given as
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 × ℎ = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
Example 15
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 An open cylindrical tin has a height of 60mm and a diameter of 154mm. Calculate
a. The area of the cross section
b. The volume of the cylinder
c. The area of the curved surface
22
d. The total surface area. (𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝜋 = )
7
Solution
154
a. The radius (𝑟) = 𝑚𝑚 = 77𝑚𝑚
2
22
The area of the cross section = 𝜋𝑟 2 = × 772 = 18634𝑚𝑚2
7
b. The volume of the tin = cross sectional area x height
= (18634 × 60)𝑚𝑚3 = 1118040𝑚𝑚3
22
c. The curved surface area = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ = 2 × × 77 × 60 = 29040𝑚𝑚2
7
d. Total surface area =cross sectional area + curved surface area
= (18634 + 29040)𝑚𝑚2 = 47674𝑚𝑚2
Example 16

The radius and height of a right circular cylinder are 7cm and 10cm respectively. Find its

(i) curved surface area (ii) total surface area, and the (iii) volume

Solution
(i) curved surface area = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
22
=2× × 7 × 10 𝑐𝑚2 = 440 𝑐𝑚2
7

(ii) Total surface area = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ + 2𝜋 𝑟 2

22 22
= (2 × × 7 × 10 + 2 × × 7 × 7) 𝑐𝑚2
7 7

= 440 𝑐𝑚2 + 308 𝑐𝑚2 = 748 𝑐𝑚2

(iii) 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ

22
( × 7 × 7 × 10) 𝑐𝑚3 = 1540𝑐𝑚3
7

= 1540 𝑐𝑚3
Example 17
Radius of a road roller is 35 cm and it is 1 metre long. If it takes 200 revolutions to level a
playground, find the cost of leveling the ground at the rate of £3 per m 2.

Solution:

Area of the playground leveled by the road roller in one revolution

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= curved surface area of the roller
22
= 2𝜋𝑟ℎ = (2 × × 35 × 100) 𝑐𝑚2 (𝑟 = 35 𝑐𝑚, ℎ = 1, 𝑚 = 100 𝑐𝑚)
7

= 22000 𝑐𝑚2
22000
= (100×100) 𝑚2

(since 100 cm = 1 m, so 100 cm × 100 cm = 1 m × 1 m)

= 2.2 𝑚2

Therefore, area of the playground levelled in 200 revolutions = 2.2 × 200 𝑚2 = 440 𝑚2

Hence, cost of leveling at the rate of £3 per m2 = £3 × 440 = £1320.00

Try these
1. The length and breadth of a cuboidal tank are 5m and 4m respectively. If it is full of
water and contains 60 m3 of water, find the depth of the water in the tank.
2. A hollow cylindrical metallic pipe is open at both the ends and its external diameter
is 12 cm. If the length of the pipe is 70 cm and the thickness of the metal used is 1 cm,
find the volume of the metal used for making the pipe.
3. A metallic solid of volume 1 m3 is melted and drawn into the form of a wire of
diameter 3.5 mm. Find the length of the wire so drawn.
4. Find the curved surface area, total surface area and volume of a right circular cylinder
of radius 5 m and height 1.4 m.
5. Volume of a right circular cylinder is 3080 cm3 and radius of its base is 7 cm. Find
the curved surface area of the cylinder.
6. A cylindrical water tank is of base diameter 7 m and height 2.1 m. Find the capacity
of the tank in litres.
7. Length and breadth of a paper is 33 cm and 16 cm respectively. It is folded about its
breadth to form a cylinder. Find the volume of the cylinder.
8. A cylindrical bucket of base diameter 28 cm and height 12 cm is full of water. This
water is poured in to a rectangular tub of length 66 cm and breadth 28 cm. Find the
height to which water will rise in the tub.
9. A hollow metallic cylinder is open at both the ends and is of length 8 cm. If the
thickness of the metal is 2 cm and external diameter of the cylinder is 10 cm, find the
whole curved surface area of the cylinder (use 𝜋 = 3.14).

[Hint: whole curved surface = Internal curved surface + External curved surface]

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Pipes

A pipe is a hollow which is cylindrical in shape and solid as in Fig. 5.81

R
r
r
R

Fig. 5.45
Fig. 5.46

The cross section of the pipe is annular as shown in Fig. 4.44. if an external radius of the cross
section is R and the internal radius of the cross section is r, then the area of the cross section is

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑅2 − 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋(𝑅2 − 𝑟 2 )

If h is the height or length of the pipe, then the volume V is given as

𝑉 = 𝜋(𝑅2 − 𝑟 2 )ℎ = 𝜋ℎ(𝑅2 − 𝑟 2 )

Example 18

A copper pipe has an external radius of 100mm and internal radius of 80mm.

Find the cross sectional area of the pipe (𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝜋 = 3.142)

Calculate the volume of copper needed to make 5m length of this pipe

Solution

External radius (R) = 100mm, internal radius (r) = 80mm.

The area of the cross section of the pipe = 𝜋(𝑅2 − 𝑟 2 ) = 3.142(1002 − 802 )

= 3.142 × 3600 = 11311.2𝑚𝑚2

The volume of copper needed to make 5000mm length is

Area of cross section x length
= 11311.2 × 5000 = 56556000𝑚𝑚3

Try these
1. A rectangular sheet of metal made of uniform material is 9cm long and 8cm wide. Six
circular holes of radius r cm are drilled through the sheet.
2. Find an expression for the volume of the metal left after the drilling, if h cm is the thickness
of the metal.
3. If the ratio of the new weight of the sheet to the original weight is 13:20, find, correct to two
decimal places, the value of r. (take 𝜋 = 3.14

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 STRAND 6 GLOBAL MATHEMATICS:

LEARNING, TEACHING AND APPLYING

The Earth as a sphere

In this topic, the Earth will be considered to be a perfect
sphere, with a radius of 6400 kilometres. There are two
types of circles that can be drawn on the surface of a
sphere.
A great circle is the largest circle that can be drawn on the
surface of a sphere, as the centre of the great circle is also
the centre of the sphere. The radius of a great circle on
Earth will therefore be 6400 kilometres which is the same
as the radius of the Earth sphere. As shown from the
figures, the equator and a circle drawn through both the
North and South poles are great circles. The meridians of
longitude are all great circles.

A great circle track is the shortest distance between

two points on the surface of a sphere and forms the
basis of many navigational activities for long distance
travel by air or sea. A key calculation as part of this
process is the finding of waypoints; these are points
that the traveler should pass through to maintain their
journey on the great circle.
A small circle does not have its centre at the centre of the sphere. Obviously, the radius of a
small circle will be LESS than the radius of the sphere. For Earth, it means that the radius of a
small circle will be less than 6400 kilometres. The parallels of latitude (apart from the Equator)
are all small circles.

Latitude;
Latitude is a measure of the position of a point on
the earth’s surface in terms of degrees north or
south of a baseline - the equator. These values
vary from 90o S to 90o N. The latitude of the
Equator is 0o .

Every plane perpendicular (at right angles) to the

earth’s axis cuts the surface of the earth in a circle
called a parallel of latitude.

The parallel of latitude formed by a plane passing through the centre of the earth and equidistant
from both the North and South Poles is called the equator. All other parallels of latitude are
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small circles, each having a radius smaller than that of the earth, i.e. less than 6400 km. As the
parallels run east and west, places having the same latitude will be due east or due west of each
other.

Distance north or south of the equator is calculated from the arc length using the angle between
two radii - one going to the equator and the other going to the point whose latitude is required.

Latitude is determined by measuring the angle of elevation of the sun at noon, and adding or
subtracting an allowance for the time of year. Using the angle only is correct for just two days
of the year - the spring and autumnal equinoxes. In midwinter we need to subtract 23.45o and
at midsummer we need to add 23.45o These allowances are due to the fact that the earth is tilted
at this angle as it orbits the sun. Books of correction factors for every day of the year (almanacs)
were used for many years until global positioning satellites were used.

Longitude;
In the same way that latitude fixes a place north or
south of the equator, longitude fixes a place east or
west of the prime meridian - also known as the
Greenwich meridian which passes through
Greenwich near London, UK.

Each great circle passing through the north and

south poles has the earth’s axis as its diameter. Each
great circle is divided by the poles into two semi-
circles called meridians of longitude. As the
meridians run north and south, places having the
same longitude will be due N or due south of each
other.
Distance east or west of Greenwich is measured as an angle between the plane containing the
Greenwich meridian and the plane containing the meridian passing through the point whose
longitude is required.

Longitude varies from 180o W of Greenwich to 180o E of Greenwich.

The two meridians on a particular great circle will have values which sum to 180 o, but one will
have a designation W and the other a designation E. For example, 60o W is on the same great
circle as 120o E.

The accurate determination of longitude was one of the great technological challenges of
the eighteenth century, since a number of shipping disasters had shown up the inadequacies
of the methods being used at the time. A number of European nations offered financial
prizes for the development of a reliable and accurate method for determining longitude.

The Earth rotates at a rate of 360o per day, or 15o per hour, so there is a direct relationship
between time and longitude. If a navigator knew the time at a particular fixed reference
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point when the local time could be determined at the ship’s location, the difference between
the reference time and the apparent local time would give the ship’s position relative to the
fixed location.

Measuring the Lunar Distance

The angle between the Moon and another celestial object (a star or the sun) - which would
lead to determination of the position of the measurer through calculation based on reference
values is termed as measuring the lunar distance. This method required the compilation of
tables of reference values (an almanac) for every day of every year well in advance of their
required use - a task which required a lot of human calculating time in a pre-electronic
computer era.

The use of Chronometer

The second, and simpler, method involved taking a chronometer, which could keep very
accurate time at sea, and calculate position almost immediately by comparing the chronometer
time for the fixed reference point with local time. It took until the 1850’s to build accurate
chronometers cheap enough for their widespread use.

The advent of radio in the early twentieth century enabled navigators to verify the accuracy
of their chronometers with time signals broadcast from known locations. Global positioning
satellite systems and radar have added to the tools available to the modern navigator.

Locating positions on Earth

The position of any point on the earth’s surface is given uniquely by the intersection of the
circles of latitude and longitude.

By convention, the latitude is given first when giving the position of any point. In the diagram,
the meridian through NGPS is the Greenwich meridian.

Example

Points G and Q are on the 40o N parallel of latitude. Points P and A are on the equator. Write
down the positions of points G,Q,A AND P
N

G Q

50o
P A

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 Solution

In the diagram, the meridian through NGPS is the Greenwich meridian.

G (40o N, 0o E (or W))

Q(40o N, 50o E )

A (0o N, (or S) 50o E )

P(0o N (or S), 0o E )

Distance along meridians

Example

Paris is at 48.67o N and 2.33o E. How far is it from Paris to the North Pole and the
equator travelling along the meridian? Correct to the nearest km.

Solution

Each meridian is a great circle, with a radius of 6400km. The angle between the latitude of
Paris and that of the Equator is 48.67o. the angle between the latitude of Paris and the North
Pole 90o – 48.67o.

From Paris to the equator

∅ 𝜋𝑟
l= 𝑥 2𝜋𝑟 = x∅
360 180

6400𝜋
= 𝑥 48.67o
180

5436.491…..

= 5436km

From Paris to the North Pole

∅ 𝜋𝑟
l = 360 𝑥 2𝜋𝑟 = x∅
180

6400𝜋
= 𝑥 41.33o
180

4616.605…..

= 4617km

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Note: The metre was originally defined as one ten-millionth of the distance from the North Pole
to the Equator travelling along the meridian through Paris. Owing to some errors in estimating
the shape of the earth, the defined metre was about one-fifth of a millimetre shorter than the
actual distance, meaning that the actual circumference of the earth through the poles is 40 007
863 m rather than the expected 40 000 000 m.)
Example

Melbourne is at 37.82 S and 144.97 E. How far is it from Melbourne to the South Pole, the
equator and the North Pole travelling along the meridian correct to the nearest kilometer.

Solution

Each meridian is a great circle, with a radius of 6400km.

From Melbourne to the equator.

The angle between the latitude of Melbourne and that of the Equator is 37.82 o.
∅ 𝜋𝑟
l = 360 𝑥 2𝜋𝑟 = x∅
180

6400𝜋
= 𝑥 37.82o
180

4224.53…..

= 4225km

From Melbourne to the South Pole, the angle between the latitude of Melbourne and the South
Pole is 90o – 37.82o = 52.18o
∅ 𝜋𝑟
l = 360 𝑥 2𝜋𝑟 = x∅
180

6400𝜋
= 𝑥 52.18o
180

5828.56…..

= 5829km

From Melbourne to the North Pole, the angle between the latitude of Melbourne and the North
Pole is 90o + 37.82o = 127.82o
∅ 𝜋𝑟
l = 360 𝑥 2𝜋𝑟 = x∅
180

6400𝜋
= 𝑥 127.82o
180

14277.63…..

= 14278km

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Distances between two places

Finding the distance between two places on the surface of the Earth implies finding either the
great circle distance (the shortest distance between any two points on the surface of a sphere)
or the small circle distance (travelling along a parallel of latitude). To complete these
calculations, we need to know the location (latitude and longitude) of each place. For this
course, we will find the following;

• The first is finding the great circle distance between two places on the same meridian of

longitude, or two places on the Equator.

• The second is finding the small circle distance between two places on the same parallel of
latitude.

Distances between places with the same longitude

Example

Both Torrens Creek and Kyabram are on the 145o E meridian of longitude, but Torrens Greek
is at 20 .77 S whereas Kyabram is at 36.32o S. How far is Torres Creek from Kyabram travelling
along the 145o E meridian correct to the nearest km.

Solution

Each meridian is a great circle, with a radius of 6400km. The angle between the latitude of
Torres Creek and that of Kyabam is 36.32 – 20.77o = 15.55. (We find the difference since both
places are on the same side of the Equator)

From Torres Creek to Kyabam

∅ 𝜋𝑟
l = 360 𝑥 2𝜋𝑟 = x∅
180

6400𝜋
= 𝑥 15.55o
180

1736.95…..

= 1737km

Example

Both Cooktown (Queensland) and Kyabram (Victoria) are on the 145 degrees E meridian of
longitude, but torrens creek is at 20.77 degrees S where Kyabram is at 36.32 degrees S. how far
is it from torrens creek to kyabram travelling across the 145 degrees E meridian correct to the
nearest km?

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Solution

Each meridian is a great circle with a radius of 6400 km. the angle between the latitude of
torrens creek of the kyabram is 36.32 – 15.47 = 20.85

(we find the difference since both places are on the same side of the equator)

From torrens creek to kyabram

∅ 𝜋𝑟
l = 360 𝑥 2𝜋𝑟 = x∅
180

6400𝜋
= 𝑥 20.85
180

2328.967…..

= 2329 km

Example

Both shellharbour (NSW) and Magadan (Russia) are on the 151 latitude but shellharbor is at
34.58 degrees S whereas Magadan is at 34.58 degrees S whereas Magadan is 59.57 degrees N.
how far is it from Shellharbour to Magadan travelling along the 151degree E meridian, correct
to the nearest km.

Solution

Each meridian is a great circle with a radius of 6400 km. the angle between the latitude of
shellarbour and that of magadan is 34.58 + 59.57 = 94.15

(We find the sum since both places are on different sides of the equator)

From shellarbour to magadan

∅ 𝜋𝑟
l = 360 𝑥 2𝜋𝑟 = x∅
180

6400𝜋
= 𝑥 94.15
180

10516.655…..

= 10517 km

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Distance between places on the Equator

The Equator is a great circle, and hence finding the

distance between two points on the Equator uses the
same calculation process as for finding the distance
between two points on the same meridian of longitude.
difference in angle of longitude

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Both Libreville and Kismanyo are on the Equator on opposite of the Africa
continent. Libreville is at 9.27o E and Kismanyo is at 42.32o E. How far from
Libreville to Kismanyo travelling along the equator, correct to the nearest km.
Solution

The equator is a great circle with radius of 6400km. the angle between the longitude of
Libreville and that of Kismanyo is42.32 o – 9.27o = 33.05

(we find the difference since both places have the same longitude direction, (E)

From Libreville to Kismanyo

∅ 𝜋𝑟
l = 360 𝑥 2𝜋𝑟 = x∅
180

6400𝜋
= 𝑥 33.05
180

3691.720…..

= 3692 km

Example

Both the Galapagos Islands and the island of Naura are on the Equator, but the
Galapagos Islands are at 90.30o W whereas the Island of Nauru is at 166.56 o E. How far
is it from Galapagos Island to Nauru travelling over the Pacific Ocean along the equator,
correct to the nearest km?

Solution

The angle between the Longitude of the Galapogas Island and that of Nauru is 90.30 +
166.56o = 256.86o

(we find the sum since these places have different longitude directions.

But this is a major arc and the minor arc will be 360 – 256.86= 103.14

We could also find the angle between these two places by recognising that both are close to 180o
E/W. we could find the angle between the Galapagos island and 180oE/W, the island of Nauru and
180o E/W and then add these two angles together.

Angle between Galapogos island and 180o E/W = 180 – 90.30 = 89.70

Angle between Nauru island and 180o E/W = 180 – 166.56 = 13.44

Total angle between Galapagos island and Nauru = 89.70 + 13.44 = 103 14

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From the Galapagos island to Nauru
∅ 𝜋𝑟
l = 360 𝑥 2𝜋𝑟 = x∅
180

6400𝜋
= 𝑥 103.14
180

11520.848…..

= 11521 km

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 STRAND 7 INTRODUCTORY STATISTICS:

LEARNING, TEACHING AND APPLYING

DATA

A collection of measurements or attributes items or individuals is referred to as data. It could be

seen that, when we talk of data we are talking about a collection; plural and not singular. If you
therefore collect an information on an item, it is not a data but a variable. Every individual
possesses a number of characteristics or attributes. Examination marks, age, colour, height, weight
and so on are all characteristics or attributes. Characteristics can assume different values,
categories or descriptions.

Types of Variables

There are broadly two main types of variables; Quantitative variable and Qualitative variable.

Quantitative Variable

Any activity that involves counting or measuring is said to be quantitative. A quantitative variable
is an observation that can therefore be counted or measured. They are said to be numerical.
Quantitative data therefore are observations that are measured or counted. If an observation is
made, we say it is a quantitative variable. Example, the mass of a girl in a class is a quantitative
variable, but the collection of masse of girls in a class is a quantitative data. Quantitative variables
are either discrete or continuous.

Values of discrete data are usually found by counting. They are a finite or countable number of
choices. The data are restricted to only certain, or exact numbers. For example, number of pupils,
number of cars, number of animals, which can be 0, 1, 2, 3, …. They are not measurement. We
can’t have negative number of pupils or animals therefore do not involve negatives.

Values of continuous data can be any real number. They are normally found by measuring; length,
mass, distance, time etc. With continuous data, all decimals or fractions are taking into
consideration. It is also rounded to nearest degree of accuracy.

Qualitative variable

This is an operational concept. Qualitative variables cannot be measured or counted without

introducing coding. They are measurements which fall into various categories which are
exclusive. This can also be classified as categorical variables or attribute variables. They therefore
consist of counts or frequencies in the various categories. Some examples are gender, religion,
political party, colours, etc.

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MEASUREMENT SCALES

We apply numbers in a range of different ways that show they have several symbolic uses. Data
can be classified according to the following levels of measurement which also represent the various
numbers we can think of. The levels of classifications are Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and ratio.

Nominal numbers

This is the most limited level of measurement. It applies to qualitative data only. Items can be
described or identified using unique numbers. This is just like your house number; in that it
uniquely identifies your property from those of your neighbours. We can as well use other form of
unique identifier, such as a letter or even words. Numbers have a very useful property: you cannot
run out of them; do you see the difference between your index number and your friends’?. Letters
and combinations of letters on the other hand, becomes cumbersome when you need to uniquely
identify large quantities of individual items. You cannot perform any arithmetical or mathematical
operations on them. When numbers are used in this way, they are referred to as nominal.

On the nominal scale, no order is required. The categories are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
Categories are said to be mutually exclusive if an individual or item must belong to one and only
one category. In the same way, categories are said to be exhaustive if an individual must belong to
at least one of the categories. Examples of nominal measurements are gender; we can list categories
as male and female or female and male, marital status, type of cars, buildings, schools, etc (they
don’t have any particular order).

Ordinal

The next higher scale of measurement is the ordinal scale. On the ordinal scale, order is necessary,
meaning one category is lower than the next one or vice versa. For instance, we have the order of
occurrence like 1st, 2nd, 3rd … This is basically based on position. Examples are the GES ranking
thus teacher, supt.2, supt.1, principal supt., etc, in the Ghana Army the rank of lieutenant is lower
than the rank of a captain, which is in turn lower than the rank of major and so on. Grades are also
ordinal; as excellent is higher than very good, which in turn is higher than good, and so on.

Despite of the positions as 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and so on, the differences cannot be found or determined.
This is because, if we rank someone as 1st, it does not mean he is twice or thrice better than the
one who is 2nd or 3rd.

Interval

The interval scale is the next higher scale of measurement. These are numbers that actually
represent quantities therefore applies to quantitative data only. It has all the properties of the
ordinal scale, with the additional property of finding a meaningful amount of differences between
values. Here, distance between values is constant. There is no natural zero starting point. It is

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arbitrary. Examples of variables on an interval scale is temperature. On the temperature for
instance, a country ‘A’ can be 30 degrees cold and another country ‘B’ be 15 degrees cold but that
does not mean country ‘B’ is as twice colder than country ‘A’. This is because, on the interval
scale, the ratio between two numbers is not meaningful.

Ratio

The ratio scale is the highest scale among all the measurement scales. It applies to quantitative
data only and has all the properties of the interval scale. In addition to these properties, the ratio
scale has a meaningful zero starting point and a meaningful ratio between two numbers.

An example of variables measured on the ratio scale is mass. A weighing scale that reads 0kg gives
an indication that there is absolutely no mass on it, making the zero starting point meaningful. A
bag ‘A’ of rice weighs 50kg and another bag ‘B’ of rice weigh 10kg, then it is reasonable to say
that Bag ‘A’ weighs five times than bag ‘B’. Hence the ratio between two numbers is meaningful.

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

SOURCES OF DATA

Sources of data can be put into two main categories, depending on their originality. These are
primary sources and secondary sources. Data from a primary source are called primary data and
those from a secondary source are called secondary data.

I. Primary Sources of Data

Primary data are collected by the researcher/investigator/surveyor. There are three basic methods
of obtaining primary data: observation, surveys and experiment. The choice of method
is influenced by the nature of the problem and by the availability of money and time.

A. Observation

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In the observation method, a situation of interest is checked by a person or some mechanical which
records the relevant facts, action, or behaviours. For example through observation we are
able to obtain accurate data about what consumers do in certain situations. However
observation does not tell why an event happened. There are also two types of observation;
participatory observation and nun- participatory observation. In the participatory, the
researcher takes part in the activity whilst in the non-participatory, and the researcher does
not take part of the activity.

B. Survey

In surveys the researcher’s task is to find a way of obtaining information from individual often
referred to as respondents. A survey conducted on an entire population of interest is called a census
and a survey conducted on a sample is called a sample survey. Most of the times, a questionnaire
is used to obtain the information from respondent. The questionnaire may be administered by post,
by telephone via internet or in person.

C. Experiment

With this, data are generated by the researcher through an experiment. Experimental research is
concerned cause-and- effect relationship. An experiment can be conducted either in a laboratory
or in a field setting. In a laboratory experiment, the researcher has complete control during the
experiment. A field experiment is conducted under more realistic conditions.

II. Secondary source of data.

Secondary data are those that have already been gathered or published for some other purpose.
This is faster to collect and less expensive than primary data. Sources of secondary data include
those inside the organization (internal) and those outside the organization (external). Secondary
data are available from libraries, government agencies and the internet.

A. Libraries

A common place to look for secondary data is a library. Periodicals (news papers, magazines,
journals, etc) are materials that are published at regular intervals (daily, monthly ,quarterly ,etc)

B. Government agencies

Government data are available to in publications issued by local, state national or international
government. Government data are generally considered as being reliable and include laws,
regulations, statistics, consumer information.

C. Internet

We can search for secondary data using a variety of resource discovery tools Called search engines,
such as yahoo, Google, etc on the internet.

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REPRESENTATION OF DATA

Introduction

Data can be represented in different ways. It can be represented on a frequency distribution table,
graphically, pictorially etc. In a distribution, it is important to know the frequency of the
distribution. The number of occurrence of individual items that fall under a particular class is its
frequency.

Frequency distribution table.

This is the tabular arrangement of data by grouping them into classes together with corresponding
class frequencies. When repeated observations are made on a variable (which can be marks,
heights, ages etc.) the results and analysis is a frequency distribution. A frequency distribution
is recorded in a frequency table. The values of the variable are sometimes grouped into categories
showing the number of observations belonging to each mutually exclusive category called classes,
depending on the data. The table gives the possible value or class intervals of the variables and the
corresponding frequencies.

Representation of data using frequency distribution table

As explained earlier, frequency distribution table is a tabular arrangement of data by grouping

them into classes together with corresponding class frequencies.

The tally table is a simple frequency table which contains the tally marks. The tally is normally
done on a large distribution so that the investigator does not lose count of the variables.

A frequency table may not necessarily contain the tally mark nor the name frequency. For instance,
the table below does not contain the name frequency. The frequency is represented by the number
of boys.

Fillings 0 1 3 3 4
Number of boys 9 15 13 5 3

Ungrouped and Grouped frequency distribution

Ungrouped frequency distribution.

This is a distribution organized in such a way that the individual items or marks are not grouped
in any way, they stand on their own for analysis. This mostly happens when the data is qualitative
though it can be quantitative. Each class in the table consists of a single value. For instance when
given;

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 Scores obtained by 1B
class
Marks Frequency
4 5
5 2
6 3

This is an ungrouped data where the items 4, 5 and 6 are standing on their own for the distribution
analysis.

Ungrouped data is mostly used when the items in the distribution are few.

Example:

Supposing a raw data is given below

13 9 15 17 13
9 11 9 11 13
17 15 11 9 9
11 15 11 11 11
A simple frequency distribution table which contains the tally marks can be created as below.

Ungrouped frequency distribution table

Ages of 1B class
Ages (x) Tally Frequency
9 //// 5
11 //// // 7
13 // 2
15 //// 3
17 // 2

Grouped frequency distribution

Grouped frequency distribution becomes very important when there are many frequencies in a
distribution and, or involves a large range of values.

Construction of grouped frequency distribution table involves the determination of the number of
classes, the class limits, the class boundaries, the class frequencies, and so on.

Determination of Number of classes

Choosing the number of class’s for a frequency distribution is fairly subjective. It should be noted,
however, that too few classes tend to conceal important information about the data; and too many

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classes can erode the advantage it has, over a raw data. In practice, most classes are hardly fewer
than five and more than ten.

Class Limits.

Each class has two limits- the lower-class limit and the upper-class limit. The lower-class limit is
the smallest value that belongs to the class. For instance, when the range is between say 0-9 we
say 0 is the lower class limit and the 9 is the upper class limit of the particular class. Class limits
are chosen in such a way that the resulting classes are mutually exclusive (i.e. none overlapping)
and exhaustive (i.e. every observation must belong to a class).

The range of possible values for a grouped or a class is its class interval. It is the difference
between two class limits

Class frequencies.

The last step in the construction of a frequency table is to determine the class frequencies. This is
a process of assigning an individual value to the data in the class that it belongs. If the data is large,
it is advisable to use a tally mark (/) to represent an individual observation in the class. After every
individual has been assigned to its class, the tallies for each class are totalled. These totals then
become the frequencies for the classes.

Example: The number of runs scored by 36 batmen in a cricket competition is as follows:

31 40 20 35 21 12
11 39 16 0 28 49
29 32 17 2 12 24
14 1 10 23 19 13
26 30 10 21 18 0
15 11 29 8 12 1

Tally these values in a grouped frequency table using class intervals of 0-9, 10-19 etc.

Solution

No of runs Tally Frequency

0-9 //// / 6
10-19 //// //// //// 14
20-29 //// //// 9
30-39 ///// 5
40-49 // 2

For grouped data, let us study the following:

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Class Boundaries;

This separate one class from the other. For a grouped frequency, each class boundary is usually
half – way between the upper class limit of one class and the lower class limit of the next class.
Class boundaries or true class limits are boundaries between successful classes. Each class,
therefore, has two boundaries-the lower class boundary and the upper class boundary.

A lower class boundary is obtained by adding the lower limit of the class to upper limit of the
proceeding class and dividing the sum by two.

i.e. ½ (upper class limit of one class + lower class limit of the next class) for instance from the
table above

For example,

½ ( 9+10) = ½ x 19 = 9.5

Giving the boundaries 0.5 – 9.5, 9.5 – 19.5 etc.

Also you can find the difference between upper class limit and its next lower class limit and divide
it by two (2) e.g. 39 and 40. 40- 39. = 1 ÷ 2 = ½

After which subtract the answer from the lower class limit and add to the upper class limit of the
same class. i.e. 0.5 10- 0.5 = 9.5 and 19+ 0.5 = 19.5

Study this

Marks Frequency Class boundaries

35-39 3 34.5-39.5
40-44 2 39.5-44.5
45-49 4 44.5-49.5

Marks Frequency Class boundaries

980-1060 10 940-1040
1080-1100 15 1040-1140
1180-1200 24 1140-1240

This is a clear indication that, for class boundaries, you don’t always have to add or subtract 0.5
just like that, to the class limits, but rather, use the proper procedure as shown above for your
correct answer.

Class size or width

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This is the difference between the lower and the upper class boundaries of a class interval. For
classes of equal widths, the common width is the difference between any two successive lower
class limits; or any two successive upper class limit.

Class size = upper class boundary – lower class boundary. Eg from the table 35-39 is (39.5 – 34.5)
=5

It can also be the difference between successive mid values.

Class midpoint or mid-value or class marks

For grouped frequency distribution, the class mid-point or class mid value is made to stand for the
class marks. This is the middle value of a class. It is obtained by adding the lower and the upper
class limits and dividing the results by 2.

Also, it is the average of the lower and the upper class boundaries.

= ½ (lower class limit + upper class limit)

or ½( lower class boundary+ upper class boundary)
e.g. from the table 35-39 implies mid-point equals ½ (35+39) = 37.
This class midpoint is often used in calculating the mean and standard deviation of a grouped
frequency distribution.

Relative frequency table

Class frequencies can be converted to relative class frequencies in other to show the proportion of
the total number of observations in each class. To convert a frequency distribution to a relative
frequency distribution, each of the class frequencies is divided by the sum of the frequencies.

For example, considering the table below,

Class limit Class boundary Class mark frequency Relative

frequency
10-19 9.5-19.5 14.5 1 0.025
20-29 19.5-29.5 24.5 1 0.025
30-39 29.5-39.5 34.5 3 0.075
40-40 39.5-49.5 44.5 4 0.100
50-59 49.5-59.5 54.5 14 0.350
60-69 59.5-69.5 64.5 12 0.300
70-79 69.5-79.5 74.5 3 0.075
80-89 79.5-89.5 84.5 2 0.050
40 1.000

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Using the distribution table above, the relative frequency of the 60-69 class is 12/40 = 0.3

Since class frequency is 12 and the sum of frequencies is 40. Note that, relative frequencies must
add up to 1, allowing for rounding errors.

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA

Graphics or pictures can be used to represent frequency distribution for easy reading and analysis.
Below are some of the ways we can represent information graphically.

1. Bar chart

2. Histogram

3. Pie chart

4. Cumulative frequency curve

5. Pictogram,

6. Frequency polygon (line graph) etc

BAR CHART

For this type of chart, the frequencies are represented by a series of parallel bars of equal width,
on e bar for each category, the heights represent the frequency. Also, the bars are normally in the
vertical position with equal spaces between them.

Illustration
Below is a frequency distribution table, draw a bar graph for the it.

Marks 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Frequency 2 4 5 6 10 4 2 3

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The above diagram represents a simple bar chart which consist of vertical bars or rectangles placed
along the category axes . the height of a bar represents frequency or value corresponding to a
category.

HISTOGRAM

The histogram consists of number of rectangles or bars. The centre of the rectangle or the bar is at
the class midpoint value whilst the length is the class size. It is also normally in vertical position
with no space between them. When presented, the difference between the bar chart from the
histogram is that, the bar chart has spaces between them whilst the histogram is compact.

The histogram illustrates a frequency distribution with rectangles drawn on a continuous base. The
area of each rectangle is proportional to the frequency of the class it represents. The rectangles do
not have to be of equal width but their bases must be proportional to the class width. That is the
extremes of the base of each rectangle are at the lower class boundary and the upper class boundary
of the class it represents.

The upper class boundary of one class must coincide with the lower class boundary of the next
class to ensure continuity.

Illustration

Grouped data is normally used for the presentation. Example,

Having,

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 Marks No of students Class boundary Class midpoint
1-5 2 0.5-5.5 3
6-10 5 5.5-10.5 8
11-15 9 10.5-15.5 13

Then using the class boundaries to draw the histogram, we have 0.5-5.5, 5.5-10.5,

10.5-15.5, etc.

To draw a histogram, the first thing you do is to check the class intervals. If the class intervals are
the same, then you don’t have much problem so you go ahead and draw your graph taking into
consideration the marks and their frequencies.

Draw a histogram to represent the following data using class boundaries.

No of students Frequency Class midpoint Class boundaries

1–5 2 3 0.5 – 5.5
6 – 10 5 8 5.5 – 10.5
11 – 15 9 13 10.5 – 15.5
16 – 20 6 18 15.5 – 20.5
21 – 25 3 23 20.5 – 25.5
26 – 30 4 28 25.5 – 30.5
31 – 35 5 33 30.5 – 35.5
36 – 40 1 38 35.5 – 40.5

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 freq
10

0 0.5 5.5 10.5 15.5 20.5 25.5 30.5 35.5 40.5

C las s boundary

Since the area of a rectangle or a bar a histogram occupies corresponds to the class size of that
particular class, it becomes very necessary to check your class intervals before starting to plot your
histogram as said before. Supposing the intervals are not the same, then, some bars may be smaller,
whilst some bigger, depending on the size of the class.

Study the following

No of students Frequency Class midpoint Class boundaries

1–5 2 3 0.5 – 5.5
6 – 10 5 8 5.5 – 10.5
11 – 20 9 15.5 10.5 – 20.5
21 – 30 6 25.5 20.5–30.5
31 – 40 3 35.5 30.5– 40.5
41 – 45 4 43 40.5– 45.5
46 – 50 5 48 45.5 – 50.5
51 – 60 1 55.5 50.5 – 60.5

We could see that the class intervals are no more equal, meaning the class sizes are also not the
same. In this case, to plot a histogram, you need to find the frequency density.

Frequency density is the ratio of the frequency and the size of the class in question.

frequency
Therefore, frequency density =
class size.

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Hope you know how to find the class size.

Draw the histogram of the following distribution.

No of Frequency Frequency Class Midpoint Class Class Size

Students Density Boundaries
1–5 2 0.4 3 0.5 – 5.5 5
6-15 5 0.5 8 5.5 – 15.5 10
15 – 25 9 0.9 15.5 15.5 – 25.5 10
25 – 30 6 1.2 25.5 25.5–30.5 5
31 – 40 3 0.3 35.5 30.5– 40.5 10
41 – 45 4 0.8 43 40.5– 45.5 5
46 – 50 5 1 48 45.5 – 50.5 5
51 – 60 1 0.1 55.5 50.5 – 60.5 10

1.4

1.2

1
Frequency Desity

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 5.5 15.5 25.5 30.5 40.5 45.5 50.5 60.5
Marks

Have you now seen how the bars are looking like? They are taking after the sizes of the class.

PIE CHART

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This is the representation of data pictorially using the sectors of a circle. This is based on the idea
of using the circle which has its total angle as 360 degrees and sharing that for the various items
in question.

To draw a pie chart for a distribution, consider the following;

(i) Find the total category values

(ii) Calculate the angle of each category as if to share 360o among the various items.

(iii) Use a compass to draw your circle and then protractor to do your demarcations for the various
sectors.

Example,
The following data gives the monthly budget of a family at Madina.
Food – GH¢60
Clothing – GH¢10
House rent - GH¢50
Fuel and lightening - GH¢15
Miscellaneous - GH¢35
Savings - GH¢30
(a) Represent the information on a pie chart.
(b) What percentage of the monthly budget is house rent?

Solution
Total budget = 60+10+50+15+35+30=200
Angle of circle = 360o
60
Therefore food =  360 o = 1080
200
10
Clothing =  360 o =180
200
50
House rent =  360 o = 900.
200
15
Fuel and lightening =  36 o =270.
200
35
Miscellaneous =  360 o = 630
200
30
Savings =  360 o = 540
200
After you have found the angles of the various sectors, you don’t just draw your pie chart but rather
add all the angles to see if they add up to 360 degrees.

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(b) Percentage of house rent

50
 100 = 25%
200

Interpretation of Pie Chart

Whenever a pie chart is already drawn for you, it is then required of you to interpret it or bring out
the meaning by answering some questions that will be given.

For instance

The pie chart below shows how a student spent his pocket money of 180 Ghana Cedis. Use the pie
chart to answer the following questions.

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 1. What fraction of the student’s money did he spend on food?
2. How much does the student save supposing we did not know the angle for the savings?
3. How much is the total salary if he spends 200 Ghana cedis on food?

Solution

1. the angle on food is compared to the total angle of the circle hence,
108 o
= 0.3.
360 o
2. The angle of the student’s savings should be known first before knowing how much he
saves.
Therefore let angle (savings) be x

90o + 108o+ 63o + 27o + xo = 360

288o + x = 360o

X = 360o – 288o

X=720

Now 72/360 x 666.67. Then the student’s savings is Gh¢133.34

 108 
3. Let a variable stand for the total salary, hence,    A =200
 3609 

Therefore,
(200  360 ) = A
180

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 A = 666.67

Frequency polygon and Line graph

This is a line graph which may be drawn by joining the midpoints of the tops of the rectangles
which will form a histogram. It is extended to the next lower and higher classes which are assumed
to have zero frequencies to form a closed figure which is a polygon. The line graph takes almost
the same trend like the polygon, only that it is not closed or extended to the next lower and higher
classes.

4.5
4
3.5
3
Frequency

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Marks

Cumulative frequency curve.

A cumulative frequency distribution is needed to draw the curve. A cumulative frequency

distribution table will be drawn for easy drawing of the curve.

The cumulative frequency for any class is the sum of the frequencies of that class and the lower
classes.

The last frequency in the table should be equal to the total frequencies.

Study this

The following is the frequency distribution table of the marks scored by 120 candidates in an
examination.

Marks Frequency
1-10 0

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 11-20 2
21-30 6
31-40 7
41-50 14
51-60 20
61-70 35
71-80 29
81-90 6
91-100 1
Prepare a cumulative frequency distribution table and use it to draw a cumulative frequency curve.

Cumulative frequency table

Marks Marks less than Frequency Cumulative freq

1-10 10.5 0 0
11-20 20.5 2 2
21-30 30.5 6 8
31-40 40.5 7 15
41-50 50.5 14 29
51-60 60.5 20 49
61-70 70.5 35 84
71-80 80.5 29 113
81-90 90.5 6 119
91-100 100.5 1 120

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On the graph the upper class boundaries are always along the horizontal axis and the cumulative
frequencies along the vertical axis.

Joining all the consecutive points by a sharp curve is called cumulative frequency curve or Orgive.

THE PICTOGRAPH

The pictograph uses symbols to represent sizes of categories in data. The choose of the symbol is
largely subjective , although many people tend to choose symbols that relate to the variable being
represented. This si actually appropraite because, this pictograph is a qualitative representation of
data and the use of it in the Basic Schools is very beneficial.

For example:

1. Supposing a cup represents two cups of tea for the individuals as shown below:

Kofi KEY:
Ama = 2 cups of tea
Princess
Junior

Then the following questions could be asked depending on the key.

➢ How many cups of tea can Kofi drink?

➢ How many less cups of tea can Princess drink than Kofi? etc.

The choice of symbol is largely subjective, although many people tend to choose symbols that
relate to the variable being represented.

2. The pictograph shows the number of goals scored by eight teams who played in a recent
football tournament.

Team A
Team B
Team C
Team D
Team E
Team F
Team G
Team H

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KEY:

= 1 goal scored

➢ How many goals were scored in total?

➢ Which team scored the least goal?
➢ Which team scored the highest goals

CENTRAL TENDENCY

It can be observed that most of the terms or values in a data seem to be crowded in its central part
when data are arranged in increasing or decreasing order. A number around which there is
concentration of terms of the data is called a measure of central tendency. Measures of central
tendency are simply the averages of the frequency distribution. Central Tendency (CT) is a
statistical measure that identifies a single score as a representative for an entire distribution or set
of data.

Terms

• Measures of average are also called measures of central tendency and include the mean,
median, mode, and midrange.

• Measures that determine the spread of data values are called measures of variation or measures
of dispersion and include the range, variance, and standard deviation.

• Measures of position tell where a specific data value falls within the data set or its relative
position in comparison with other data values. The most common measures of position are
percentiles, deciles, and quartiles.

• The measures of central tendency, variation, and position are part of what is called traditional
statistics. This type of data is typically used to confirm conjectures about the data.

• A statistic is a characteristic or measure obtained by using the data values from a sample.

The mode

The mode which can sometimes be called the modal value of a set of numbers is the number which
occurs most frequently. It is the observations that possess maximum frequency in the given data.
Mode or modal value is not the highest frequency but rather the number which gives the highest
frequency.

Note that modal value can be one or more values in a data. The modal value may also not exist at
all.

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For instance when given

(a) 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 1, 1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 3 the mode is 1; this is because it has the highest frequency of 6.

(b) 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 2 and 2. The mode is 1 and 2. This is because both have the same
frequencies and of course the highest of 6, 6. We say that, the distribution is bi- modal.

(c) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.

This seems to be counting numbers for which can continue till forever. This data has no modal
value. The mode does not exist.

Mode of ungrouped frequency distribution

The mode is the value with the highest frequency.

With the ungrouped data it can be read directly from the frequency distribution table.

Example

Marks Frequency
20 6
30 20
40 4
50 10

From the frequency distribution table, the highest frequency is 20; the mode of the data is 30.
Measuring that, 20 students had the mark 30.

The mode of a grouped frequency distribution

here, the modal class is the class with the largest frequency. For a grouped distribution, the whole
class is taken into consideration.

Example

The table below shows the distribution at a certain train station, the number of minutes between
the time a train stops and the time it takes off again was noted for 115 trains.

Time Frequency
4–7 1
8 – 11 9
12 – 15 29
16 – 19 38
20 – 23 32
24 – 27 5

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 28 – 31 4

From the frequency distribution table, the modal class is 16 – 19

This is because it is 16 – 19 which has the highest frequency of 38.

The Mode

● The mode is the most frequent score in a distribution.

● It is the "typical" value.

● In a frequency graph you can immediately see what the mode is because it is the tallest value, or
the score with the highest frequency.

● Notation: Mo

The mode from a histogram.

The value of the mode within the modal class of a grouped frequency distribution can be found
from a histogram of the distribution using the highest rectangle, relate it to the nearest ones to the
left and right bars, find the point of intersection and then trace it mark to the mark for the modal
value.

Illustration

4.5

4 C

3.5 ∆2
3 ∆1
Frequency

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0.5 -5.5 5.5 - 10.5 L10.5 - 15.5
13.8 15.5 - 20.5
U 20.5-
Marks

The mode from a histogram by formula

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The modal value can also be calculated from the modal boundary of the class, the width of the
modal class and other lower class and the class values around it. In this case we use the formula

  
Mode = L +  1
C where
 1 2 
 +

L= Lower boundary of the modal class

∆1= modal class frequency – frequency next to lower class

∆2 = modal class frequency – frequency next to upper class

C = width of the modal class

Example

Calculate the mode of this distribution

Class 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40

Frequency 2 12 27 41 30 7
Solution

By using the formula

  
Mode = L +  1
C
 1 2 
 +

L = 25

∆1= 41- 27 = 14

∆2 = 41-30 = 5

 14 
Therefore, the mode = 25+   = 27.8
 14 +11 

Mean

One of the popular averages of the frequency distribution is the mean. It is one of the numbers
around which there is concentration of terms of the data. It is symbolized 𝑋̅. We have the arithmetic
mean, Geometric mean, harmonic mean, etc for our studies; we shall look at the arithmetic mean.

The mean of a set of numbers or values.

The arithmetic mean of set of numbers of say “n” values: x1, x2, x3, x4,…. xn is given as

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  x + x2 + x3 + x4 ... + xn 
x = 1  since the numbers of terms are 𝑥̅ =
 x that is, sum of x divided
 n  n
by number of x.

The Mean

●The average of a set of scores

●The most commonly used measure of CT

● Notation is 𝑥̅

●The mean of a population is symbolized as: m

●The mean of a sample is symbolized as: x (with a bar on top)

●The mean = the sum of all the scores divided by the number of scores:
x
N

Example

Find the mean of the following serves (1, 2, 5, 6, 5, 6, 2, 8, 10, 3)

x =
( 1 + 2 + 5 + 6 + 5 + 6 + 2 + 8 + 10 + 3 ) = 4.2
n 10

The mean from a frequency distribution for ‘x’ values with respective frequencies, it means there
are values like x1, x2, x3, x4 …. xn with frequencies like f1, f2, f3, … fn. The mean therefore is given

as x =  fx When the frequency distribution is not grouped, then the individual marks multiplied
f
by their respective frequencies, sum and then divide by the sum of the various frequencies.

Example,

No of babies Mass of babies fx

1 2 2
2 3 6
3 5 15
4 10 40
5 15 75
6 30 180
7 25 175
8 15 120
9 10 90

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 10 5 50
Σf= 120 Σfx=753

x=
 fx =
753
= 6.275
f 120

When the frequencies distribution is grouped, then we find the midpoints of the various classes
and let them stand as x with the same formula.

Example,

Time Frequency Midpoint fx

4-11 1 7.5 7.5
8-11 5 9.5 47.5
12-15 9 13.5 121.5
16-19 5 17.5 87.5
20-23 6 21.5 129
24-27 5 25.5 127.5
28-31 3 29.5 88.5
Σf = 34 Σx= 124.5 Σfx= 609

x=
 fx =
609
= 17.912.
f 134

When given the assumed mean.

When a data is given, repeated observation can be made. If we assume or guess that the mean is
say A, we called that ‘A’ assumed mean.

To find the actual mean, with a grouped data the difference between the assumed mean and the
class midpoint is found. It is called the deviation.

The mean is therefore found by the formula

x = A+
 fd
f
Where d = x-A, x = class midpoint

Example, the following table shows the distribution of wages earned by some construction workers
in Ghana. Find the mean wages when assumed mean = 64.5

Wages 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99

No of workers 12 12 18 12 3 3
Solution

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 Wages No of workers Midpoint Deviation (x-A) fd
40-49 12 44.5 -20 -240
50-59 12 54.5 -10 -120
60-69 18 64.5 0 0
70-79 12 74.5 10 120
80-89 3 84.5 20 60
90-99 3 94.5 30 90
Σf=60 Σfd=-90

Mean ( x) = A + 
fd 90
, x = 64.5 +
f 60

= 64.5+1.5 = 66

Median

The median is that value of the variable which divides the distribution into two equal frequencies.
It is the middle value of a set of numbers or the arithmetic mean of the two middle values of a set
of numbers when they are arranged in increasing or decreasing order.

To find the median for a set of discrete variables,

(a) arrange the numbers in order of magnitude (increasing or decreasing )

(b) if n is odd, then the median is the middle item, that is, the ½ (n+1) item.
(c) If n is even, then the median is the arithmetic mean of the two middle items ie the
½ (nth) and (½ n+1)th item.

Median of a set of values

Example

Find the median of this set {3, 7, 4, 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 8}

 1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9
Since the number (n) is odd, the median is the middle number = 4

In other words

N=9, median = ½(9+1)th item = 10/2 = 5 , hence the 5th item = 4.

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Median from an ungrouped frequency distribution

Firstly, find the total frequency, that is, Σf then see whether it is odd or even if it is odd, then the
median is given as ½ (Σf+1)th item, example, if Σf = 27, then, median = ½ (27 + 1) = 28/2 = 14 th
item.

If it is even; then the median is given as arithmetic mean of the two middle item.

Hence ½ (Σf) item.

Example if the Σf = 24

Then the median is the (12th) item and the item after it.

Example, find the median

Age 17 18 19 20 21
No of students 3 10 8 5 2
Solution

Find the sum of the frequencies = 28

Find half of f

28/2 = 14

Now 14th and 15th

Hence the median = 19.

To find the median of a frequency distribution, it is advisable to find the cumulative frequencies
for easy working.

Median for a grouped distribution

The median of a grouped data is calculated the same way, only that we don’t have one number but
a class. Therefore we can talk of median class.

Marks No of students
10-20 5
20-30 10
30-40 22
40-50 6
50-60 6
60-70 3

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Solution

(i) Find the sum of the frequencies = 50

(ii) Find ½ (Σf) = 50/2 = 25th and 26th
(iii) Now add one to get the 25th and 26th items. The 25th and 26th items fall under 20-40
class.
The median from a cumulative frequency curve.

It is used to estimate the median from a grouped data. From a cumulative frequency, the median
is the value on the x-axis corresponding to half of the total frequency.

Study this

Marks less frequency Cumulative

than frequency
5.5 2 2
10.5 1 3
15.5 3 6
20.5 2 8
25.5 2 10

cum freq

10

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 2

0 5.5 10.5 15.5 20.5 25.5

Marks

The median can therefore be estimated to be about 14.1

The graph sheet will give you a very good estimate.

A formula can also be used to find the median.

Thus.

 12 N − ( f )L 
Median = L +  C
 f 
 

Where

L = lower boundary of median class

N = total frequency

(Σf)L = sum of frequency below median class

f median = frequency of median class

C = with of the median class.

Measures of Central Tendency and Scales of measurement

· The mode requires only nominal data - and you can compute it for ordinal, interval, and ratio.

· The Median requires ordinal data - and you can compute it for interval and ratio. You cannot
compute the Median for nominal data.

· The Mean requires interval or ratio data - you cannot compute it for either nominal or ordinal
data.

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Measures of central tendency and skewed distributions

· If the distribution is symmetrical and unimodal (like the normal distribution) the mean will equal
the median which will equal the mode.

· If the distribution is skewed, these three measures of central tendency will not agree.

· A skewed distribution is a distribution that has a long tail extending out on one end. This is caused
by having a few very extreme values relative to the majority of the scores.

· Positively and negatively skewed distributions

· Bimodal distributions

· Uniform distributions

Properties of the different central tendency measures:

● The mean is the standard measure of central tendency in statistics. It is most frequently used.

● The mean is not necessarily equal to any score in the data set

● The mean is the most stable measure from sample to sample.

● The mean is very influenced by Outliers - That is, the mean will be strongly influenced by the
presence of extreme scores.

● The median is not sensitive to outliers.

● The mean is based on all scores from the sample but the mode and the median are not.

● The Mode is the least stable measure from sample to sample.

● The median is the best measure of central tendency if the distribution is skewed.

Which central tendency measure you can use depends on the level of measurement your scores
represent:

Level of
Measurement MODE MEDIAN MEAN
Nominal Yes No No
Dichotomies Yes No Yes
Ordinal Yes Yes No
Interval/Ratio Yes Yes Yes

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Level of measurement

(From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia)

The level of measurement of a variable in mathematics and statistics is a classification that was
proposed in order to describe the nature of information contained within numbers assigned to
objects and, therefore, within the variable. The levels were proposed by Stanley Smith Stevens in
his 1946 article on the theory of scales of measurement. Different mathematical operations on
variables are possible, depending on the level at which a variable is measured. According to the
classification scheme, in statistics the kinds of descriptive statistics and significance tests that are
appropriate depend on the level of measurement of the variables concerned.

Four levels of measurement were proposed by Stevens:

* nominal,

* ordinal,

* interval and

* ratio.

Measures of skewness are concerned with whether the data are symmetrically distributed, or the
shape of the distribution.

Most people are familiar with the distribution referred to as the normal, or bell-shaped, curve.
Many of the statistics we use assume the data are distributed normally. Unfortunately, this is not
always the case.

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Symmetric distribution
In a distribution displaying perfect symmetry, the mean, the median, and the mode are all at
the same point, as shown in Figure 1 .

Figure 1 For a symmetric distribution, mean, median, and mode are equal.

Skewed curves
As you have seen, an outlier can significantly alter the mean of a series of numbers, whereas
the median will remain at the centre of the series. In such a case, the resulting curve drawn
from the values will appear to be skewed, tailing off rapidly to the left or right. In the case of
negatively skewed or positively skewed curves, the median remains in the centre of these
three measures.
Figure 2 shows a negatively skewed curve.

Figure 2 A negatively skewed distribution, mean < median < mode.

Figure 3 shows a positively skewed curve.

Figure 3 A positively skewed distribution, mode < median < mean.

Using measures of central tendency

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 The choice of any particular average depends on the type of data involved whether
quantitative or qualitative. For quantitative data, it is possible to determine any of the three
averages although there may be situations where one could be preferred to the other two. For
example, the modal annual dues paid by clubs in a community are the best choice of average
for a prospective member to have a fair idea to annual dues of clubs in that community. For
qualitative data, the mean is not a reasonable value. As a matter of fact, if the qualitative data
is nominal, then it is not also reasonable to find the median.

It is not possible to take the mean or the median as the average of data involving gender
because the mean or the medium of data involving gender does not exist. Therefore, the
average for such data is the mode. For example in a family of seven males and three females,
where the mode is male, the average gender is male. Similarly, given shoe sizes
5,6,8,6,8,5,8,5, 11, 8, 10, 6, 5, 7, 8, 9, 7, 8, 6 and 7, the only reasonable average is the
modal size i.e size 8, because the data set is ordinal, even though the categories involved are
denoted by numbers. For the same reason as in the nominal case, the mean is not a possible
average for data involving; say, ranks of soldiers. Consequently, the recommended averages
are the median and the mode. For example, if a group of soldiers comprises 3 lieutenants, 2
captains, 2 majors, 1 colonel and 1 brigadier, then the modal rank is lieutenant and the
median rank is captain.

Any of the three averages is a reasonable representation of continuous data and in some
cases, of discrete data. For example, if the weight (in kg) of ten boxers is 65, 57, 63, 90, 71,
42, 63, 102, 89 and 66, then the mean, weight is 70.8kg. Another average for this data set is
the median, 65.5kg. That is if the total weight of the ten boxers were divided equally among
them, each boxer would weigh 70.8kg. Another average for this data set is the median,
65.5kg and the other half weighs above this value. The data set can also be represented by
another average, the mode, which is 63kg. This scenario suggests that the three averages of a
particular data set are not always equal.

For discrete data, note that the mean is not always a reasonable representation. For example, if
the sizes of four classes 24, 32, 36 and 27. Then the mean is 29.75, which is an ‘impossible’
value for representing number of students.

The usage of the word average in everyday language does not always imply the mean. It may
also imply the median or the mode. For example the statement: ‘the average leave period for a
worker is 30 days’ is not to say that the mean of all leave periods is 30days. Therefore, the
implied average here is the mode.

Some statements describing data do not explicitly mention the term mean, median, mode or even
average, although any one of these measures may be implied. For example, the statement: ‘Mr

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Kert continued to re-examine his economics students until half of them scored 70% or more.’’
This implies that, the median score is 70%.

MEASURES OF DISPERSION

The dispersion of a set of data is the amount of spread of the data. How the set of spread of the
data is analyzed and measured is termed as the measure of dispersion.

Some of the measures of dispersion we can have are the range, inter-quartile range, semi inter-
quartile range, standard deviation, mean deviation, variance and the sort.

By applying the measure of dispersion, we are able to assess the reliability of the average being
used.

Range

The range of a set of data is the differences between the greatest or the largest and least or
smallest item of the distribution.

Here we have

Largest item – smallest item.

The range from a set of numbers, for instance,

33, 35, 45, 11, 12

The range = largest – smallest item.

 45 – 11 = 34
Range = 34

From a frequency distribution,

For instance when given

X 1 2 3 4 5 6
F 1 3 9 2 1 1
Find the range

Solution

The range = largest item – smallest item

 6–1=5

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The range = 5

Inter-quartile range

To find the inter-quartile range, you must know what the quartiles are.

Now,

The quartiles of a data divide the set of data into four equal parts.

The first one – fourth is called the lower quartile and denoted by Q1. It is the ¼th of the total
frequency hence Q1 = ¼ Σf

When the data is divided into four equal parts, the third is called the upper quartile. It is denoted
by Q3.

The upper quartile is given by Q3 = ¾ Σf

The second or the middle quartile is the median, which is denoted by Q2 . The median is given by
Q2 = ½ Σf

We therefore have the inter-quartile range as the difference between the upper quartile and the
lower quartile.

In this case if you want to find the inter-quartile range you need to find the quartiles first, before
you manipulate or calculate to get the inter-quartile range.

The inter-quartile range is given as upper quartile (Q3) – lower quartile (Q1)

Example,

If a distribution has a lower quartile of 147 and an upper quartile of 166. Calculate the inter-quartile
range

Solution

Inter-quartile range = Q3-Q1

Q3 = 166 and Q1 = 147

Therefore

Inter-quartile range = 166-147 = 19

Semi inter-quartile range.

The semi inter-quartile range is the half of the inter-quartile range. It is therefore given as

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½ (Q3 – Q1)

In this case, to calculate the semi inter-quartile range, you have to know the inter-quartile range.

Example

If a distribution has a lower quartile of 147 and upper quartile of 166. Calculate the semi inter-
quartile range.

Solution

Semi quartile range is given as

½ (Q3 – Q1)

½ (166 – 147)

½ (19) = 9.5

Note

The inter-quartile range and the semi inter-quartile range are slightly better measures of dispersion
than just the range. This is because they are not affected by extreme values because they are based
on the ‘middle-half’ of the data. The value of the quartiles calculated is then read from the values
in the marks (x) column or from the cumulative curve not the value of the frequency. The same
apply to the deciles and percentiles.

The quatiles could also be found by estimating them from the cumulative frequency curve just as
was than for the median on the cumulative frequency curve. Hope you remember?

When a qrouped data is given, then apart from using the cumulative frequency curve to estimate,
the formulae below could be used.

𝑛
Q1 = L + ( 4 − 𝑓𝑏)
x w

fq

3𝑛
Q3 = L + ( 4 − 𝑓𝑏)
X W

fq

Where,

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L =lower class boundary of the interval that contains the quatile;

n=sum of the frequencies;

fb =cumulative frequency for all classes before the class containing the quartile;

fq = frequency of the class interval containing the quartile;

w =width of the class intervalcontaining the quartile;

Deciles and the percentiles

• Measures of position tell where a specific data value falls within the data set or its relative
position in comparison with other data values.

• The most common measures of position are percentiles, deciles, and also the quartiles

As the name depicts, the deciles is the 10th of the total frequency in the frequency distribution. In
this case to find the deciles of a given distribution, it is the ratio one tenth of the total frequency.
Example, if the total frequency of a distribution is given as 50, then the decile is found by (1/10)*50
= 5.Always remember that, the value calculated is just a position directing you to the distribution
for the required percentiles, deciles, quartiles etc.

In the same way, the percentiles are the various percentages of the total frequency. We can
therefore have the 25%, 50%, 60%, 75%, etc of the total frequency. For instance, when we are
given the total frequency of a distribution to be 50, then the 60th percentile is given as (60/100)*50
= 30, etc

Mean deviation

The mean deviation is simply a slight change found between the mean and the marks. It is usually
measured from the arithmetic mean.

The mean deviation of a set of numbers; If we have a set of numbers as x1, x2, x3, x4, … xn.

When given the values 11, 12,13,14,15,

Find the mean deviation.

x=
 x = 11 + 12 + 13 + 14 + 15 = 13
n 5

 x − x = 11 – 13 + 12 – 13 + 13 – 13 + 14 – 13 + 15 - 13 = -2 + -1 + 0 + 1 + 2
= 6 by taking the absolute value.

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Now M .D =
 x−x  6/5 = 1.2
n

B. The mean deviation from a frequency distribution table is given by

M .D =
 f x−x
f
Where f = frequency, x = the mean and x the marks.

For a grouped frequency distribution the x is the midpoint values found.

Example,

Find the mean deviation from the distribution below

Class 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40

Frequency 2 12 27 41 30 7

In a simple way, create a table, that is,

Class Frequency Midpoint fx x−x f x−x

10-15 2 12.5 25 14.45 28.90

15-20 12 17.5 210 9.45 113.40
20-25 27 22.5 607.5 4.45 120.15
25-30 41 27.5 1127.5 0.55 22.55
30-35 30 32.5 975 5.55 166.50
35-40 7 37.5 262.5 10.55 73.85
Σf=119 Σfx =32075 f x − x = 525.35

x=
 fx
f

Mean deviation, M .D =
 f x − x = 525.35
f 119

= 4.41(2 d.p)

All calculations must be done systematically to avoid mistakes.

Variance and Standard Deviation.

The variance and the standard deviation are measures of dispersion which move together all the
time.

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To calculate the standard deviation of a data, it will be that, the variance might have been worked
out first before the standard deviation. This is because; the Standard deviation is the positive square
root of the variance. In that case if you have a variance say 9, the standard deviation is √9 which
is equal to 3.

1. The variance and standard deviation of a set of numbers. When a set of numbers like x 1, x2, x3,
x4,… xn, is given, the variance is given as

 (x − x )
2

Variance =
n

Whilst the standard deviation as

 (x − x )
2

S=
n

Where x =
 x , that is, the simple mean.
n

n= the number of items. x = the individual items.

( x ) ( )
2
2
V= − x
n

S=
x 2

− x ()2

2. Variance and standard deviation from ungrouped data; variance is given as;

Variance =  fx 2

−x
2

f
And standard deviation (s) as;

S=
 fx − (x )
2
2

f
Where f = frequency and x =  fx
f
The same formula is used for grouped data where the x is taken from the midpoints of the classes.

Example

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Find the variance and the standard deviation of 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15.

Finding the mean gives 11+12+13+14+15/ 5 = 65/ 5 = 13

Now after getting the mean from this simple data, it will be easier to form a table. Hence

X x- x (x − x)
2

11 11-13=-2 4
12 12-13=-1 1
13 13-13=0 0
14 14-13=1 1
15 15-13=2 4
 (x − x ) = 10
From the table  (x − x ) = 10

Variance = 
(x − x ) 2

= 10/5 = 2
n

For the standard deviation

 (x − x )
2

S= = √5 = 1.414
n
Example 2
Find the standard deviation of the data below

X F Fx fx2 x2
1 2 2 2 1
2 3 6 12 4
3 5 15 45 9
4 10 40 160 16
5 15 75 375 25
6 30 180 1080 36
7 25 175 1225 49
8 15 120 960 64
9 10 90 810 81
10 5 50 500 100
Σf=120 Σfx= 753 Σfx2=5169

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 fx = x = 753 = 6.273
f 120

 fx − (x )
2
2

V=  − (6.275 )
f 5169 2
=
120
= 43.075 – 39.375625
= 3.699375

S=
 fx − (x )
2
2

f
− (6.275 ) = 3.699375
5169 2
=
120
S= 1.92
Example 3
Find the variance and the standard deviation of the data below.

Class F Midpoint x2 fx fx2

1-10 8 5.5 30.25 44 242
11-20 14 15.5 240.25 217 3367
21-30 28 25.5 650.25 714 18207
31-40 42 35.5 1260.25 1491 52930.5
41-50 35 45.5 2070.25 1592.5 72458.75
51-60 16 55.5 3080.25 888 49284
Σf=120 Σfx= 4446.5 Σfx =196489.25
2

x=
 fx = 4446.5 = 31.09
f 143

Variance =  ()
fx 2 2
− x
f

− (31.09 )
196489 .25 2
=
143

= 1374.05 – 966.5887

V= 407.46

Standard deviation =

S=
 fx − (x )
2
2
= 407.46
f

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S= 20.19

Measures of position and variability tell us where the data are located and how dispersed they
are.

Measures of skewness are concerned with whether the data are symmetrically distributed, or the
shape of the distribution.

Most people are familiar with the distribution referred to as the normal, or bell-shaped, curve.
Many of the statistics we use assume the data are distributed normally. Unfortunately, this is not
always the case.

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 STRAND 8 BASIC PROBABILITY:

LEARNING, TEACHING AND APPLYING

THE CONCEPT OF PROBABILITY

Life is full of uncertainties and as a human being, there are a whole lot of decisions you will have
to make to assume a successful life. Despite trying very hard to take decisions that will make
your life successful, some of the decision may shutter your life forever. Sometimes you may
even not know the full consequences of your actions. A helpful evaluation of our decisions,
being it at home, workplace, and wherever you will find yourself is the concept of probability.
Probability is the study of events that may or may not occur. It is a study of randomness of
uncertainty. It is just like a game of chance. The likelihood of something occurring or not
occurring is associated with probability.

Probability concepts allow us to make more reliable forecasts and predictions, even when we
have only limited information. Probability concepts are very important tools in decision making,
in statistical analysis and in many research areas.

You might have asked some of the following questions in one time or the other

(a) What is the chance of Ghana Black-Stars in beating Brazil in this “finals” of the World cup?

(b) How sure are you that the next elections will be free, fair and transparent?

(c) Has Princess any chance of becoming the next beauty queen in the Miss Ghana context?

(d) How sure are you that it will rain this evening?

(e) will I get a head or a tail when my fifty pesewas coin is thrown?

(f) When I throw a die right now, what face will appear? A six, five, four, three, two or one?

(g) what is the chance of me throwing my orange in the air for it to come back?

All these questions and thousands of them bring to fore the concept of Probability.

From the questions above, it could clearly be seen that not all the outcomes could be predicted so
easily and be sure of it occurring, whilst others are predictable and very sure of it occurrence. For
instance, when I throw my orange in the air, I can predict it will come down and I am very sure it
will. But when I throw a die, as to which side will show up will have to wait until it lands,
though I may prefer a six.

To study the concept of probability so that it will be useful for decision making and the sort, then
the following terms should be looked at.

1. Experiment

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Experiment is any action or process that generates observations. With this, the outcome cannot
be predicted with certainty. E.g. the tossing of a coin.

2. Trial

A trial of an experiment is a single performance of the experiment.

E.g. tossing a coin once

3. Sample space

The sample space of an experiment denoted by S is the set of all possible outcomes of the
experiment e.g. When a coin is tossed once the possibility outcomes are head/tail

4. Random sampling

Random sampling is choosing a sample from a population without being biased.

5. Population is the set of object or items under study. E.g. human beings

6. Sample

Sample is part of population e.g. women out of human beings

7. Sample point

Each element in the sample space is defined as a sample point. E.g. When a coin is tossed, head
and tail are sample points.

8. Event

Event denoted by A is a collection of sample points with a common property. It is a subset of

sample space ACS

For events we have,

i. Equally likely events

These are events which have equal chances of occurring. In literal terms, we will say 50/50 chance.

ii. Compound events

Events can be combined by the words ‘or’ and ‘and’. Events which are thus combined are called
compound events. The words ‘or’ and ‘and’ correspond to union and intersection with respect to
sets. That is,

AUB denotes A or B (or both)

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A∩B denotes A and B, where both events occur together. In probability, ‘or’ means addition and
‘and’ means multiplication.

iii. Mutually exclusive events

Two events are said to be mutually exclusive if they cannot occur together. For instance, if A and
B are events such that (A∩B) = Ø, then we say that they are mutually exclusive

Example when you toss a coin once you will get a head or a tail. You cannot get a head and a tail
at the same time. We say getting a head and a tail are mutually exclusive.

iv. Independent events

Two events say A and B are said to be independent if the occurrence of A does not depend or
affect the occurrence of B and vice versa.

When two coins are tossed so that the first toss you get is a head and the second toss you get is
another head, the event A which gave a head had no influence or effect on the second toss or event
B. they are independent event.

Note the following

i. Probabilities are numbers between 0 and 1 inclusive. They can also be expressed as percentages
between 0% and 100%.

ii. Probabilities near 0 indicates that the event in question is not likely to occur

iii. Probabilities near 1 indicates that the event in question is likely to occur

iv. Probabilities near ½ indicates that the event in question is has about the same chance of
occurring as it has of failing to occur.

POPULATION AND SAMPLING

Population is the total number of subjects (which are not necessarily people) of your research that

conform to a clearly defined set of characteristics. You are always collecting data on characteristics

(variable) that varies within the population, and you are assuming that there is a spread of values

across this population. The theoretical spread of this quality across the population is called the

normal distribution of the variables concerned.

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If a population is drawn and the results generalized to the population as a whole to ensure

confidence in the reliability to our conclusions, we use probability sampling to select the sample

to make sure it is representative of the population as a whole. The subjects of your study are

collectively referred to as the population.

Sampling a Population

In an ideal world, you will collect a research data from the entire population. This is only possible

if the population is small. In the case where the population is very large, then you will not have

the time and resources to collect the data of the whole population.

The only way around this is to select a population of the total population. A collection of a

proportion of the total population is what is termed as sample. Logic suggests that, if conclusions

are to be generalized to the whole population, the samples should be representative of the

population in some ways. The techniques used to select the sample are collectively called

Probability Sampling.

CLASSICAL APPROACH TO PROBABILITY

After studying the concept of probability and knowing almost all the terms, the classical approach
to probability; is assumed that, the events of an experiment are equally likely and mutually
exclusive. Events are said to be equally likely if each event has the same chance of occurring, for
instance, when a coin is thrown, both the head and the tail are equally likely to occur. Events are
said to be mutually exclusive if only one of the possible events of an experiment can occur at a
time, for instance when a die is thrown only one side can occur at a time. The classical approach
to probability was developed in the 17th century and was widely used in games of chance.

The probability of event can be computed by dividing the number of outcomes in the experiment
by the total number of possible outcomes of the experiment.

The relationship can be expressed as:

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 number of outcomes in the event
Probability of an event =
total number of possible outcomes

number of ways event A can occur

Hence P (A) =
total number of possible outcomes

Note the following

i. Probabilities are numbers between 0 and 1 inclusive. They can also be expressed as percentages
between 0% and 100%.

ii. Probabilities near 0 indicates that the event in question is not likely to occur

iii. Probabilities near 1 indicates that the event in question is likely to occur

iv. Probabilities near ½ indicates that the event in question is has about the same chance of
occurring as it has of failing to occur.

If the probability that an event A will occur denoted by P (A) = ‘r’ then the probability that the
event will not occur is denoted by P(A) = 1 – P(A) = 1 – r

Example if the probability that Ghana wins is ¾ then the probability that Ghana will not win is ¼

The probability that a universal set is certain to occur is 1, that is, P(U) = 1.

P (Ø) = 0 where Ø is null set.

Probabilities of event occurring or not occurring always lie between 0 and 1as already stated.

Now;

Suppose an event ‘A’ can happen in M ways out of a total of n ways, then the probability of
m
occurrence of event A is given as P (A) =
n

number of ways event A can occur

Hence P (A) =
total number of possible outcomes

1. All possible outcomes of an experiment are denoted by n(S)

2. The number of ways in which the event A could occur is denoted by n(A) then, the
n(A)
probability that event A will occur is given by P(A) =
n(S)
P (A) is used as the possibility of event A.

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Examples

(i) A box contains 10 beads for which 6 are red and 4 are white. If a bead is chosen without
looking, what is the probability that a white bead is chosen?

Solution

n(S) 10
n(red) =6
n(White) = 4
n( white)
P (White) = = 4/10 = 2/5
n (s)
(ii) In a class of 40 students, 15 are girls and 25 are boys. If one student is to be chosen for
a scholarship package randomly, what is the probability that a girl will be chosen?
Solution
n(g)
P(g) =
n(S)
= 15/40 = 3/8

(iv) What is the probability of drawing an ace from a shuffled deck of 52 playing cards?

Solution

With this, you must first of all know how many ace are there in 52 playing cards.

n(S) = 52
n(A) = 4
4 1
P(A) = =
52 13

(v) A fair ludo die is tossed once.

(a) What is the probability of observing 3?
(b) What is the probability of observing an odd number?
(c) What is the probability of observing any number ?

(a) The event has only one outcome, which is 3.

Total number of possible outcomes is is 6, since the die has six sides.

The die is fair ,so the possible outcomes are equally likely.

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 Therefore,

number of outcomes in the event

Probability of 3 =
total number of possible outcomes

1
6
(b) The odd numbers are 1 3 and 5.

Therefore the event is made up of three outcomes

Total number of possible outcomes is is 6, since the die has six sides.

The die is fair ,so the possible outcomes are equally likely.

Therefore,

Probability of observing an odd number

number of outcomes in the event 3 1

= = = .
total number of possible outcomes 6 2

Relative frequency

Probabilities can be estimated from the results or outcomes of an experiment

number of times the outcome happens

The experiment probability = .
to number of times the experiment occurs.

This is sometimes called the relative frequency.

Consider the following frequency distribution table for the ages of students in a class.

Ages 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Frequency 2 1 1 2 3 2 5 3 1

Find the probability that a student selected at random from the class is

(i) 24 years old

(ii) Less than 24 years
(iii) Greater than 26 years
(iv) Between 23 and 27 years.

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Solutions

Total frequency = 20

(i) Let A be the event of being 24 years

n(A) = 2
P (A) = n(A) /n(S) = 2/20 = 1/10

(ii)Let B be the event of being less than 24 years

n(B) ie Less than 24years = 2+1+1=4

P(B) = 4/20 = 1/5

(iii)Let C be the event of being older than 26 years

n(C), ie more than 26 = 5+3+1 =9

P(C) =9/20

(iv)Let D be the event of being between 23and27.

n(D) ie between23 and 27 = 2+3+2

P(D) 7/20

Probability tree diagram

A probability tree diagram can be used to solve problems involving compound or combined events.

Using the tree diagram just look like having numbers which of course are probabilities on the
branches

E.g. Tossing a die will give

1
2
3
4
5
6

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 H
Or a coin as

T
If the event has a second time, i.e. of the compound event we may have two stops with the
necessary branches. E.g.

First action
Second action

At the end of each route along the branches of the tree, you write its final outcome on the branches,
workout the probability of each of the outcome and write on its branch of the tree.

Make sure that probabilities on adjacent branches of the tree add up to one (1)

• To find the probability of the final outcome, find the route along the branches which lead
to the outcome. You multiply using the multiplication law.

• For example, a bag contains 6 red and 8 blue balls; two of the balls are drawn at random
one after the other without replacement. (a) Draw a tree diagram to illustrate the outcomes
of the experiment. (b) Display on the diagram the probability of each of branch of the tree

Solution

Let R be red balls then n(R) = 6 B be blue balls, then n(B) = 8

Total number of balls = 6+8 = 14

2nd R
5/1
1st 3
R B
6/1
8/13
6/13
R
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NARH - KERT
B
(c) what is the probability that

(i) A blue ball was drawn and then red

(ii) both are of the same colour.

(iii) both are of different colour .

Solution

(i) P(Band R) = 8/14 x 6/13 = 48/182 = 24/91

(ii) P(both of the same colour ) P(R and R) or P(B and B) = 6/14x 5/13 + 8/14x 7/13=
48/182+ 48/182= 96/182=43/91

(iii) P(both balls of diff colour) P(RB) or P(BR) = 6/14x 8/13 + 8/14x 6/13= 48/182+
48/182= 96/182=43/91

Now that we know the nitty-gritty of probability lets solve some few questions on probability of
simple event, relative frequency, mutually exclusive events, independent event, tree diagrams and
conditional probability.

Probability of simple event

1. In a class of 12 boys and 18 girls what is the probability that a student chosen from the
class is a boy/

Solution

n(B) = n(B) = 12 n(G) = 18 n(U) = 30 P(B) = n(B) /n(U)= 12/30= 2/5

2. A bag contains 5 red beads and 10 white beads. What is the probability that a bead chosen
at random is white b

Solution

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 n(red beads) = 5 n(white beads) = 10 , n(Universal set) 5+10= 15

then P(W) = n(W) / n(U) = 10/15 = 2/3

Probability of relative frequency

1. Three Ghanaian coins were tossed 50 times and the number of crest appearing on each time
was recorded as follows

Number of crest 0 1 2 3

Frequency 13 8 12 17

Use the relative frequency to estimate the probability of two crest showing when three
coins are tossed.

2. The table below shows the ages of 25 students in a certain Basic School.

Age 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Frequency 4 3 1 3 6 2 4 2

If a student is chosen at random, find the probability that the age will be 11 years or more.

Solution.

P(age being 11 years or more) 2+4+6/25 = 8/25

Probability of mutually exclusive event

1. A fair coin is tossed twice, one after the other. What is the probability that first toss is a head
and the second is also a head?

Solution

Sample space

n(U) =(HH,HT,TH,TT)

First toss is ½ and the second toss ½ first and second = ½ x ½ = ¼

Or from the sample space, two heads is 1 hence

P(exactly two heads) =n(E)/(U) =1/4

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2. A box contains 14 white balls and 6 black balls. Find the probability that a black ball was drawn
at first, replaced and then a second ball drawn is white

Solution

P(B) = n(B) /n(U) = 6/20= 3/10 .

P(W) = n(W) / n(U) = 14/20 = 7/10. Hence 3/10 x 7/10 = 21/100

Probability of independent event

Two fair dice, A and B each with faces numbered 1 to 6 are thrown together.

(a) Construct a table showing all the equally likely outcomes.

(b) From the table list the pair of numbers on the two dice for which the sum is (i) 5 (ii) 10
(iii) more than 10 (iv) at least 10

(c) Find the probability that two of the dice show (i) different scores (ii) same scores

(d) Find the probability that the sum of the numbers on the two dice is (i) 5 (ii) 10(iii) more
than 10 (iv) at least 10

Solution

The table below shows the possible outcomes. The first column represent die A and the first row
represent die B. The total number of possible outcomes n(U) =36.

B A 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6
2 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6
3 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5 3,6
4 4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 4,5 4,6
5 5,1 5,2 5,3 5,4 5,5 5,6
6 6,1 6,2 6,3 6,4 6,5 6,6

From the table, the pair of numbers whose sum is

(i) 5 are (1,4) (2,3) (3,2) and (4,1)

(ii) 10 are (4,6) (5,5) and (6,4)

(iii) More than 10 are (5,6) (6,5) and (6,6)

(iv) At least 10 are (4,6) (5,5) (6,4) (5,6) (6,5) (6,6)

(c) The Total number of equally outcomes = 36

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 30 5
(i) P(dice shows different scores ) = =
36 6

6 1
(ii) P(dice show the same scores) = =
36 6

(d)Total of equally likely outcomes = 36.

The probability that the sum of the numbers on the two dice is
4 1
(i) 5 is =
36 9

3 1
(ii) 10 is 36 = 12

3 1
(iii) More than 10 is 36 = 12

6 1
(iv) At least 10 is 36 = 6

Probability of conditional event

1. A box contains 10 red marbles and 3 white marbles. Three marbles are drawn at random
one after the other without replacement. Find the probability that

(i) All of the three are of the same colour.

(ii) One of them is of different colour.

Solution

Let R = red marbles, n(R) = 10

W = White marbles n(W) = 3

Total = 3+10 =13

(i) N(three of the same colour) = P (RRR)n or P(WWW)

10 9 8 3 2 1
   +  
13 12 11 13 12 11

720 6 726
= + =
1716 1716 1716

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 363
= = 0.4231
858

(ii) One of different colour P(RRW) or P(RWR) or P(WRR) or P(WWR) or P(WRW)or

(RWW)

 10 9 3   10 3 9   3 10 9 
=   +   +   +
 13 12 11   13 12 11   13 12 11 
 3 2 10   3 10 2   10 3 2 
   +   +   
 13 12 11   13 12 11   13 12 11 
270 270 270 60 60 60
= + + + + +
1716 1716 1716 1716 1716 1716

990
= = 0.5769 = 0.58
1716

(iv) P(both of the same colour ) P(R and R) or P(B and B) = 6/14x 5/13 + 8/14x 7/13=
48/182+ 48/182= 96/182=43/91

(v) P(both balls of diff colour) P(RB) or P(BR) = 6/14x 8/13 + 8/14x 6/13= 48/182+
48/182= 96/182=43/91

On Sundays, Kotoko and Hearts play football match at the Accra sports stadium. The probability
that Kotoko scores a goal is 0.8 and the probability that hearts scores is 0.9. Calculate the
probability that

(a) They both score

(b) Kotoko scores but hearts does not.
(c) None of them score
(d) At least one of them scores
(e) Use a tree diagram to illustrate the probabilities

Solution

(a) Both score

= 0.8 x 0.9 = 0.72

(b) Kotoko scores but hearts does not;

Kotoko = 0.8 and hearts is 0.1=

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 = 0.8 x 0.1 = 0.08

(c) None of them scores =

0.2 x 0.1 = 0.02

(d) At least one scores =

1 – P(neither scores)

= 1 - 0.02

= 0.98

(e) If score = S

And no score = nS
S
0.9

S
0.8 0.1 nS

0.2 0.9
nS S

0.1
nS

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