CHAPTER 3

Laplace Transform
3.1 Introduction
The Laplace transform is used to transform a time signal to complex frequency domain.
(The complex frequency domain is also known as Laplace domain or s-domain). This transformation
was first proposed by Laplace (in the year 1780) and later adopted for various engineering applications
for solving differential equations. Hence this transformation is called Laplace transform.
In signals and systems the Laplace transform is used to transform a time domain system to
s-domain. In time domain the equations governing a system will be in the form of differential equations.
While transforming the system to s-domain, the differential equations are transformed to simple
algebraic equations and so the analysis of systems will be much easier in s-domain.
In this chapter a brief discussion about Laplace transform and its applications for analysis of
signals and systems are presented.
Complex Frequency
The complex frequency is defined as,
Complex frequency, s = s + jW
where, s = Neper frequency in neper per second
W = Radian (or Real) frequency in radian per second
The complex frequency is involved in the time domain signal of the form Kest. The signal Kest can
be thought of as an universal signal which represents all types of signals and takes a particular form for
various choices of s and W as shown below.
Let, x(t) = A est = A e(s + jW)t .....(3.1)

Let us analyse the signal of equation (3.1) for various choice of s and W.
Case i : When s = 0, W =W0
On substituting s = 0 in equation (3.1) we get,

x( t ) = A e jW 0t
= A (cos W 0 t + j sin W 0 t)
= A cos W 0 t + j A sin W 0 t .....(3.2)

The real part of equation (3.2) represents a cosinusoidal signal and the imaginary part represents a
sinusoidal signal.
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 2
i. e., Re[x(t)] = A cos W 0 t ..... Cosinusoidal signal
Im[ x( t )] = A sin W 0 t ..... Sinusoidal signal
Note : Re - stands for ‘real part of’
Im - stands for ‘imaginary part of’

Case ii : When W = 0
On substituting W = 0 in equation (3.1) we get,
x(t) = A est ....(3.3)
In equation (3.3) if s is positive then the signal will be an exponentially increasing signal.
In equation (3.3) if s is negative then the signal will be an exponentially decreasing signal.
i.e., x(t) = A est ..... Exponentially increasing signal
x(t) = A e-st ..... Exponentially decreasing signal
Case iii : When s = 0 and W = 0
On substituting s = 0 and W = 0 in equation (3.1) we get,
x(t) = A e0 = A .....(3.4)
The equation (3.4) represents a step signal.
Case iv : When s ¹ 0 ,W ¹ 0 and W =W0 .
When both s and W are non-zero and when W =W0 , the equation (3.1) can be expressed as shown
below.

x( t ) = A e( s + jW 0 ) t = A est A e jW 0t
= A est (cos W 0 t + j sin W 0 t )
= A est cos W 0 t + j A est sin W 0 t ) .....(3.5)

The real part of equation (3.5) represents an exponentially increasing/decreasing cosinusoidal signal.
The imaginary part of equation (3.5) represents an exponentially increasing/decreasing sinusoidal
signal.

i. e., Re[x(t)] = A e st cos W 0 t

st
® A e cos W 0 t ..... Exponentially increasing cosinusoidal signal
® A e - st cos W 0 t ..... Exponentially decreasing cosinusoidal signal

Im[x(t)] = A est sin W 0 t

st
® A e sin W 0 t ..... Exponentially increasing sinusoidal signal
® A e- st sin W 0 t ..... Exponentially decreasing sinusoidal signal
3. 3 Signals & Systems

Complex Frequency Plane or s-Plane jW

­ s-plane
The complex frequency is defined as,
Complex frequency, s = s + jW
- s®

­
s
where, s = Real part of s
W = Imaginary part of s ­
-jW
The s and W can take values from - ¥ to + ¥ . A two dimensional Fig 3.1: Complex frequency
complex plane with values of s on horizontal axis and values W on vertical plane or s-plane.
axis as shown in fig 3.1 is called complex frequency plane or
s-plane.
The s-plane is used to represent various critical frequencies (poles and zeros) of signals which are
functions of s and to study the path taken by these critical frequencies when some parameters of the
signals are varied. This study will be useful to design systems for a desired response.
Definition of Laplace Transform
In order to transform a time domain signal x(t) to s-domain, multiply the signal by e–st and then
integrate from –¥ to ¥. The transformed signal is represented as X(s) and the transformation is denoted
by the script letter L.
Symbolically the Laplace transform of x(t) is denoted as,
X(s) = L{x(t)}
Let x(t) be a continuous time signal defined for all values of t. Let X(s) be Laplace transform of
x(t). Now the Laplace transform of x(t) is defined as,
+¥

L{x( t )} = X(s) = z
-¥
x( t ) e - st dt .....(3.6)

If x(t) is defined for t ³ 0, (i.e., if x(t) is causal) then,

+¥

L{x( t )} = X(s) = z
0
x( t ) e - st dt .....(3.7)

The definition of Laplace transform as given by equation (3.6) is called Two sided Laplace transform
or Bilateral Laplace Transform and the definition of Laplace transform as given by equation (3.7) is
called One sided Laplace transform or Unilateral Laplace transform.
Definition of Inverse Laplace Transform
The s-domain signal X(s) can be transformed to time domain signal x(t) by using inverse Laplace
transform.
The Inverse Laplace transform of X(s) is defined as,
s = s + jW
1
L-1 X(s) = x(t) =
l q 2 pj z X(s) e st ds
s = s - jW
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 4
The signal x(t) and X(s) are called Laplace transform pair and can be expressed as,
L
x(t) ¬ ® X(s)
L–1
Existence of Laplace Transform
The computation of Laplace transform involves integral of x(t) from t = -¥ to +¥.
+¥
Therefore Laplace transform of a signal exists if the integral,
z-¥
The integral will converge if the signal x(t) is sectionally continuous in every finite interval of t and if it is
x( t ) e - st dt converges (i.e., finite).

of exponential order as t approaches infinity.

A causal signal x(t) is said to be exponential order if a real, positive constant s (where s is real
part of s) exists such that the function, e - st x( t ) approaches zero as t approaches infinity.
i.e., if, Lt e - st x( t ) = 0 , then x(t) is of exponential order.
t®¥

For a causal signal, if Lt e -st x( t ) = 0 for s > sc , and if Lt e - st x( t ) = ¥ for s < sc, then
t®¥ t®¥
sc is called abscissa of convergence, (where sc is a point on real axis in s-plane).
+¥
The integral z -¥
x( t ) e - st dt converges only if the real part of s is greater than the abscissa of
+¥
convergence sc. The values of s for which the integral z-¥
x( t ) e - st dt converges is called Region Of
Convergence (ROC). Therefore for a causal signal the ROC includes all points on the s-plane to the right
of abscissa of convergence.

3.2 Region of Convergence +¥

+¥
The Laplace transform of a signal is given by
- st
z
-¥
x( t ) e - st dt . The values of s for which the integral

z x( t ) e
-¥
dt converges is called Region Of Convergence (ROC). The ROC for the following three types
of signals are discussed here.
Case i : Right sided (causal) signal
Case ii : Left sided (anticausal) signal
Case iii : Two sided signal.
Case i : Right sided (causal) signal
Let, x(t) = e-at u(t), where a > 0
= e-at for t ³ 0
Now, the Laplace transform of x(t) is given by,
+¥ +¥

L{x( t )} = X(s) = z
-¥
x( t ) e - st dt = z
-¥
e - at u(t) e- st dt

+¥ +¥ ¥
LM e OP
-(s + a) t
= z
0
e - at e - st dt = z
0
e- ( s + a ) t dt =
N - (s + a) Q 0

Put,
e - ( s + jW + a ) ¥ e0 e - ( s + a ) ´ ¥ e - jW ´ ¥ 1
= - = - + s=s+jW
-( s + a ) - (s + a) s + a s + a
3. 5 Signals & Systems

e - k ´ ¥ e - jW ´ ¥ 1
\ L x(t) = -
l q +
s + a s + a
where, k = s + a = s -(-a)
When s > -a, k = s -(-a) = Positive, \ e-k¥ = e-¥ = 0 jW
s-plane ­
When s < –a, k = s -(-a) = Negative, \ e-k¥ = e+¥ = ¥
ROC
Hence we can say that, X(s) converges, when s > -a, and does X ®s
sc = –a
not converge for s < -a.
Abscissa of
®
\ Abscissa of convergence, sc = -a. convergence
Fig 3.2 : ROC of x(t) = e–at u(t).
When s > -a, the X(s) is given by,
e - k ´ ¥ e - jW ´ ¥ 1 0 ´ e - jW ´ ¥ 1 1
L{x( t )} = X(s) = - + = - + =
s + a s + a s + a s + a s + a
Therefore for a causal signal the ROC includes all points on the s-plane to the right of abscissa of
convergence, sc= -a, as shown in fig 3.2.
Case ii : Left sided (anticausal) signal
Let, x(t) = e-bt u(-t) = e-bt for t £ 0, where b > 0
Now, the Laplace transform of x(t) is given by,
+¥ +¥ 0

L{x( t )} = X(s) = z
-¥
x( t ) e - st dt = z
-¥
e - bt u(- t) e- st dt = z
-¥
e- bt e- st dt

0 0
LM e OP
- ( s + b) t
e 0
e ( s + jW + b) ¥
= z
-¥
e - ( s + b) t dt =
N -(s + b) Q -¥
=
-(s + b)
-
-(s + b) Put,
s=s+jW
( s + b) ´ ¥ jW ´ ¥ k´¥ jW ´ ¥
1 e e 1 e e
= - + = - +
s + b s + b s + b s + b
where, k = s + b = s -(-b)
jW
When s > -b, k = s -(-b) = Positive, \ ek¥ = e¥ = ¥ ­
ROC s-plane
When s < -b, k = s -(-b) = Negative, \ ek¥ = e-¥ = 0
scX= -b s
®
Hence we can say that, X(s) converges, when s < -b, and
Abscissa of
does not converge for s > -b. ¬convergence
\ Abscissa of convergence, sc = -b.
Fig 3.3 : ROC of x(t) = e–btu(–t).
When s < -b, the X(s) is given by,
1 e k ´ ¥ e jW ´ ¥ 1 0 ´ e jW ´ ¥ 1
L{x( t )} = X(s) = - + = - + = -
s + b s + b s + b s + b s + b
Therefore for an anticausal signal the ROC includes all points on the s-plane to the left of abscissa of
convergence, sc = -b, as shown in fig 3.3.
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 6
Case iii: Two sided signal
Let, x(t) = e-at u(t) + e-bt u(-t) , where a > 0, b > 0, and a > b (i.e., - a < -b)
Now, the Laplace transform of x(t) is given by,
+¥ +¥

L{x( t )} = X(s) = z
-¥
x( t ) e - st dt = z
-¥
e - at u(t) + e - bt u(- t) e - st dt

+¥ 0 +¥ 0

= z
0
e - at
e - st
dt + z
-¥
e - bt
e - st
dt = z
0
e -(s + a) t
dt + z
-¥
e- ( s + b) t dt

¥ 0 ¥ 0
Le
= M
OP
-(s + a) t
Le
+ M
OP
- ( s + b) t
Le
= M
OP
- ( s + jW + a ) t
Le
+ M
OP
- ( s + jW + b ) t

N -( s + a ) Q 0 N -(s + b) Q -¥ N -(s + a) Q 0 N - ( s + b) Q -¥

e - ( s + jW + a ) ¥ e0 e0 e ( s + jW + b ) ¥
= - + - Put,
-(s + a ) -(s + a ) - (s + b) -(s + b) s=s +jW

e - p ´ ¥ e - jW ´ ¥ 1 1 eq ´ ¥ e jW ´ ¥
= - + - +
s + a s + a s + b s + b
where, p = s + a = s - (-a) and q = s + b = s - (-b)
When s > -a, p = s - (-a) = Positive, \ e-p¥ = e-¥ = 0
When s < -a, p = s - (-a) = Negative, \ e-p¥ = e+¥ = ¥
When s > -b, q = s - (-b) = Positive, \ eq¥ = e¥ = ¥
When s < -b, q = s - (-b) = Negative, \ eq¥ = e-¥ = 0
Hence we can say that, X(s) converges, when s lies between -a and -b (i.e., -a < s < -b ), and
does not converge for s < -a and s > -b.
\ Abscissa of convergences, sc1 = -a and sc2 = -b.
When -a < s < -b, the X(s) is given by,

e - p ´ ¥ e - jW ´ ¥ 1 1 e q ´ ¥ e jW ´ ¥
L{x( t )} = X(s) = - + - +
s + a s + a s + b s + b
0 ´ e - jW ´ ¥ 1 1 0 ´ e jW ´ ¥
= - + - +
s + a s + a s + b s + b
1 1
= - jW
s + a s + b ­ s-plane
ROC
Therefore for a two sided signal the ROC
X
sc1 = –a sc2 = –b s
X ®
includes all points on the s-plane in the region in
between two abscissa of convergences, sc1= -a and Abscissa of®
convergence
¬Abscissa of
convergence
sc2= -b, as shown in fig 3.4.
Fig 3.4 : ROC of x(t) = e–at u(t) + e–bt u(–t).
3. 7 Signals & Systems
Example 3.1
Determine the Laplace transform of the following continuous time signals and their ROC.

a) x(t) = A u(t) b) x(t) = t u(t) c) x(t) = e–3t u(t) d) x(t) = e–3t u(-t) e) x(t) = e-4½t½

Solution
a) Given that, x(t) = A u(t) = A ; t ³ 0

By definition of Laplace transform,

+¥ ¥ ¥

L{x(t )} = X(s) =
-¥
z x(t) e - st dt = z
0
A e - st dt = A z
0
e- st dt
Put,
s=s+jW

= A
LM e OP
- st ¥

= A
LM e - (s + jW )t
OP ¥

= A
LM e - (s + jW )¥
-
e0 OP = A LM e -s ´ ¥
e - jW ´ ¥
+
1 OP
N -s Q 0 N -s Q 0 N -s -s Q N -s s Q
jW
When, s > 0, (i.e., when s is positive), e-s¥ = e-¥ = 0
s-plane
­
When, s < 0, (i.e., when s is negative), e-s¥ = e¥ = ¥ ROC
Therefore we can say that, X(s) converges when s > 0. X ®s
s =0
When s > 0, the X(s) is given by,

X(s) = A
LM e -s ´ ¥
e- jW ´ ¥
+
1
= A
OP
0 ´ e - jW ´ ¥
+
1
=
LMA OP
N -s s -sQ s Ns Q
Fig 1 : ROC of x(t) = A u(t).
A
\ L lA u(t)q = ; with ROC as all points is s-plane to the right of line passing through s = 0.
s
(or ROC is right half of s-plane).

b) Given that, x(t) = t u(t) = t ; t ³ 0

By definition of Laplace transform,
¥ ¥

L{x(t )} = X(s) = z
-¥
x(t) e - st dt = z
0
t e - st dt
z uv = u z v - z du zv
LMt e OP ¥ ¥
LMt e OP - LM e OP
¥ ¥
LMt e OP - LM e ¥
OP ¥

=
- st

N -s Q 0
- z
0
1 ´
e - st
-s
dt =
- st

N -s Q N s Q 0
- st

2
0
=
N
- ( s + j W) t

-s Q N s 0
-( s + j W) t

2
Q 0

LM¥ ´ e e O
- ( s + jW ) ¥ - (s + jW )¥ Put,
e0 e 0
=
N -s
- 0 ´
-s
-
s
+2 P
s Q 2 s=s+jW

=
LM¥ ´ e -s ´ ¥
e - jW ´ ¥
- 0 -
e - s ´ ¥ e - jW ´ ¥
+ 2
1 OP jW
N -s s2 s Q s-plane
­
ROC
When, s > 0, (i.e., when s is positive), e-s¥ = e-¥ = 0
When, s < 0, (i.e., when s is negative), e-s¥ = e¥ = ¥ X ®s
s =0
Therefore we can say that, X(s) converges when s > 0.
When s > 0, the X(s) is given by,

X(s) =
LM¥ ´ e - s ´ ¥ e - jW ´ ¥
-
e - s ´ ¥ e - jW ´ ¥
+ 2
1 OP Fig 2 : ROC of x(t) = t u(t).
N -s s2 s Q
L
= M¥ ´
0 ´ e - jW ´ ¥
-
0 ´ e - jW ´ ¥
+ 2
1 OP = 1
N -s s2 s Q s2
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 8
1
\ L{t u(t)} = ; with ROC as all points is s-plane to the right of line passing through s = 0.
s2
(or ROC is right half of s-plane).

c) Given that, x(t) = e–3t u(t) = e–3t ; t ³ 0

By definition of Laplace transform,
+¥ ¥ ¥

L{x(t )} = X(s) = z
-¥
x(t) e - st dt = z
0
e -3t e - st dt = z
0
e - (s + 3 )t
dt

=
LM e OP
-( s + 3 ) t ¥

=
e -( s + 3 ) ¥
-
e0
= -
e -( s + j W + 3 ) ¥
+
1 Put,
N -(s + 3) Q 0
-(s + 3) -(s + 3) s + 3 s + 3 s=s +jW
e - (s + 3 ) ´ ¥ e - jW ´ ¥ 1 e - k ´ ¥ e - jW ´ ¥ 1
=- + = - +
s + 3 s + 3 s + 3 s + 3 jW
where, k = s + 3 = s - (- 3)
­s-plane
When, s > -3, k = s - (- 3) = Positive. \ e -k¥ = e-¥ = 0 ROC
When, s < -3, k = s - (- 3) = Negative. \ e -k¥ = e¥ = ¥ X ®s
s = –3
Therefore we can say that, X(s) converges when s > -3.
When s > -3, the X(s) is given by,
Fig 3 : ROC of x(t) = e–3t u(t).
-k ´ ¥ - jW ´ ¥ - jW ´ ¥
e e 1 0 ´ e 1 1
X(s) = - + = - + =
s + 3 s + 3 s + 3 s + 3 s + 3
1
n
\ L e -3 t u(t) =s s + 3
; with ROC as all points in s-plane to the right of line passing through s = - 3.

d) Given that, x(t) = e–3t u(-t) = e–3t ; t £ 0

By definition of Laplace transform,
+¥
L{x(t )} = X(s) = z
-¥
x(t) e - st dt = z0

-¥
e -3t e - st dt = z
0

-¥
e -( s + 3)t
dt

Put,
=
LM e OP
-( s + 3 ) t 0

=
e0
-
e( s + 3 )¥
= -
1
+
e( s + j W + 3 )¥ s=s +jW
N -(s + 3) Q -¥
-(s + 3) -(s + 3) s + 3 s + 3
1 e(s + 3 ) ´ ¥ e jW ´ ¥ 1 ek ´ ¥ e jW ´ ¥
= - + = - +
s + 3 s + 3 s + 3 s + 3
jW
s-plane ­
where, k = s + 3 = s - (- 3)
ROC
When, s > -3, k = s - (- 3) = Positive. \ ek¥ = e¥ = ¥ ®s
® X
When, s < -3, k = s - (- 3) = Negative. \ ek¥ = e-¥ = 0 –s s = –3

Therefore we can say that, X(s) converges when s < -3.

When s < -3, the X(s) is given by, Fig 4 : ROC of x(t) = e–3t u(–t).
1 ek ´ ¥ e jW ´ ¥ 1 0 ´ e jW ´ ¥ 1
X(s) = - + = - + = -
s + 3 s + 3 s + 3 s + 3 s + 3

1
n s
\ L e -3 t u( - t) = -
s + 3
; with ROC as all points in s-plane to the left of line passing through s = - 3.
3. 9 Signals & Systems
e) Given that, x(t) = e-4½t½ = e4t ; t £ 0
= e–4t ; t ³ 0
By definition of Laplace transform,
+¥ ¥ ¥
L{x(t )} = X(s) = z
-¥
x(t) e - st dt = z0

-¥
e 4t e - st dt + z
0
e -4 t e - st dt = z
0

-¥
e -( s - 4) t
dt + z
0
e -( s + 4 )t dt

=
LM e OP
-( s - 4 ) t 0

+
LM e OP
-( s + 4 ) t
¥

=
LM e 0
-
e( s - 4 )¥ OP + LM e -( s + 4 ) ¥
-
e0 OP
N -(s - 4) Q -¥ N -(s + 4) Q 0 N -(s - 4) -(s - 4) Q N -(s + 4) -(s + 4) Q
1 e ( s + jW - 4 ) ¥ e - ( s + jW + 4 ) ¥ 1
= - + - +
s - 4 s - 4 s + 4 s + 4 Put,
1 e( s - 4 ) ´ ¥ e jW ´ ¥ e - ( s + 4 ) ´ ¥ e - jW ´ ¥ 1 s=s+jW
= - + - +
s - 4 s - 4 s + 4 s + 4
When, s < 4, s - 4 = Negative. \ e(s - 4)¥ = e-¥ = 0
When, s > 4, s - 4 = Positive. \ e(s - 4)¥ = e¥ = ¥
When, s < - 4, s + 4 = Negative. \ e - (s + 4)¥ = e¥ = ¥
When, s > -4, s + 4 = Positive. \ e - (s + 4)¥ = e-¥ = 0
Therefore we can say that, X(s) converges when s lies between -4 and +4.
When s lies between - 4 and + 4, the X(s) is given by,

1 e( s - 4 ) ´ ¥ e jW ´ ¥ e - (s + 4 ) ´ ¥ e - jW ´ ¥ 1
X(s) = - + - +
s - 4 s - 4 s + 4 s + 4
jW
1 e -¥ e jW ´ ¥ e -¥ e - jW ´ ¥ 1 ­
= - + - + s-plane
s - 4 s - 4 s + 4 s + 4 ROC
jW ´ ¥ - jW ´ ¥
1 0 ´ e 0 ´ e 1 ® X X
®s
= - + - + –s s = –4 s =4
s - 4 s - 4 s + 4 s + 4
1 1
= - + 0 - 0 +
s - 4 s + 4
-4 t
1 1 s - 4 - (s + 4) 8 Fig 5 : ROC of x(t) = e .
= - = = - 2
s + 4 s - 4 (s + 4) (s - 4) s - 16
(a+b)(a-b) = a2-b2
-4 t 8
\L e { } = -
s 2 - 16
; with ROC as all points in s-plane in between the lines passing through s = - 4
and s = 4 .

Example 3.2
Determine the Laplace transform of the following signals.

a) x(t) = sin W0t u(t) b) x( t) = cos W0 t u(t) c) x( t) = cos h W0t u(t) d) x( t) = e - a sin W0 t u(t) e)x( t) = e - at cos W0 t u(t)
Solution
a) Given that, x(t) =sin W0 t u(t) =sin W0 t ; t ³ 0 e jq - e- jq
sinq =
By definition of Laplace transform, 2j
¥ ¥ ¥

L{x(t )} = X(s) = z0
x(t) e - st dt = z
0
sin W0 t e - st dt = z
0
e jW0 t - e - jW0 t - st
2j
e dt

¥
LM OP ¥

=
1
2j ze
0
e -( s - jW0 )t - e -( s + jW0 ) t dt =j 1 e - ( s - jW 0 ) t
MN
2 j -(s - jW0 )
-
e - ( s + jW 0 ) t
-(s + jW0 ) PQ 0
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 10

=
1 LM e -¥
-
e -¥
-
e0
+
e0 OP
N
2 j -(s - jW0 ) -(s + jW0 ) -(s - jW0 ) -(s + jW0 ) Q
=
1L
2j N
M0 - 0 + s -1jW - s +1jW OPQ 0 0

=
1 L s + j W - s + jW O
M 0
P = 21j LMMN s 2+jWW OPPQ =
2 j N (s - jW ) (s + jW ) Q
0 0
0
2
0

0
2
W0
s 2 + W0 2
(a+b)(a-b) = a2-b2 j2 = -1

W0
\ L{sinW0 t u(t)} =
s 2 + W0 2

b) Given that, x(t) =cos W0 t u(t) =cos W0 t ; t ³ 0

By definition of Laplace transform,
¥ ¥ ¥

L{x(t )} = X(s) = z0
x(t) e- st dt = z
0
cos W0 t e - st dt = z 0
W0 t
ej + e
2
- jW 0 t
e - st dt
cos q =
e jq + e - jq
2
¥
LM OP ¥

=
1
2 z
0
ee -( s - j W 0 ) t W
+ e -( s + j 0 ) t dt = j 1 e -( s - jW 0 ) t
MN
2 -(s - jW0 )
+
e -( s + j W 0 ) t
-(s + jW0 ) PQ 0

=
1 LM
e -¥
+
e -¥
-
e0
-
e0 OP
N
2 -(s - jW0 ) -(s + jW0 ) -(s - jW 0 ) -(s + jW 0 ) Q
=
1L
M0 + 0 +
1
+
1 OP
2N s - jW s + jW Q 0 0

=
1 L s + jW + s - jW O
M 0
P = 21 LMMN s +2sW OPPQ =
2 N (s - jW ) (s + jW ) Q
0 0
0
2
0
2
s
s 2 + W0 2
(a+b)(a-b) = a2-b2 j2 = -1

s
\ L{cosW0 t u(t)} =
s 2 + W0 2

c) Given that, x(t) =cosh W0 t u(t) =cosh W0 t ; t ³ 0

By definition of Laplace transform,
¥ ¥ ¥ eq + e - q
L{x(t )} = X(s) = z0
x(t) e - st
dt = z
0
cosh W0 t e - st
dt = z
0
eW 0 t + e - W0 t - st
2
e dt
cosh q =
2

¥
LM OP ¥

=
1
2 z
0
ee -( s - W 0 ) t
+ e - (s + W0 )t dt = j 1 e -( s - W 0 ) t
MN
2 -(s - W0 )
+
e -( s + W 0 ) t
-(s + W0 ) PQ 0

=
1 LM
e -¥
+
e -¥
-
e0
-
e0 OP
N
2 -(s - W 0 ) -(s + W 0 ) -(s - W0 ) -(s + W0 ) Q
=
1L
2N
M0 + 0 + s -1 W + s +1 W OPQ 0 0

=
1 Ls + W + s - W O
M 0
P = 21 LMMN s -2sW OPPQ =
2 N (s - W ) (s + W ) Q
0 0
0
2
0
2
s
s 2 - W0 2
(a+b)(a-b) = a2-b2

s
\ L{coshW0 t u(t)} =
s 2 - W0 2
3. 11 Signals & Systems
d) Given that, x(t) = e - at sin W0 t u(t) = e- at sin W0 t ; t ³ 0
e jq - e- jq
By definition of Laplace transform, sinq =
2j
¥ ¥ ¥

L{x(t )} = X(s) = z
0
x(t) e- st dt = z
0
e - at sin W0 t e - st dt = z
0
e - at
ej
W 0t
- e
2j
- j W0 t
e - st dt

¥
LM OP ¥

=
1
2j z
0
ee - (s + a - j W 0 ) t -
j
- e (s + a + jW 0 )t dt =
1 e -( s + a - jW0 )t
MN
2 j -(s + a - jW0 )
-
e - (s + a + jW 0 )t
-(s + a + jW0 ) PQ 0

=
1L
M e -¥
-
e
-
e
+
-¥
e OP 0 0

2 j N -(s + a - jW ) -(s + a + jW )
0 -(s + a - jW ) -(s + a + jW ) Q
0 0 0

=
1 L
M0 - 0 + s + a1- jW - s + a1+ jW PQ = 21j MN (s(s+ +a a+ -jWjW) )-(s(s++a a+ -jWjW) ) OPQ
O L 0 0
2j N 0 0 0 0

1L OP =
= M 2 jW
2 j MN (s + a) + W PQ
2
0

0
W
(s + a) + W
2 2
0

(a + b)(a - b) = a - b
0
2
j = -1 2 2 2

W0
\ L{e - at sin W0 t u(t)} =
(s + a)2 + W0 2

e) Given that, x(t) = e - at cos W0 t u(t) = e - at cos W0 t ; t ³ 0

e jq + e- jq
By definition of Laplace transform, cos q =
2
¥ ¥ ¥

L{x(t )} = X(s) = z
0
x(t) e- st dt = z
0
e- at cos W0 t e - st dt = z
0
e- at
e jW0 t + e - jW 0 t - st
2
e dt

¥
LM OP ¥

=
1
2 ze
0
e -( s + a - jW0 )t + e - (s + a + jW0 )t dt = j 1 e - (s + a - j W 0 ) t
MN
2 -(s + a - jW0 )
+
e -( s + a + jW0 )t
-(s + a + jW0 ) PQ 0

=
1 LM e -¥
+
e -¥
-
e0
-
e OP 0

N
2 -(s + a - jW0 ) -(s + a + jW0 ) -(s + a - jW0 ) -(s + a + jW ) Q 0

1L
=
2N
M0 + 0 + s + a1- jW + s + a1+ jW OPQ = 21 LMN (ss ++ aa +- jWjW )+(ss ++ aa +- jWjW ) OPQ
0 0
0

0 0
0

1L
= M 2(s + a) OP = (s + sa)+ a+ W
2 MN (s + a) + W PQ2
0
2 2 2
(a + b)(a - b) = a - b
0 j = -1 2 2 2

s + a
\ L{e - at cos W0 t u(t)} =
(s + a)2 + W0 2

Example 3.3
Determine the Laplace transform of the signals shown below.

a) b) c) d)

x(t)
x(t) x(t) x(t)
A a 1
1
0
T T t
2
–A 0 a t 0 a 0 a t
t
Fig 3.3.1. Fig 3.3.2. Fig 3.3.3. Fig 3.3.4.
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 12
Solution
a)
The mathematical equation of the signal shown in fig 3.3.1 is,
x (t) = A ;for 0 < t < T/2
= –A ;for T/2 < t < T
By definition of Laplace transform,
¥

L{x(t)} = X(s) =
-¥
z x(t ) e - st dt = z
T

0
x( t) e - st dt

z zb-Ag e dt = LM A -es OP LM -A e OP
T/2 T - st T/2 - st T

= A e - st dt + - st
+
0 T/2 N Q 0 N -s Q T/2

LM A e - sT
2 Ae P
O LM A e
0
Ae - sT
- sT
2
OP
= MM -s -
- s PP
+ M - PP
Q MN
s s
N Q
- sT - sT
Ae 2 A A e - sT Ae 2
= - + + -
s s s s

=
A LM
1 + e - sT - 2 e
- sT
2
OP = A
1 - e
LM - sT
2
OP 2
(a - b)2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab
s MN PQ s MN PQ
b)
The mathematical equation of the signal shown in fig 3.3.2 is,
x(t) = 1 ;for 0 £ t £ a
= 0 ;for t > a
By definition of Laplace transform,
¥
LM e OP
z z z
a a - st a

L{x(t)} = X(s) = x(t ) e - st dt = 1 ´ e- st dt = e- st dt =

-¥ 0 0 N -s Q 0

- as 0 - as
e e e 1 1
=
-s
-
-s
= -
s
+
s
=
s
1 - e - asd i
c)
x(t)
To Find Mathematical Equation for x(t) a Q

y - y1 x - x1
Consider the equation of straight line, =
y1 - y 2 x1 - x 2 P
0 a t
Here, y = x(t), x = t. Fig 1.
x(t ) - x( t1) t - t1
\ The equation of straight line can be written as, = .....(1)
x( t1) - x(t 2 ) t1 - t 2
Consider points P and Q, as shown in fig 1.
Coordinates of point - P = [t1, x(t1)] = [0, 0]

Coordinates of point - Q = [t2, x(t2)] = [a, a]

3. 13 Signals & Systems
On substituting the coordinates of points - P and Q in equation - (1) we get,

x( t) - 0 t - 0 x( t) t
= Þ = Þ x(t) = t
0 - a 0 - a -a -a
\ x(t) = t ; for t = 0 to a
= 0 ;for t > a

To Evaluate Laplace transform of x(t)

+¥

z z
a
L{x(t)} = X(s) = x(t) e - st dt = t e - st dt
-¥ 0

LMt ´ e OP a
LM- t e OP a

=
N -s
- st
- z 1´
e - st
-s
dt
Q 0
=
N s
- st
-
e - st
s2 Q 0
z uv = uz v - z duz v
u=t v = e -st
L ae
= M-
- sa
-
e- sa
e0
+ 0 + 2
OP = 1
-
e
-
ae - as - as

N s s2 s Q s2 s2 s
1
= 1 - e - as (1 + as)
s2

d)

To Find Mathematical Equation for x(t)

y - y1 x - x1
Consider the equation of straight line, =
y1 - y 2 x1 - x 2
Here, y = x(t), x = t.

x(t ) - x( t1) t - t1
\ The equation of straight line can be written as, = .....(1)
x( t1) - x(t 2 ) t1 - t 2
Consider points P and Q, as shown in fig 1.
Coordinates of point - P = [t1, x(t1)] = [0, 1]

Coordinates of point - Q = [t2, x(t2)] = [a, 0]

x(t)
On substituting the coordinates of points - P and Q in equation - (1) we get, P
1

x( t) - 1 t - 0 t t
= Þ x(t ) - 1 = - Þ x(t) = 1 -
1 - 0 0 - a a a Q
t 0 a
\ x(t) = 1 - ; for t = 0 to a t
a Fig 1.
= 0 ; for t > a
To Evaluate Laplace transform of x(t)
+¥

L{x(t )} = X(s) = z
-¥
x(t ) e - st dt

FG1- t IJ e dt =
z z z
a a a
- st 1
= e - st dt - t e - st dt
0
H aK 0
a
0

L e OP - 1 LMt ´ e OP z uv = uz v - z duz v
z
- st a - st a
e - st
=M - 1´ dt u=t v = e - st
N -s Q a N -s 0
-s Q 0
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 14

LM e OP - 1 LM- t e - e OP
= -
- st a - st - st a

N s Q aN s 0
s Q 2
0

L e + e OP - 1 LM- a e -
= M-
- as 0 - as
e - as e0
+ 0 + 2
OP
N s s Q aN s s 2
s Q
e - as 1 e - as e - as 1
= - + + + -
s s s as2 as2
1 e - as 1 1
= + - = e - as + a s - 1
s as2 as2 as2

Example 3.4 x(t)

Determine the Laplace transform of the sine pulse shown in fig 3.4.1. A

Solution
t
The mathematical equation of the sine pulse shown in fig 3.4.1. is, p
x(t) = A sin t ;for 0 < t < p
Fig 3.4.1.
=0 ;for t > p
¥ p

L{x(t)} = X(s) = z
0
x(t) e - st dt = z0
A sin t e- st dt

p p e jq - e - jq
= A z 0
sin t e - st
dt = A z
0
e jt - e - jt - st
2j
e dt sinq =
2j

p
LM e OP p

=
A
2j z0
e -( s - j)t - e - (s + j) t dt =
A
2j
-( s - j)t

N -(s - j)
-
e -( s + j)t
-(s + j) Q 0

=
A LM e -
-( s + j)t
e -( s - j)t
OP p
LM (s - j)e - (s + j) e
=
A - (s + j)t -( s - j)t
OP p

2j N (s + j) (s - j) Q 0 N (s + j)(s - j)
2j Q 0

A L (s - j) e - (s + j) e e O
- st - jt - st p
jt
e
=
2j N
M s2 - j 2 PQ
0

A p
= (s - j) e - st e - jt - (s + j) e - st e jt
d
2j s2 + 1 i 0

A
= (s - j) e - sp e - jp - (s + j) e- sp e jp - (s - j) e0 + (s + j) e0
d
2j s 2 + 1 i
A
= -(s - j) e - sp + (s + j) e - sp - (s - j) + (s + j) e ± jp = cos p ± j sin p
d
2j s + 1 2
i
= -1 ± j0 = -1
A
= e - ps ( -s + j + s + j) - s + j + s + j
d
2j s 2 + 1 i
A A
id i d i
- ps
= 2j e + 2j = e - ps + 1
d
2j s 2 + 1 s2 + 1
3. 15 Signals & Systems
Table 3.1 : Laplace Transform of Some Standard Signals

Waveform x(t) X(s) = L{x(t)}

x(t)

A x(t) = A ; 0 < t < T A

=0 ; t>T X(s) = (1 - e-sT)
s
0 T t

x(t)
At A
A
x(t) = ; 0<t<T X(s) = 1 - e -sT (1 + sT)
T Ts2

0 T
t = 0 ; t>T

x(t)
A
2At T
x(t) = ; 0< t<
T 2
X(s) =
2A F - sT
I 2

0 t = 2A -
2At T
; <t<T Ts2 GH
1 - e 2
JK
T
2
T T 2

x(t)
A
T
x(t) = A ; 0 < t <
2 A -F sT
I 2

0 T
2
T t
= –A ;
T
<t<T
X(s) =
s GH
1 - e 2 JK
–A 2

x(t)

x(t) = A sin t ; 0 < t < T A

A
=0 ; t>T
X(s) = 2
s + 1
d
e - sT + 1 i
0 T t

x(t)
2
x(t) = 1 ; 0<t<1
1 1
= –2 ; 1<t<2 X(s) = (1 - 3e-s + 4e-2s - 4e-4s + 2e-5s)
= 2 ; 2<t<4 s
0 1 2 3 4 5 t
-1 = –2 ; 4<t<5
= 0 ; t>5
-2
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 16
Table 3.1 Continued.....

Waveform x(t) X(s) = L{x(t)}

x(t)
x(t) = A sin t ; 0 < t < T A F
1 + e - sT I
A
0 T 2T 3T
t
and x(t + nT) = x(t)
X(s) = GH
s + 1 1 - e - sT
2 JK
T
x(t) x(t) = A sin t ; 0 < t <
A
2 A
T X(s) =
ds + 1i FGH1 - e IJK
sT
t =0 ; <t<T 2
-
2
0 T T 3T 2
2 2
and x(t + nT) = x(t)

x(t) 2At T LM FG TsIJ e OP sT

x(t) = ; 0< t < -
2
A
T 2 2A 1 - 1 +
t
2At T X(s) =
MN H 2 K PQ
T T 3T 2T =A - ; <t<T F I -
sT
2 2 T 2 2
Ts G 1 + e J 2
–A and x(t + nT) = x(t) H K
x(t)
A 2At
x(t) = A -
T
;0<t<T F
2A T 1 + e - sT 1 I
T 2T 3T t
X(s) = GH
Ts 2 1 - e - sT
-
s JK
and x(t + nT) = x(t)
–A

x(t)

A x(t) = A ; 0 < t < a

=0 ; a<t<T A 1 - e - as
X(s) =
s 1 - e - sT
0 t and x(t + nT) = x(t)
a T T+a 2T 2T+a

x(t)
T
A x(t) = A ; 0<t<
2
T
F1 - e -
sT
I
0
T
2
T 3T
2
2T t = –A ;
2
<t<T A
X(s) = s GG 2

sT
JJ
-
–A and x(t + nT) = x(t) H1 + e 2
K
x(t)
At
A x(t) =
T
; 0 < t < T
X(s) =
A LM1 - e (1 + sT) OP
- sT

- sT
Ts2 N 1-e Q
0
2T 3T t
and x(t + nT) = x(t)
T
3. 17 Signals & Systems
Table 3.2 : Some Standard Laplace Transform Pairs Note : s = Real part of s

x(t) X(s) ROC

d(t) 1 Entire s-plane

u(t) 1 s>0
s
1
t u(t) s>0
s2
tn - 1
u(t) 1
(n - 1)! s>0
sn
where, n = 1, 2, 3, ......
e -at u(t) 1 s > –a
s + a
1
–e -at u(–t) s < –a
s + a
n
t u(t)
n!
n+1
where, n = 1, 2, 3 ..... s s>0
1
t e -at u(t) (s + a) 2 s > –a
1
t n - 1 e - at u(t) 1
(n - 1)! s > –a
(s + a) n
where, n = 1, 2, 3, .....

tn e -at u(t) n!
(s + a) n + 1 s > –a
where, n = 1, 2, 3, .....
W0
bg
sin W 0 t u t
s + W 02
2 s>0
s
cosW t ub t g
0
s2 + W 0
2 s>0

sin h W t ub t g
0
W0
s > W0
s - W 02
2

s
cos h W 0 t u t bg s2 - W 0
2 s >W0

W0 s > –a
e - at sin W 0 t u tbg (s + a) 2 + W 0 2
s+a s > –a
e - at cosW 0 t u t bg 2
(s + a) 2 + W 0
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 18
3.3 Properties and Theorems of Laplace Transform
The properties and theorems of Laplace transform are listed in table 3.3. The proof of properties
and theorems are presented in this section.
1. Amplitude Scaling
In amplitude scaling, if the amplitude (or magnitude) of a time domain signal is multiplied by a
constant A, then its Laplace transform is also multiplied by the same constant.
i.e., if L{x(t)} = X(s), then
L{A x(t)} = A X(s)

Proof :

By definition of Laplace transform,

z
+¥
X ( s ) = L {x( t ) } = x ( t ) e - st dt .....(3.8)
-¥

z
+¥

m r
L A x (t ) = A x(t ) e - st dt
-¥

z
+¥
= A x(t ) e - st dt
-¥

= A X(s) Using equation (3.8)

2. Linearity
The linearity property states that, Laplace transform of weighted sum of the two or more signals is
equal to similar weighted sum of Laplace transforms of the individual signals.
i.e., if L{x1(t)} = X1(s) and L{x2(t)} = X2(s), then
L{a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)} = a1 X1(s) + a2 X2(s)

Proof :

By definition of Laplace transform,

z
+¥
X 1( s) = L {x 1(t ) } = x 1( t) e - st dt .....(3.9)
-¥

z
+¥
X 2 ( s ) = L {x 2 ( t } = x 2 ( t) e - st dt .....(3.10)
-¥

z
+¥

m
L a1 x 1( t) + a2 x2 (t) = r a1 x 1( t) + a2 x 2 ( t) e - st dt
-¥

z z
+¥ +¥

= a1 x 1( t) e - st dt + a2 x 2 ( t) e - st dt
-¥ -¥ Using equations
= a1 X 1 (s) + a2 X 2 (s) (3.9) and (3.10)
3. 19 Signals & Systems
3. Time Differentiation
The time differentiation property states that if a causal signal x(t) is piecewise continuous, and
d
Laplace transform of x(t) is X(s) then, Laplace transform of x( t ) is given by sX(s) - x(0).
dt
i.e., If L{x(t)} = X(s), then

L
RS d x(t )UV = sX(s) - x(0)
T dt W ; where, x(0) is value of x(t) at t = 0.

Proof :
By definition of Laplace transform, the Laplace transform of a causal signal is given by,

z
¥

X ( s) = L {x(t)} = x(t ) e - st dt .....(3.11)

0

RS d x(t)UV =
z z
¥ ¥
dx( t) - st dx(t )
\L e dt = e - st dt
T dt W 0
dt
0
dt
zu v = u z v - z du zv
z
¥
¥
= e - st
x( t) - -se - st
x(t ) dt dx(t )
0 u = e - st v=
0 dt

z
¥

= e -¥ x(¥) - e 0 x( 0) + s x( t) e - st dt e -¥ = 0 and e 0 = 1
0

z
¥
= s x( t) e - st dt - x(0) = s X(s) - x( 0) Using equation (3.11)
0

4. Time Integration
The time integration property states that, if a causal signal x(t) is continuous and Laplace transform

of x(t) is X(s), then the Laplace transform of x( t ) dt is given by,

X(s)
+ z z x(t) dt t= 0

s s
i.e., If L{x(t)} = X(s), then

L {z x( t ) dt =
X(s)
}
s
+
z x( t ) dt

s
t=0

Proof :

By definition of Laplace transform, the Laplace transform of a causal signal is given by,

z
¥

m r
X(s) = L x(t ) = x(t ) e - st dt .....(3.12)
0

z z LMNz
¥

\L { }
x( t) dt = OP
x(t ) dt e - st dt
Q
0

LML x(t) dtO OP

z uv = u z z z
v - du v

=
MNMN z PQ e - st
-s PQ
¥

0
- z
¥

0
x(t )
e - st
-s
dt z
u = x(t) dt v = e - st
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 20

z z z
¥

= LM x( t) dt OP e -¥
- LM x(t ) dt OP e0
+
1
x(t ) e - st dt
N Q t=¥ -s N Q t= 0 -s s 0

z z
¥

=
1 LM x(t ) dt OP +
1
x( t) e - st dt e -¥ = 0 and e 0 = 1
s N Q t= 0 s
0

=
X(s)
s
+
LM
N z x(t ) dt

s
OP
Q t= 0 Using equation (3.12)

5. Frequency shifting
The frequency shifting property of Laplace transform says that,
l q
If, L x(t) = X( s), then
L ne x( t )s = X(s m a )
± at
n s
i. e., L e at x( t ) = X(s - a ) and L e - at x( t ) = X(s + a ) n s
Proof :

By definition of Laplace transform,

z
+¥

X ( s ) = L {x( t ) } = x ( t ) e - st dt .....(3.13)
-¥
+¥
z x(t) e - (s m a )t
dt is similar to the form
z The term
+¥

\L e { ± at
x(t) }= e ± at
x(t) e - st
dt -¥
of definition of Laplace transform (equation(3.13))
-¥
except that s is replaced by (s m a ) .

z
+¥
= x(t ) e -( s m a) t dt +¥

-¥
\
-¥
z x(t) e -(s m a ) t
dt = X s m a b g
= X(s m a)

6. Time shifting
The time shifting property of Laplace transform says that,
l q
If, L x(t) = X(s), then
L lx( t ± a )q = e ± as
X(s) l q
i.e., L x( t + a ) = e as X(s) and L x( t - a ) = e - as X(s) l q
Proof :

By definition of Laplace transform,

z
+¥
X ( s ) = L {x( t ) } = x ( t ) e - st dt .....(3.14)
-¥
Let, t ± a = t

z z
+¥ +¥
\t = t m a
m
\ L x(t ± a) = r x(t ± a) e - st
dt = x( t) e - s( t m a )
dt
On differentiating
-¥ -¥
dt = dt

= z +¥

-¥
x( t ) e - st ´ e ± as dt = e ± as z
+¥

-¥
x( t ) e - st dt Since t is a dummy
variable for integration
we can change t to t.
= e ± as z
+¥

-¥
x(t ) e - st dt = e ± as X ( s)
Using equation (3.14)
3. 21 Signals & Systems
7. Frequency Differentiation
The frequency differentiation property of Laplace transform says that,
i.e., If L{x(t)} = X(s), then
d
l q
L t x( t ) = - X(s)
ds
Proof :
By definition of Laplace transform,

z
+¥
X ( s) = L {x(t)} = x( t) e - st dt
-¥
On differentiating the above equation with respect to s we get,
F I
z
+¥
d d
X( s ) = GG x(t ) e - st dt JJ
ds ds H -¥ K
z FGH IJ
z
+¥ +¥
d - st Interchanging the order of
= x( t)
ds
e dt =
K e
x(t) -t e - st dt j integration and differentiation
-¥ -¥

zb
+¥

= g
-t x( t) e - st dt m r
= L -t x( t) = - L t x( t) m r
-¥

d
m r
\ L t x(t ) = -
ds
X( s )

8. Frequency Integration
The frequency integration property of Laplace transform says that,
i.e., If L{x(t)} = X(s), then

L
RS1 x(t)UV = z
¥

X(s) ds
Tt W s

Proof :
By definition of Laplace transform,

z
+¥
X ( s) = L {x(t)} = x( t) e - st dt
-¥

On integrating the above equation with respect to s between limits s to ¥ we get,

z z LMMN z OP
¥ ¥ +¥

X ( s) ds = x( t) e - st dt ds
s s -¥
PQ
z LMMNz O
+¥ ¥ Interchanging the
= x(t) e - st ds P dt order of integrations.
-¥ s
PQ
z LMMN OP LM e - e OP dt
¥

z
+¥ +¥
e - st -¥ - st
= x(t ) dt = x(t)
-¥
-t PQ s -¥ MN -t -t PQ
z LMMN OP
z LM 1 x(t)OP e dt = L RS 1 x(t)UV
+¥ +¥
e - st - st
= x(t) 0 + dt =
-¥
t PQ -¥
Nt Q Tt W
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 22
9. Time scaling
The time scaling property of Laplace transform says that,
If L{x(t)} = X(s), then
1
l q
L x(at) =
a
X as ej
Proof :

By definition of Laplace transform,

z
+¥
X ( s) = L {x(t)} = x(t ) e - st dt .....(3.15)
-¥

FG t IJ Put, at = t
z z
+¥ +¥
-s
H aK dt
\ L { x(at) } = x(at) e - st dt = x( t ) e t
\t =
-¥ -¥
a a
FG s IJ t On differentiating
z
+¥

=
1
x( t) e
-
H aK dt =
1
X s
a
FH IK dt
a a dt =
-¥
a
The above transform is applicable for positive values of "a".
FG s IJ t
z
+¥ -
x( t) e
H a K dt
If "a" happens to be negative it can be proved that, The term is similar
-¥

1 to the form of definition of Laplace

L{x(at)} = -
a
X di s
a transform(equation(3.15)) except
that s is replaced by
FG s IJ .
H aK
Hence in general, FG s IJ t
z
+¥

1
\ x( t) e
-
H a K dt = X s FH IK
a
L{x(at)} =
a
X di s
a
for both positive and negative values of "a" -¥

10. Periodicity
The periodicity property of Laplace transform says that,
T
If x(t) = x(t+nT), and x1(t) be one period of x(t), and L x1 (t) = l q z x (t) e 0
1
- st
dt , then

l
L x(t + nT) = q 1
1 - e - sT z
T

0
x1 (t) e - st dt

Proof :

By definition of Laplace transform,

z
¥

L { x(t + nT) } = x(t + nT) e - st dt

0

= z
T

0
x 1 (t) e - st dt + z
2T

T
x 1( t - T ) e - s( t + T ) dt + z
3T

2T
x1 (t - 2 T ) e - s( t + 2 T ) dt + ..............

z
(p + 1) T

............ + x 1( t - pT ) e - s( t + pT ) dt + ..........
pT
3. 23 Signals & Systems

z
( p + 1) T
¥
= å x1 (t - pT ) e - s( t + pT ) dt
p=0 pT

z
¥ T

x 1( t) e - st e -psT dt The periodic signal will be

= å identical in every period
p=0 0
and so, x1(t+pT) = x1(t).
F e I dt
z
T ¥
=
0
x 1(t ) e - st GH å
p=0
- psT
JK Interchanging the order of
integration and summation
F e I dt
p

z
T ¥
=
0
x 1(t ) e - st GH å
p=0
- sT
JK Using infinite geometric
series sum formula
FG 1 IJ dt
z
T ¥
1
= x 1(t ) e - st
H1 - e - sT
K å Cn =
1 - C
0 n=0

1
z
T
1 The term
= x 1 (t) e - st dt 1 - e- sT
1 - e - sT 0 is independent of t

11. Initial Value Theorem

The initial value theorem states that, if x(t) and its derivative are Laplace transformable then,
Lt x( t ) = Lt s X(s)
t® 0 s®¥

i. e., Initial value of signal, x(0) = Lt x(t) = Lt s X(s)

t®0 s®¥

Proof :

We know that, L
RS dx(t) UV = s X(s) - x(0)
T dt W
On taking limit s ® ¥ on both sides of the above equation we get,

Lt L
RS dx(t) UV = Lt s X( s) - x(0 )
s®¥ T dt W s®¥

By definition of Laplace transform,

z
¥
RS dx(t) UV =
dx(t ) - st
z
¥
Lt e dt = Lt s X ( s) - x(0 ) dx(t) - st
s®¥
dt L e dt
0
s® ¥
T dt W 0
dt

dx(t)
z
¥
dx(t) FH Lt IK
e - st dt = FH Lt IK
s X ( s) - x(0 ) Here
dt
and x(0) are
dt s® ¥ s® ¥
0 not functions of s

0 = Lt s X( s) - x( 0) Lt e - st = 0
s® ¥ s®¥

\ x( 0) = Lt s X ( s)
s® ¥

Lt x( t) =
\ t® Lt s X ( s)
0 s® ¥ x(0 ) = Lt x(t )
t®0
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 24
12. Final Value Theorem

The final value theorem states that if x(t) and its derivative are Laplace transformable then
Lt x( t ) = Lt s X(s)
t®¥ s®0

i.e., Final value of signal, x(¥ ) = Lt x(t) = Lt s X(s)

t®¥ s®0

Proof :

We know that, L
RS dx(t) UV = s X( s) - x(0)
T dt W
On taking limit s ® 0 on both sides of the above equation we get,

Lt L
RS dx(t) UV = Lt s X( s) - x(0) By definition of Laplace transform
s®0 T dt W s® 0
RS dx(t) UV =
z
¥
dx( t) - st
L e dt
T dt W dt

s®0
Lt z
¥

0
dx(t) - st
dt
e dt = Lt
s®0
s X(s) - x(0)
0

dx(t)
Here and x(0) are
z
¥

0
dx(t)
dt
FH Lt
s®0
IK
e - st dt = FH IK
Lt s X(s) - x(0)
s®0
dt
not functions of s

Lt e- st = 1

z
¥ s®0
dx(t)
dt = Lt s X ( s) - x(0)
dt s®0
0
¥
x(t) 0
= Lt s X ( s) - x(0)
s®0

x( ¥ ) - x(0) = Lt s X ( s ) - x(0)
s®0

\ x( ¥) = Lt s X ( s)
s®0

\ Lt x( t) = Lt s X( s) x(¥ ) = Lt x(t)
t®¥ s®0 t® ¥

13. Convolution Theorem

The convolution theorem of Laplace transform says that, Laplace transform of convolution of
two signals is given by the product of the Laplace transform of the individual signals.

i.e., if L{x1(t)} = X1(s) and L{x2(t)} = X2(s) then,

L{x1(t) * x2(t)} = X1(s) X2(s) .....(3.16)

The equation (3.16) is also known as convolution property of Laplace transform.

With reference to chapter-2, section 2.9 we get,

x1 ( t ) * x 2 ( t ) =
+¥

-¥
z x1 (l ) x2 ( t - l ) dl ....(3.17)

where, l is a dummy variable used for integration.

3. 25 Signals & Systems

Proof :

Let x1(t) and x2(t) be two time domain signals.

By definition of Laplace transform,

z
+¥
X 1( s) = L {x 1(t ) } = x 1( t) e - st dt .....(3.18)
-¥

z
+¥
X 2 ( s ) = L {x 2 ( t } = x 2 ( t) e - st dt .....(3.19)
-¥

Let x3(t) be the signal obtained by convolution of x1(t) and x2(t).Now from equation (3.17) we get,

z
+¥

x 3 (t) = x1(t) * x2 (t) = x1(l ) x2 (t - l ) dl .....(3.20)

-¥

Let, L{x3(t)} = X3(s). Now by definition of Laplace transform we can write,

z
+¥

m r
X 3 (s) = L x 3 (t = x 3 ( t) e - st dt ..... (3.21)
-¥

On substituing for x3(t) from equation (3.20) in equation (3.21) we get,

z LMMN z OP
+¥ +¥

X 3 ( s) = x 1 (l ) x2 ( t - l ) dl e - st dt
-¥ -¥
PQ ..... (3.22)

Let, e–st = esl ´ e–sl ´ e–st = e–sl ´ e–s(t – l) = e–sl ´ e–sM ..... (3.23)

where, M = t – l and so, dM = dt .....(3.24)

Using equations (3.23) and (3.24), the equation (3.22) can be written as,

X 3 ( s) = zz
+¥ +¥

-¥ -¥
x 1( l ) x 2 (M) e - sl e - sM dl dM

= z
+¥

-¥
x 1( l ) e - sl dl ´ z
+¥

-¥
x 2 (M ) e - sM dM .....(3.25)

In equation (3.25), l and M are dummy variables used for integration, and so they can be changed to t.

Therefore equation (3.25) can be written as,

z z
+¥ +¥

X 3 ( s) = x 1 (t) e - st dt ´ x2 ( t) e - st dt
-¥ -¥
Using equations
= X 1 ( s) X 2 ( s ) (3.18) and (3.19)

m r
\ L x 1 ( t ) * x 2 ( t ) = X 1 ( s) X 2 ( s)
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 26
Table 3.3 : Properties of Laplace Transform
Note : L{x(t)} = X(s); L{x1(t)} = X1(s); L{x2(t)} = X2(s)
Property Time domain signal s-domain signal

Amplitude scaling A x(t) A X(s)

Linearity a1x1(t) ± a2 x2(t) a1 X1(s) ± a2 X2(s)
d
Time differentiation x(t) s X(s) - x (0)
dt
dn n d (K - 1) x(t)
x(t) sn X(s) - å sn - K
dt n K=1 dt K - 1 t=0
where n = 1, 2, 3 ......

z x(t) dt
Time integration
z x(t) dt
X(s)
s
+
s
t=0

z z ..... x(t) (dt) n

where n = 1, 2, 3 ......
X(s)
s n
n 1
+ å n-K+1
K=1 s
LM
N z z
.... x( t ) (dt) k OP
Q t=0

Frequency shifting e ± at x(t) X(s m a)

Time shifting x( t ± a ) e ±as X(s)

dX(s)
Frequency differentiation t x(t) -
ds
dn
tn x(t) ( -1) n X(s)
ds n
where n = 1, 2, 3 ......

Frequency integration
1
t
x(t) z
¥

s
X(s) ds

1
Time scaling x(at) a
X s
a ej

Periodicity x(t + nT)

1
1 - e - sT z
T

0
x1 (t) e - st dt
where, x1(t) is one period of x(t).

Initial value theorem Lt x(t) = x(0) Lt s X(s)

t® 0 s®¥

Final value theorem Lt x(t) = x(¥) Lt s X(s)

t®¥ s® 0

x1 (t) * x2 (t)
Convolution theorem
z
+¥
X1 (s) X 2 ( s)
= x1 (l ) x 2 (t - l ) dl
-¥
3. 27 Signals & Systems
Example 3.5 x(t)

Determine Laplace transform of periodic square wave shown in fig 3.5.1. A

T 2T 3T t
–A
Solution
Fig 3.5.1.
The given waveform satisfy the condition, x(t + nT) = x(t), and so it is periodic.
Let x1(t) be one period of x(t). The equation for one period of the periodic waveform of fig 3.5.1 is,

T
x1( t) = A ; for t = 0 to
2
T
= - A ; for t = to T
2
From periodicity property of Laplace transform,

z
T
1
l q
If X(s) = L x( t) , and if x( t) = x(t + nT ) then, X(s) =
1 - e - sT
x1(t) e - st dt, where x1( t) is one period of x( t).
0

z
T
1
l q
\ L x(t) = X(s) =
1 - e - sT
x1(t) e - st dt
0

From example 3.3(a) we get,

Using the result of example 3.3(a), the above equation can be written as,
F1 - e I 2

z
T sT
LM A F IO sT
2
x1(t) e - st dt =
A
GH
-
JK 2

1 - e J P
1 -
X(s) =
M G K PQ
2
0
s
Ns H
- sT
1 - e

LM A F IO sT
2

1 - e J P
1 -
=
F1 + e I F1 - e I MN s H
-
sT
-
sTG K PQ
2
a 2 - b 2 = (a + b) (a - b)
GH JK GH
2
JK 2

F
A G1 - e
-I sT

JJ 2

s GG
=
H 1 + e JK
sT
-
2

Example 3.6 x(t)

Determine the Laplace transform of the periodic
p 2p 3p 4p 5p 6p
signal whose waveform is shown in fig 3.6.1. 0
t
–1

Solution Fig 3.6.1.

The given waveform satisfies the condition, x(t + nT) = x(t), and so it is periodic. Here, T = 2p.
Let x1(t) be one period of x(t). The equation for one period of the periodic waveform of fig 3.6.1 is,
x1(t) = 0 ; for t = 0 to p
= sin t ; for t = p to 2p
From periodicity property of Laplace transform,

z
T
1
l q
If X(s) = L x( t) , and if x( t) = x(t + nT ) then, X(s) =
1 - e - sT
x1(t) e - st dt, where x1( t) is one period of x( t).
0
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 28

z z
T 2p
1 1
l q
\ X(s) = L x( t) =
1 - e - sT
x1(t ) e - st dt =
1 - e -2 ps
x1( t) e - st dt
0 0
Put, T = 2p
LM O
z z z
p 2p 2p
dt P =
1 1
= 0´e - st
dt + sin t ´ e - st
sin t e - st
dt e jq - e - j q
1 - e -2 ps MN 0 p
PQ 1 - e -2 ps
p
sinq =
2j
2p

=
1
1 - e -2 ps z
p
e jt
- e
2j
- jt
e - st dt =
d
1
2 j 1 - e -2 ps iz
2p

p
e b g
- s- j t
- e b g
- s+j t
dt

1 LM e b g - e b g OP =
- s- j t
1 Lee e e O
- s+ j t
2p
jt - st - jt - st 2p

=
d
2j 1- e -2 ps
Mi N -(s - j) -bs + jg PQ 2jd1 - e i MN- s - j + s + j PQ p
-2 ps
p

=
1 LM- e e + e e + e e - e e OP
j2 p -2 ps - j2 p -2 ps jp - ps - jp - ps

d
2 j 1 - e -2 ps iN s-j s+ j s-j s+ j Q

=
1 LM- e + e - e + e OP
-2 ps -2 ps - ps
e = -1 and e =1
- ps ± jp ± j2 p

d
2j 1- e -2 ps
iN s - j s + j s - j s + j Q a - b = (a + b) (a - b) 2 2

=
1 LM -(s + j) e + (s - j) e - (s + j) e + (s - j) e OP
-2 ps -2 ps
j = -1 - ps - ps 2

d
2 j 1 - e -2 ps iN (s - j) (s + j) Q
=
1 LM -se - je + se - j e - se - je + se - je OP
-2 ps -2 ps -2 ps -2 ps - ps - ps - ps - ps

d
2j 1- e -2 ps
iN s +1 Q 2

=
1 LM -2je - 2je OP = -2je d1+ e i =
- ps -2 ps
e
- ps - ps - ps

d
2 j 1- e -2 ps
i N s + 1 Q 2j ds + 1id1 + e id1- e i ds + 1ide - 1i
2 2 - ps - ps 2 - ps

Example 3.7
Determine the Laplace transform of the following signals using properties of Laplace transform.
a) x(t) = (t2 – 2t) u(t – 1) b) Unit ramp signal starting at t = a. c) x(t)

4
Solution
a) Given that, x(t) = (t2 – 2t) u(t – 1) = t2 u(t – 1) – 2t u(t – 1)
0
2 t
From table 3.2 we get,
Fig 3.7.1.
2
n s
2
L t u(t ) = 3
s
.....(1)

1 2
l q
L t u( t) = 2 ;
s
l
\ L 2 t u( t) = q s2
.....(2)

From time delay property of Laplace transform,

If L{x(t) u(t)} = X(s), then L{x(t) u(t – a)} = e–as X(s)

{d i } n
\ X(s) = L{x( t)} = L t 2 - 2t u(t - 1) = L t 2 u(t - 1) - L 2t u(t - 1) s l q
= e- s Lnt u(t)s - e Ll2t u(t)q
2 -s
Using time delay property

= e- s
2
- e
2 F 1 - s IJ = 2e
= 2e G -s -s
-s
(1 - s)
s 3
s H s K 2 3
s3 Using equations (1) and (2)
3. 29 Signals & Systems
b) Given that, Unit ramp signal starting at t = a. x(t) x(t – a)
The unit ramp starting at t = a, is unit ramp delayed by
“a” units of time. The unit ramp waveform and the ramp
waveform starting at t = a are shown in fig 1 and fig 2 respectively.
The equation of unit ramp and delayed ramp are given below.
0 t a t
Unit ramp, x(t) = t u(t)
Fig 1 : Ramp. Fig 2 : Ramp starting at t = a.
Delayed unit ramp, x(t - a) = (t - a) u(t - a)
From table 3.2 we get,
1
l q
L t u(t ) =
s2
.....(3)

From time delay property of Laplace transform,

If L{x(t) u(t)} = X(s), then L{x(t) u(t – a)} = e–as X(s)
Therefore Laplace transform of delayed ramp signal is,

l q
L x( t - a) = e - as L x(t) l q
= e - as
L lt u(t)q Using time delay property

1 e - as
= e - as 2
= Using equation (3)
s s2
c)
The given signal can be decomposed into two signals as shown in fig 4 and fig 5.
x1(t) 0 1 2 3 4
x(t) -t
8 –2
4 6

Þ 4 + –4

2
3
0 2 0 1 2 4 x2(t)
t t
Fig 3. Fig 4. Fig 5.
The mathematical equations of signals, x1 (t) and x2(t) are given below.
x1(t) = 2t u(t)
x2(t) = -2(t - 2) u(t - 2)
\ x(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 2t u(t) - 2(t - 2) u(t - 2)
From table 3.2 we get,
1 2
l q
L t u(t ) =
s2
; l
\ L 2t u( t) = q s2
.....(4)

l q
\ X(s) = L {x(t )} = L x1(t ) + x 2 ( t) = L 2t u(t) - 2(t - 2) u(t - 2) l q
l q l q
= L 2t u(t) - L 2(t - 2) u(t - 2)

= L l2t u(t)q - e L l2 t u(t)q -2 s Using time delay property

2 2 2d1 - e i
-2 s
-2 s

= - e
2
= 2 2
Using equation (4)
s s s
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 30
Example 3.8
Let, X(s) = L{x(t)}. Determine the initial value, x(0) and the final value, x(¥), for the following signals using initial value
and final value theorems.

1 s + 1 7s + 6
a) X(s) = b) X(s) = c) X(s) =
s(s - 1) s 2 + 2s + 2 s(3s + 5)
s2 + 1 s + 5
d) X(s) = e) X(s) =
s 2 + 6s + 5 s2 (s + 9)
Solution
1
a) Given that, X(s) =
s(s - 1)
1 1 1
Initial value, x(0) = Lt s X(s) = Lt s = Lt = Lt
s®¥ s®¥ s(s - 1) s®¥ (s - 1) s®¥ F 1I
sG 1 - J
H sK
1 1 1 1 1
= Lt = = 0 ´ = 0
s®¥ s FG1 - 1IJ ¥ FG1 - 1 IJ 1 - 0
H sK H ¥K
1 1 1
Final value, x(¥) = Lt sX(s) = Lt s = Lt = = -1
s® 0 s® 0 s(s - 1) s® 0 (s - 1) 0 - 1

s + 1
b) Given that, X(s) =
s 2 + 2s + 2
FG
s 1 +
1 IJ
Initial value, x(0) = Lt sX(s) = Lt s 2
s + 1
= Lt s
H s K
s®¥ s®¥ s + 2s + 2 s®¥ FG
s2 1 +
2 2
+ 2
IJ
H s s K
1 1
1 + 1 +
s ¥ 1+ 0
= Lt = = = 1
s®¥ 2 2 2 2 1+ 0 + 0
1 + + 2
1 + +
s s ¥ ¥
s + 1
Final value, x( ¥) = Lt sX(s) = Lt s 2
s® 0 s® 0 s + 2s + 2
0 + 1
= 0´ = 0
0 + 0 + 2
7s + 6
c) Given that, X(s) =
s(3s + 5)
FG 6 IJ
s 7 +
Initial value, x(0) = Lt sX(s) = Lt s
7s + 6
= Lt s
H sK
s®¥ s®¥ s(3s + 5) s®¥ 2F 5I
s G3 + J
H sK
6 6
7 +7 +
= Lt s = ¥ = 7 + 0 = 7
s®¥ 5 5 3 + 0 3
3 + 3 +
s ¥
7s + 6
Final value, x(¥) = Lt sX(s) = Lt s
s® 0 s® 0 s(3s + 5)
7s + 6 0 + 6 6
= Lt = =
s® 0 3s + 5 0 + 5 5
3. 31 Signals & Systems
2
s + 1
d) Given that, X(s) =
s 2 + 6s + 5
FG
s2 1 +
1 IJ
Initial value, x(0) = Lt sX(s) = Lt s 2
s2 + 1
= Lt s
H s2 K
s®¥ s®¥ s + 6s + 5 s®¥ FG
s2 1 +
6
+ 2
1 IJ
H s s K
1 1
1+ 1+
s2 ¥ 1+ 0
= Lt s = ¥ ´ = ¥ ´ = ¥
s®¥ 6 1 6 1 1+ 0 + 0
1+ + 2 1+ +
s s ¥ ¥

s2 + 1 0 + 1
Final value, x(¥) = Lt sX(s) = Lt s 2
= 0 ´ = 0
s® 0 s® 0 s + 6s + 5 0 + 0 + 5
s + 5
e) Given that, X(s) =
s 2 (s + 9)
FG 5 IJ
s 1 +
Initial value, x(0) = Lt sX(s) = Lt s 2
s + 5
= Lt s
H sK
s®¥ s®¥ s (s + 9) s®¥ F 9I
s G1 + J
3
H sK
5 1
1 + 1 +
1 s = 1 ´ ¥ = 0 ´ 1+ 0 = 0
= Lt
s®¥ s 9 ¥ 9 1+ 0
1 + 1 +
s ¥
s + 5 s+5 0+5
Final value, x(¥) = Lt sX(s) = Lt s 2 = Lt = = ¥
s® 0 s® 0 s (s + 9) s ® 0 s 2 + 9s 0+0

Example 3.9
Perform convolution of x1(t) and x2(t) using convolution theorem of Laplace transform.
a) x1(t) = u(t + 5), x2(t) = d(t - 7) b) x1(t) = u(t – 2), x2(t) = d(t + 6)

c) x1(t) = u(t + 1), x2(t) = r(t – 2) ; where r(t) = t u(t)

Solution 1
L {u( t)} = and L{d( t)} = 1
a) Given that, x1(t) = u(t + 5), x2(t) = d(t - 7) s

x1(t) = u(t + 5) l q
if L{x( t)} = X(s) then L x(t ± a ) = e ± as X(s)

1 e5 s
\ X1(s) = L {x1( t)} = L {u(t + 5)} = e5 s L {u( t )} = e 5 s ´ = .....(1)
s s
x2(t) = d(t - 7)

l q l q
\ X 2 (s) = L{x 2 ( t)} = L d( t - 7) = e -7s L d(t ) = e -7s ´ 1 = e -7s .....(2)

From convolution theorem of Laplace transform,

l q
L x1( t) * x 2 ( t) = X1(s) X 2 (s)

e 5s e 5s - 7 s e -2 s Using equations (1) and (2)

= ´ e -7 s = =
s s s

\ x1( t) * x 2 (t ) = L-1
RS e UV = L RS 1 UV
-2 s
-1
= u( t) t = t - 2 = u( t - 2)
TsW Ts W t = t -2
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 32
b) Given that, x1(t) = u(t – 2), x2(t) = d(t + 6) 1
L {u( t)} = and L{d( t)} = 1
s
x1(t) = u(t – 2)
l q
if L{x( t)} = X(s) then L x(t ± a ) = e ± as X(s)
-2 s
1 e
l q l q
\ X1(s) = L x1( t) = L u( t - 2) = e -2 s L u( t) = e -2s l q ´ =
s s
.....(1)

x2(t) = d(t + 6)

l q l q l q
\ X 2 (s) = L x 2 ( t) = L d( t + 6) = e6 s L d( t) = e6 s ´ 1 = e6 s .....(2)

From convolution theorem of Laplace transform,

l q
L x1( t) * x 2 ( t) = X1(s) X2 (s)

e -2 s e -2 s + 6 s e4s
= ´ e6 s = =
s s s Using equations (1) and (2)

\ x1( t) * x 2 (t ) = L-1
RS e UV = L RS 1 UV
4s
-1
= u(t ) t = t + 4 = u( t + 4)
TsW TsW t= t + 4

c) Given that, x1(t) = u(t + 1), x2(t) = r(t – 2) ; where r(t) = t u(t) 1 1
x1(t) = u(t + 1)
L {u( t)} =
s
l q l q
and L r( t ) = L t u( t) = 2
s

es if L{x( t)} = X(s) then Llx(t ± a )q = e ± as

X(s)
l q
\ X1(s) = L x1( t) = L {u( t + 1)} =
s
.....(1)

x2(t) = r(t – 2)

e -2 s
l q l q
\ X 2 (s) = L x 2 ( t) = L r( t - 2 ) = e -2 s L {r( t)} =
s2
.....(2)

From convolution theorem of Laplace transform,

l q
L x1( t ) * x 2 ( t) = X1(s) X2 (s)

es e -2 s e- s
= ´ 2
=
s s s3 Using equations (1) and (2)

\ x1( t) * x 2 ( t) = L-1
RS e UV = L RS 1 UV
-s
-1
=
LM t
2 O
u( t)P RS t u(t)UV =
n - 1
1
T s W Ts W
3 3
t = t -1 N2 Q t = t -1
L
T(n - 1)! W sn
( t - 1)2
= u( t - 1)
2

Example 3.10
Perform convolution of x 1(t) and x2(t) using convolution theorem of Laplace transform and sketch the resultant
waveform, where, x1(t) = u(t) - u (t - 1) and x2(t) = u(t) - u(t - 2).

Solution
x1(t) = u(t) – u(t – 1)

1 e -s
l q l q l q l q l q
\ X1(s) = L x1(t ) = L u( t) - u( t - 1) = L u(t ) - L u( t - 1) = L u( t) - e - s L u( t) = l q s
-
s
.....(1)

x2(t) = u(t) – u(t – 2)

1 e -2 s
l q l q l q l q l q
\ X 2 (s) = L x 2 ( t) = L u( t) - u(t - 2) = L u(t ) - L u( t - 2 ) = L u( t) - e -2 s L u(t ) = l q s
-
s
.....(2)
3. 33 Signals & Systems
From convolution theorem of Laplace transform,

l q F1 e-s I F1 e -2 s I
L x1( t ) * x 2 ( t ) = X1(s) X 2 (s) = GH s -
s JK GH s -
s JK Using equations (1) and (2)

1 e -2 s e-s e -3 s 1 e-s e -2 s e -3 s
= - 2
- 2
+ 2
= 2 - 2
- 2
+
s 2
s s s s s s s2

\ x1( t) * x 2 ( t ) = L-1
RS 1 - e - e + e
-s -2 s -3 s
UV L {t u( t)} =
1
Ts s
2 2
s 2
s 2
W s2
e - as
= L -1 RS 1 UV - L RS e UV - L RS e
-1
-s
-1
-2 s
UV + L RS e UV
-1
-3 s
l
L t - a ) u(t - a ) =q s2
Ts W
2
Ts W2
Ts 2
W Ts W 2

= t u(t) - (t - 1) u(t - 1) - (t - 2) u(t - 2) + (t - 3) u(t - 3)

To sketch the resultant waveform
For t = 0 to 1
When t = 0 to1, u(t) = 1, u(t – 1) = 0, u(t – 2) = 0, u(t – 3) = 0
x3(t) x3(t) = x1(t) * x2(t)
\ x1(t) * x2(t) = t ´ 1 – (t – 1) ´ 0 – (t – 2) ´ 0 + (t – 3) ´ 0 = t
1
For t = 1 to 2
When t = 1 to 2, u(t) =1, u(t – 1) = 1, u(t – 2) = 0, u(t – 3) = 0 0 1 2 3 t
\ x1(t) * x2(t) = t ´ 1 – (t – 1) ´ 1 – (t – 2) ´ 0 + (t – 3) ´ 0 = 1
Fig 1.
For t = 2 to 3
When t = 2 to 3, u(t) =1, u(t – 1) = 1, u(t – 2) = 1, u(t – 3) = 0
\ x1(t) * x2(t) = t ´ 1 – (t – 1) ´ 1 – (t – 2) ´ 1 + (t – 3) ´ 0 = 3 – t
For t > 3
When t > 3, u(t) = 1, u(t – 1) = 1, u(t – 2) = 1, u(t – 3) = 1
\ x1(t) * x 2(t) = t ´ 1 – (t – 1) ´ 1 – (t – 2) ´ 1 + (t – 3) ´ 1 = 0
Using the calculated values, the resultant waveform is sketched as shown in fig 1.

3.4 Poles and Zeros of Rational Function of s

Let X(s) be Laplace transform of x(t). When X(s) is expressed as a ratio of two polynomials in s,
then the s-domain signal X(s) is called a rational function of s.
The zeros and poles are two critical complex frequencies at which a rational function of s takes
two extreme values, such as zero and infinity respectively.
Let X(s) is expressed as a ratio of two polynomials in s as shown in equation (3.26).
P(s)
X(s) =
Q(s)

b 0 s M + b1 s M - 1 + b 2 s M - 2 + ..... + b M - 1 s + b M
= .....(3.26)
a 0 s N + a 1 s N - 1 + a 2 s N - 2 + ..... + a N - 1 s + a N

where, P(s) = Numerator polynomial of X(s)

Q(s) = Denominator polynomial of X(s)
In equation (3.26) let us scale the coefficients of numerator polynomial by b0 and the coefficients
of denominator polynomial by a0 , and the equation (3.26) can be expressed in factorized form as shown
in equation (3.27).
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 34

FG
b0 sM +
b1 M - 1
s
b b b
+ 2 s M - 2 + ..... + M - 1 s + M
IJ
X(S) =
H b0 b0 b0 b0 K
F
a Gs N
+
a1 N - 1
s
a a a
+ 2 s N - 2 + ..... + N - 1 s + N
IJ
0
H a0 a0 a0 a0 K
(s - z1 ) (s - z 2 ) ..... (s - z M )
= G .....(3.27)
(s - p1 ) (s - p 2 ) ..... (s - p N )

b0
where, G = = Scaling factor
a0
z1, z2, ....., zM = Roots of numerator polynomial, P(s)
p1, p2, ....., pN = Roots of denominator polynomial, Q(s)
In equation (3.27) if the value of s is equal to any one of the root of numerator polynomial then the
signal X(s) will become zero.
Therefore the roots of numerator polynomial z1, z2, ....., zM are called zeros of X(s). Since s is
complex frequency, the zeros can be defined as values of complex frequencies at which the signal X(s)
becomes zero.
In equation (3.27), if the value of s is equal to any one of the roots of the denominator polynomial
then the signal X(s) will become infinite. Therefore the roots of denominator polynomial p1, p2, ....., pN are
called poles of X(s). Since s is complex frequency, the poles can be defined as values of complex
frequencies at which the signal X(s) become infinite. Since the signal X(s) attains infinte value at poles,
the ROC of X(s) does not include poles.
In a realizable system, the number of zeros will be less than or equal to number of poles. Also for
every zero, we can associate one pole. (When number of finite zeros are less than poles, the missing zeros
are assumed to exist at infinity).
Let zi be the zero associated with the pole pi. If we evaluate |X(s)| for various values of s, then
|X(s)| will be zero for s = zi and infnite for s = pi. Hence the plot of |X(s)| in a three dimensional plane will
look like a pole (or pillar like structure) and so the point s = pi is called a pole.
3.4.1 Representation of Poles and Zeros in s-Plane
We know that, Complex frequency, s = s + jW
where, s = Real part of s, W = Imaginary part of s jW
­ s-plane
Hence the s-plane is a complex plane, with s on real axis and W on
imaginary axis as shown in fig 3.5. In the s-plane, the zeros are marked by
®
­

small circle “ ” and the poles are marked by letter “X”. -s s

For example consider the rational function of s shown below. ­

-jW
(s + 2) (s + 5)
X(s) = Fig 3.5: s-plane.
s(s2 + 6s + 13)
3. 35 Signals & Systems

The roots of quadratic s2 + 6s + 13 = 0 are,

-6 ± 36 - 4 ´ 13 -6 ± j4
s = = = - 3 + j 2, - 3 - j 2
2 2
\ s2 + 6s + 13 = (s + 3 - j2) (s + 3 + j2)
(s + 2) (s + 5) (s + 2) (s + 5)
\ X(s) = = .....(3.28)
2
s(s + 6s + 13) s(s + 3 - j2) (s + 3 + j2)
The zeros of the above function are, jW

®
p2 s-plane

z1 = –2 X +j2

z2 = –5 z2 z1 +j1
p1
X
0 ®s
The poles of the above function are, -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 -j1
p1= 0 X -j2
p3
p2 = –3 + j2 Fig 3.6 : Pole-zero plot of the
p3 = –3 – j2 function of equation (3.28).
The pole-zero plot of rational function of s of equation (3.28) is shown in fig 3.6.

3.4.2 ROC of Rational Function of s

Case i : Right sided (causal) signal
Let x(t) be a right sided (causal) signal defined as,
x(t) = e - a1t u(t) + e - a 2 t u(t) + e - a 3t u(t) ; where –a1 < –a2 < –a3

Now, the Laplace transform of x(t) is,

1 1 1 N(s)
X(s) = + + =
s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 (s + a 1 ) (s + a 2 ) (s + a 3 )
where, N(s) = (s + a2) (s + a3) + (s + a1) (s + a3) + (s +a1) (s + a2)
The poles of X(s) are, jW
­ s-plane
p1 = –a1 ; p2 = –a2 ; p3 = –a3 –a 1 –a 2 –a 3
ROC

Let, s = Real part of s.

X X scX ®s
Abscissa of
Now, the convergence criteria for X(s) are, ®
convergence
s > –a1 ; s > –a2 ; s > –a3 Fig 3.7 : ROC of a causal signal.
Since -a1 < -a2 < -a3, the X(s) converges, when s > -a3, and does not converge for s < -a3.
\ Abscissa of convergence, sc = -a3.
Therefore ROC of X(s) is all points to the right of abscissa of convergence (or right of the line
passing through -a3) in s-plane as shown in fig.3.7. In terms of poles of X(s) we can say that the ROC is
right of right most pole of X(s), (i.e., right of the pole with largest real part).
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 38
To Determine Zeros
Consider the numerator polynomial.
(s + 1) (s2 + 10s + 41) = 0

The roots of quadratic s 2 + 10s + 41 = 0 are,

-10 ± 102 - 4 ´ 41 -10 ± -64 -10 j 64

s = = = ± = - 5 ± j4 = - 5 + j4, - 5 - j4
2 2 2 2
\ (s + 1) (s2 + 10s + 41) = (s + 1) (s + 5 – j4) (s + 5 + j4) = 0
\ The roots of numerator polynomial are,
s = –1 ; s = –5 + j4 ; s = –5 – j4
\ Zeros of X(s) are,

z1 = –1 ; z2 = –5 + j4 ; z3 = –5 – j4

To Determine Poles
jW

®
Consider the denominator polynomial.
z2 s-plane
(s + 4) (s2 + 4s + 13) = 0 +j4
P2
2
The roots of quadratic s + 4s + 13 = 0 are, X +j3
+j2
-4 ± 4 2 - 4 ´ 13 -4 ± -36
s = = P1 +j1
2 2 z1
X
0 ®
s
-4 j 36 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
= ± = - 2 ± j3 = - 2 + j3, - 2 - j3 –j1
2 2
\ (s + 4) (s2 + 4s + 13) = (s + 4) (s+ 2 – j3) (s + 2 + j3) = 0 –j2
P3
X –j3
\ The roots of denominator polynomial are,
s = –4 ; s = –2 + j3 ; s = –2 – j3 z3 –j4

\ Poles of X(s) are, Fig 1 : Pole-zero plot.

p1 = –4 ; p2 = –2 + j3 ; p3 = –2 – j3
Pole-Zero Plot

The pole-zero plot of function X(s) is shown in fig 1. The zeros are denoted by “ ” and poles are denoted by “X”.

3.5 Inverse Laplace Transform

The Inverse Laplace transform of X(s) is defined as,
s = s + jW

l q
L-1 X(s) = x(t) =
1
2 pj z X(s) e st ds
s = s - jW

Performing inverse Laplace transform by using the above fundamental definition is tedious. But the
inverse Laplace transform by partial fraction expansion method will be much easier. In this method the
s-domain signal is expressed as a sum of first order and second order sections. Then the inverse Laplace
transform is obtained by comparing each section with standard transform pair, (listed in table 3.2).
In the following section the inverse Laplace transform by partial fraction exapansion method is
explained with example.
3. 39 Signals & Systems
3.5.1 Inverse Laplace Transform by Partial Fraction Expansion Method
Let Laplace transform of x(t) be X(s). The s-domain signal X(s) will be a ratio of two polynomials
in s (i.e., rational function of s). The roots of the denominator polynomial are called poles. The roots of
numerator polynomials are called zeros. (For definition of poles and zeros please refer section 3.4). In
signals and systems, three different types of s-domain signals are encountered. They are,
Case i : Signals with separate poles.
Case ii : Signals with multiple poles.
Case iii : Signals with complex conjugate poles.
The inverse Laplace transform by partial fraction expansion method of all the three cases are
explained with an example.
Case - i : When s-Domain Signal X(s) has Distinct Poles
K
Let, X(s) = .....(3.29)
s(s + p1 ) (s + p 2 )
By partial fraction expansion technique, the equation (3.29) can be expressed as,
K K K2 K3
X(s) = = 1 + + .....(3.30)
s(s + p1 ) (s + p 2 ) s s + p1 s + p2
The residues K1, K2 and K3 are given by,

K1 = X(s) ´ s s=0

K 2 = X(s) ´ (s + p1 ) s = - p1

K 3 = X(s) ´ (s + p 2 ) s = - p2

1 1
We Know that, L{u(t)} =
s
n
, L e - at u(t) =
s + a
s
By using the above standard Laplace transform pairs the inverse Laplace transform of equation
(3.30) can be obtained as shown below.

l q
L-1 X(s) = L-1
RS K + K + K UV
1 2 3

Ts s+p s+pW 1 2

R 1U R 1 UV + K
\ x( t ) = K L S V + K L S
-1 -1
L-1
RS 1 UV
1
T sW Ts + p W 2
1
3
Ts + p W
2

= K1 u(t) + K2 e- p1t u(t) + K3 e- p2 t u(t)

Example 3.12

2
Determine the inverse Laplace transform of X(s) =
s(s + 1) (s + 2)
Solution
2
Given that, X(s) =
s(s + 1) (s + 2)
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 40
By partial fraction expansion technique, X(s) can be expressed as,
2 K K2 K3
X(s) = = 1 + +
s(s + 1) (s + 2) s s + 1 s + 2

The residue K 1 is obtained by multiplying X(s) by s and letting s = 0.

2 2 2
K1 = X(s) ´ s s=0
= ´s = = = 1
s(s + 1) (s + 2) s=0
(s + 1) (s + 2) s=0
1 ´ 2

The residue K 2 is obtained by multiplying X(s) by (s + 1) and letting s = –1.

2 2 2
K 2 = X(s) ´ (s +1) s = -1
= ´ (s +1) = = = -2
s(s + 1) (s + 2) s = -1
s(s + 2) s = -1
-1( -1 + 2)

The residue K 3 is obtained by multiplying X(s) by (s + 2) and letting s = –2.

2 2 2
K 3 = X(s) ´ (s + 2) s = -2
= ´ (s + 2) = = = 1
s(s + 1) (s + 2) s = -2
s(s + 1) s = -2
-2(-2 + 1)
2 1 2 1
\ X(s) = = - +
s(s + 1) (s + 2) s s + 1 s + 2

Now, x(t) = L-1{X(s)} = L-1

RS 1 -
2
+
1 UV
Ts s + 1 s + 2 W
= u(t) – 2 e–t u(t) + e–2t u(t)

= (1 – 2 e–t + e–2t) u(t) = (1 – e–t )2 u(t) ( x - y)2 = x 2 - 2xy + y 2

Case - ii : When s-Domain Signal X(s) has Multiple Poles

K
Let, X(s) = .....(3.31)
s(s + p1 ) (s + p 2 ) 2
By partial fraction expansion technique, the equation (3.31) can be expressed as,
K K K2 K3 K4
X(s) = = 1 + + +
s(s + p1 ) (s + p 2 ) 2 s s + p1 (s + p 2 ) 2 (s + p 2 ) .....(3.32)
The residues K1, K2, K3, and K4 are given by,
K1 = X(s) ´ s s=0
; K 2 = X(s) ´ (s + p1 ) s = - p1

d
K 3 = X(s) ´ (s + p 2 ) 2 ; K4 = X(s) ´ (s + p 2 ) 2
s = - p2 ds s = - p2

1 1 1
We know that, L{u(t)} = , L e - at u(t) =
s s+ a
n
, L t e- at u(t) = s
(s + a ) 2
n s
By using the above standard Laplace transform pairs the inverse Laplace transform of
equation (3.31) can be obtained as shown below.

m b gr = L RST Ks + s K+ p + (s +Kp ) + s K+ p UVW

L-1 X s -1 1 2

1
3

2
2
4

R 1U
\ x(t) = K L S V + K L S
-1 R 1 UV + K L RS 1 UV + K-1 -1
L-1
RS 1 UV
1
T sW Ts + p W 2
T (s + p ) W 1
3
2
2 4
Ts + p W
2
- p1 t - p2 t - p2 t
= K1 u(t) + K2 e u(t) + K3 t e u(t) + K4 e u(t)
3. 41 Signals & Systems

In general if the pole p2 in equation (3.31) has multiplicity of q, as shown below,

K
X(s) =
s(s + p1 ) (s + p 2 ) q

then the partial fraction of the above signal can be expressed as,
K K K2 K3 K12 K 22 K (q -1)2
X(s) = q
= 1+ + q
+ q -1
+ q -2
+ ...... +
s(s + p1 ) (s + p 2 ) s s + p1 ( s + p 2 ) (s + p 2 ) (s + p 2 ) s + p2

The residue K1, K2, K3 are evaluated as shown above. The q – 1 residues K12 , K 22 , .... K (q-1) 2 can
be evaluated using the equation,
1 dr
Kr2 = X(s) ´ (s + 2) q ; r = 1, 2, .... q - 1
r ! dq r
Example 3.13
2
Determine the inverse Laplace transform of X(s) =
s(s + 1) (s + 2)2
Solution
2
Given that, X(s) =
s(s + 1) (s + 2)2
By partial fraction expansion technique, X(s) can be expressed as,
K K K2 K3 K4
X(s) = = 1 + + +
s(s + 1) (s + 2)2 s (s + 1) (s + 2)2 (s + 2)
The residue K 1 is obtained by multiplying X(s) by s and letting s = 0.

2 2 2
K 1 = X(s) ´ s = ´s = = = 0.5
s=0
s(s + 1) (s + 2)2 s=0
(s + 1) (s + 2)2 s=0
1 ´ 22

The residue K 2 is obtained by multiplying X(s) by (s + 1) and letting s = –1.

2 2
K 2 = X(s) ´ (s + 1) = ´ (s + 1) = = -2
s = -1
s(s + 1) (s + 2)2 s = -1
-1(-1 + 2)2

The residue K 3 is obtained by multiplying X(s) by (s + 2)2 and letting s = –2.

2 2
K 3 = X(s) ´ (s + 2)2 = ´ (s + 2)2 = = 1
s = -2 s(s + 1) (s + 2)2 s= -2
-2( -2 + 1)

The residue K 4 is obtained by differentiating the product X(s) ´ (s + 2)2 with respect to s and then letting s = –2.

K4 =
d
X(s) ´ (s + 2)2 =
d LM 2
´ (s + 2)2
OP d uFG IJ du
dx
v - u dv
dx
ds s = -2 N
ds s(s + 1) (s + 2)2 Q s = -2 dx v
=
H K v2

=
d LM
2 OP =
-2(2s + 1)
=
-2(2(- 2) + 1)
= 1.5
u=2 v = s(s + 1)
N
ds s(s + 1) Q s2 (s + 1)2 ( -2)2 ( -2 + 1)2 = s2 + s
s = -2 s = -2

2 0.5 2 1 1.5
\ X(s) = = - + +
s(s + 1) (s + 2)2 s s + 1 (s + 2)2 s + 2

l q
Now, x(t) = L-1 X (s) = L-1
0.5
-
2 RS+
1
+
1.5 UV
s s + 1T (s + 2)2 s + 2 W
= 0.5 u(t) - 2 e - t u(t) + t e -2 t u(t) + 15
. e -2 t u(t)

d
= 0.5 - 2 e - t + t e-2 t + 15
. e -2 t u(t) i
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 42
Case iii : When s-Domain Signal X(s) has Complex Conjugate Poles

K
Let, X(s) = .....(3.33)
(s + p1 ) (s2 + bs + c)
By partial fraction expansion technique, the equation (3.33) can be expressed as,

K K1 K s + K3
X(s) = = + 22 ..... (3.34)
(s + p1 ) (s2 + bs + c) s + p1 s + bs + c

The residue K 1 is given by, K1 = X(s) ´ (s + p1 )

s = - p1

The residues K 2 and K 3 are solved by cross multiplying the equation (3.34) and then equating the
coefficients of like power of s.
Finally express X(s) as shown below,
Arranging, s2 + bs ,
K1 K s + K3
X(s) = + 2 2 in the form of ( x + y) 2
s + p1 s + bs + c
K1 K2 s + K3 ( x + y) 2 = x 2 + 2 xy + y 2
= +
s + p1 b
s2 + 2 ´ s +
b
2
+ c -
FG IJ FG bIJ 2

2 2 H K H 2K
K1 K2 s + K3
= + b b2
s + p1 FG s + b IJ 2
F b IJ
+ Gc -
2
Put , = a and c - = W02
H 2K H 4K 2 4

K1 K2 s + K3
= + 2
s + p1 (s + a) 2 + W 0
K3 K3
s + s + a + - a
K1 K2 K1 K2
X(s) = + K2 = + K2
s + p1 (s + a) 2 + W 0 2 s + p1 (s + a ) 2 + W 0 2
K1 s + a + K4 K3
= + K2 Put , - a = K4
s + p1 (s + a) 2 + W 02 K2
K1 s + a K2 K4 W0
= + K2 2
+ K K
s + p1 2
(s + a) + W 0 W0 (s + a) 2 + W 0 2 Put , 2 4 = K5
W0
K1 s + a W0 ..... (3.35)
\ X(s) = + K2 + K5
s + p1 (s + a) 2 + W 0 2 (s + a ) 2 + W 0 2
1 s+a
n s
We know that, L e - at u(t) =
s+a
; n
L e - at cos W 0 t u(t) = s
(s + a) 2 + W 02
;

W0
n s
L e - at sin W 0 t u(t) =
(s + a) 2 + W 0 2

By using the above standard Laplace transform pairs the inverse Laplace transform of
equation (3.35) can be obtained as shown below.
3. 43 Signals & Systems

R| K + K s + a W0 U|
l q
L-1 X(s) = L-1 S| s + p
1
2
(s + a) 2 + W 02
+ K5
(s + a ) 2 + W 0 2
V|
T 1 W
\ x( t ) = K1 L-1
RS 1 UV + K L-1
RS s + a UV + K L-1
RS W 0
UV
Ts + p W 1
2
T (s + a) + W W2
0
2 5
T (s + a ) + W W
2
0
2

= K1 e - p1t u(t) + K2 e- at cos W 0 t u(t) + K5 e - at

sin W 0 t u(t)

Example 3.14
1
Determine the inverse Laplace transform of X(s) =
(s + 2) (s2 + s + 1)

Solution
1
Given that, X(s) =
(s + 2) (s2 + s + 1)
By partial fraction expansion technique, X(s) can be expressed as,

1 K1 K s + K3
X(s) = = + 22
(s + 2) (s 2 + s + 1) s + 2 s + s + 1

The residue K 1 is obtained by multiplying X(s) by (s + 2) and letting s = –2.

1 1 1
\ K1 = X(s) ´ (s + 2) = ´ (s + 2) = =
s = -2
(s + 2) (s2 + s + 1) s = -2
(-2)2 - 2 + 1 3

To solve K 2 and K 3, cross multiply the following equation and substitute the value of K1. Then equate the coefficients
of like power of s.

1 K1 K s + K3
= + 22
(s + 2) (s 2 + s + 1) s + 2 s + s + 1

d i
1 = K1 s 2 + s + 1 + (K 2 s + K 3 ) (s + 2)

1
1 =
3
ds 2
+ s + 1i + K 2 s2 + 2 K 2 s + K 3 s + 2 K 3

s2 s 1
1 = + + + K 2 s2 + 2 K 2 s + K 3 s + 2 K 3
3 3 3

1 =
FG 1 + K IJ s 2
+
FG 1 + 2 K + K3
IJ s + 1
+ 2 K3
H3 K 2
H3 2
K 3

On equating the coefficients of s2 terms,

1 1
0 = + K2 Þ K2 = -
3 3
On equating the coefficients of s terms,

0 =
1
+ 2 K 2 + K3 Þ K3 = -
1
- 2 K2 = -
1
- 2´ -
1 FG IJ =
1
3 3 3 3 H K 3
Arranging, s2+s, in
1 -1 1 1 1
s + - (s - 1) the form of (x+y)2
1 3 + 3 3 = 3 + 3
\ X(s) = 2
= 2 2
(s + 2) (s + s + 1) s+2 s + s + 1 s+2 s + s + 1 (x+y)2 = x2+2xy+x2
1 1 1 s -1 1 1 1 s - 1
= - = -
3 s+2 3 (s2 + (2 ´ 0.5s) + 0.5 2 ) + (1 - 0.5 2 ) 3 s+2 3 (s + 0.5)2 + 0.75
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 44
1 1 1 s + 0.5 - 1 - 0.5 1 1 1 s + 0.5 - 1.5
= - 2
= -
3 s+2 3 (s + 0.5)2 + 3 s+2 3 (s + 0.5)2 + 0.866 2
0.75 e j
1 1 1 s + 0.5 1 1.5 0.866
= - + ´
3 s+2 3 (s + 0.5)2 + 0.866 2 3 0.866 (s + 0.5)2 + 0.866 2

l q = L RST 31 s +1 2 - 31 (s + 0.5)
\ x(t) = L-1 X(s) -1 s + 0.5
+ 0.866
+ 0.577
0.866
(s + 0.5) + 0.866 W
2
UV
2 2 2

1 R 1 UV - 1 L RS s + 0.5 U R 0.866 U
T s + 2 W 3 T (s + 0.5) + (0.866) VW + 0.577 L ST (s + 0.5) + 0.866 VW
L S-1 -1 -1
= 2 2 2 2
3
1 -2t 1 -0.5t
= e u(t) - e cos 0.866t u(t) + 0.577 e -0.5t sin 0.866t u(t)
3 3

3.5.2 Inverse Laplace Transform Using Convolution Theorem

The convolution theorem of equation (3.16) is useful to evaluate the inverse Laplace transform of
complicated s-domain signals.
Let x(t) be inverse Laplace transform of X(s). Let, the s-domain signal X(s) be expressed as a
product of two s-domain signals X1(s) and X2(s). Let, x1(t) and x2(t) be inverse Laplace transform of
X1(s) and X2(s) respectively.
Now, the inverse Laplace transform of X1(s) and X2(s) are computed separately to get x1(t) and
x2(t), and then the inverse Laplace transform of X(s) is obtained by convolution of x1(t) and x2(t), as
shown below.
Let, X(s) = X1(s) X2(s), L-1{X(s)} = x(t), L -1{X1(s)}= x1(t), L-1{X2(s)} = x2(t).
First determine inverse Laplace transform of X1(s) and X2(s), to get x1(t) and x2(t).
Now, by convolution property,
L{x1(t) * x2(t)} = X1(s) X2(s)
Here, X(s) = X1(s) X2(s).
\X(s) = L{x1(t) * x2(t)}
On taking inverse Laplace transform of the above equation we get,
+¥

x(t) = L-1{X(s)} = x1 (t) * x2 (t) = z

-¥
x1 (l ) x 2 (t - l ) dl Using equation (3.17)

Example 3.15
4
Find the inverse Laplace transform of the s-domain signal, X(s) = using convolution theorem.
d
s2 s 2 + 16 i
Solution
4 4 4 1
Let, X(s) = = = ´ 2 = X1(s) X 2 (s)
d
s 2 s2 + 16 i d
s 2 s2 + 4 2 i s 2 + 42 s

4 1
where, X1(s) = and X 2 (s) =
s 2 + 42 s2

l q
x1(t) = L-1 X1(s) = L-1
RS 4 UV = sin4t u(t)
Ts 2
+ 42 W
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 56
Example 3.18
Using Laplace transform, determine the natural response of the system described by the equation,

d2 y(t) dy(t) dx(t) dy(t)

+ 6 + 5 y(t) = + 4 x(t) ; y(0) = 1 ; = -2
dt 2 dt dt dt t=0

Solution
The natural response is the response of the system due to initial values of output alone. Hence for natural
response the input x(t) is considered as zero. Therefore the natural response is also called zero-input response, yzi(t).
On substituting input x(t) = 0 and y(t) = yzi(t) in the given system equation we get,
d2 y zi (t) dy zi (t)
+ 6 + 5 y zi (t) = 0
dt 2 dt
On taking Laplace transform of the above equation we get,
s 2 Yzi (s) - s y(0) - y ¢(0) + 6 [sYzi (s) - y(0)] + 5 Yzi (s) = 0
On substituting the given initial conditions of output in the above equation we get,
s2 Yzi(s) – s ´ 1 – (–2) + 6 [s Yzi(s) – 1] + 5 Yzi(s) = 0
s2 Yzi(s) – s + 2 + 6s Yzi(s) – 6 + 5 Yzi(s) = 0 The roots of quadratic
(s2 + 6s + 5) Yzi(s) – s – 4 = 0 s 2 + 6s + 5 = 0 are,

(s2 + 6s + 5) Yzi(s) = s + 4 -6 ± 6 2 - 4 ´ 5
s=
2
s + 4 s + 4 -6 ± 4
\ Yzi (s) = = = = -1, - 5
s2 + 6s + 5 (s + 1) (s + 5) 2
By partial fraction expansion technique, Yzi(s) can be expressed as shown below.
s + 4 A B
Yzi (s) = = +
(s + 1) (s + 5) s + 1 s + 5

s + 4 -1 + 4 3
A = ´ (s + 1) = =
(s + 1) (s + 5) s = -1
-1 + 5 4

s + 4 -5 + 4 1
B = ´ (s + 5) = =
(s + 1) (s + 5) s = -5
-5 + 1 4

3 1 1 1
\ Yzi (s) = +
4 s + 1 4 s + 5
On taking inverse Laplace transform of the above equation we get natural response.

\ Natural response |UV l q

y zi (t ) = L-1 Yzi (s)
(or zero - input response) |W
=L S
R 3 1 + 1 1 UV
-1

T4 s + 1 4 s + 5 W
=
3
L S
R 1 UV + 1 L RS 1 UV
-1 -1
n s
L e -at u(t) =
1
4 T s + 1W 4 T s + 5 W s + a
3 -t 1 -5 t
= e u(t) + e u(t)
4 4
1
4
d
3 e - t + e -5 t u(t)
= i
Note : Compare the above result with example 2.8 of chapter - 2.
3. 57 Signals & Systems
Example 3.19
Using Laplace transform determine the forced response of the system described by the equation,
dy(t)
5 + 10 y(t) = 2 x(t) ; for the input, x(t) = 2 u(t)
dt
Solution
The forced response is the response of the system due to input alone. For forced response, the system equation
is solved for the given input with zero initial output. (But initial values of input should be considered).
Input, x(t) = 2 u(t)
2
\ X(s) = L {x(t)} = L {2 u(t)} = .....(1)
s
On substituting y(t) = yzs(t) in the given system equation we get,
dy zs (t)
5 + 10 y zs (t) = 2 x(t)
dt
On taking Laplace transform of the above equation with zero initial output conditions we get,

5s Yzs(s) + 10 Yzs(s) = 2 X(s)

5(s + 2) Yzs(s) = 2 X(s)

2
\ Yzs (s) = X(s)
5(s + 2)
2 2 4 1
= ´ = Using equation (1)
5(s + 2) s 5 s(s + 2)
By partial fraction expansion technique, Yzs(s) can be expressed as shown below.

Yzs (s) =
4 1
=
4 LM A +
B OP
5 s(s + 2) 5 Ns s + 2 Q
1 1 1
A = ´ s = =
s(s + 2) s=0
0 + 2 2

1 1 1
B = ´ (s + 2) = = -
s(s + 2) s = -2
-2 2

\ Yzs (s) =
4 LM 1 1
-
1 1 OP = 2 LM 1 -
1 OP
5 N2 s 2 s + 2 Q 5 Ns s + 2 Q
On taking inverse Laplace transform of the above equation we get forced response.

\ Forced response U|V y m r

= L-1 Yzs (s) = L-1
RS 2 L 1 - 1 OPUV
(or zero - state response)| W zs ( t)
T 5 MN s s + 2 QW
2 L R 1U RS 1 UVOP
= ML S V - L
-1
5 N Ts W
-1

T s + 2 WQ l q
L u(t) =
1
s
2
= u(t) - e -2t u(t) 1
5 n s
L e -at u(t) =
s + a
2
=
5
d
1 - e -2t u(t) i
Note : Compare the above result with example 2.9 of chapter - 2.
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 58
Example 3.20
Using Laplace transform determine the complete response of the system described by the equation,

d2 y(t) dy(t) dx(t) dy(t)

+ 5 + 4 y(t) = ; y(0) = 0 ; = 1, for the input, x(t) = e -2t u( t)
dt 2 dt dt dt t=0

Solution
Method - I
Input, x(t) = e–2t u(t)
1
n
\ X(s) = L {x(t)} = L e -2t u(t) = s s + 2
.....(1)

Initial value of input, x(0) = x(t) t=0

= e0 u(0) = 1

The given sytem equation is,

d2 y(t) dy(t) dx(t)

+ 5 + 4 y(t) =
dt 2 dt dt
On taking Laplace transform of the above equation we get,

s 2 Y(s) - s y(0) - y ¢(0) + 5 [s Y(s) - y(0)] + 4 Y(s) = s X(s) - x(0)

On substituting the initial values of output and input in the above equation we get,
s2 Y(s) – s ´ 0 – 1 + 5 [s Y(s) – 0] + 4 Y(s) = s X(s) – 1

s2 Y(s) + 5s Y(s) + 4 Y(s) = s X(s)

1
ds 2
i
+ 5s + 4 Y(s) = s ´
s + 2 Using equation (1)
s
\ Y(s) =
d
(s + 2) s 2 + 5s + 4 i The roots of quadratic
s s 2 + 5s + 4 = 0 are,
=
(s + 2) (s + 1) (s + 4) -5 ± 5 2 - 4 ´ 4
s=
2
s -5 ± 3
= = = -1, - 4
(s + 1) (s + 2) (s + 4) 2
By partial fraction expansion technique, Y(s) can be expressed as shown below.
s A B C
Y(s) = = + +
(s + 1) (s + 2) (s + 4) s + 1 s + 2 s + 4

s -1 -1 1
A = ´ (s + 1) = = = -
(s + 1) (s + 2) (s + 4) s = -1
( -1 + 2) ( -1 + 4) 1 ´ 3 3

s -2 -2
B = ´ (s + 2) = = = 1
(s + 1) (s + 2) (s + 4) s = -2
( -2 + 1) ( -2 + 4) -1 ´ 2

s -4 -4 2
C = ´ (s + 4) = = = -
(s + 1) (s + 2) (s + 4) s = -4
( -4 + 1) ( -4 + 2) -3 ´ ( -2) 3

1 1 1 2 1
\ Y(s) = - + -
3 s + 1 s + 2 3 s + 4
On taking inverse Laplace transform of the above equation we get complete / total response of the system.
3. 59 Signals & Systems

l q
\ Total response, y( t) = L-1 Y(s)

R 1 1 + 1 - 2 1 UV
= L S-
-1

T 3 s + 1 s + 2 3 s + 4W
1
= - L S
R 1 UV + L RS 1 UV - 2 L RS 1 UV
-1 -1 -1
3 T s + 1W T s + 2 W 3 T s + 4 W
1 -t 2 -4t 1
= - e u(t) + e -2t u(t) - e u(t) n s
L e -at u(t) =
3 3 s + a

=
FG - 1 e -t
+ e -2t -
2 -4t
e
IJ
u(t)
H 3 3 K
Method - II
Total response, y(t) = yzi(t) + yzs(t)
where, yzi(t) = Zero-input response
y zs(t) = Zero-state response
Zero-input Response
On substituting x(t) = 0 and y(t) = yzi(t) in the system equation we get,
d2 y zi (t) dy zi (t)
+ 5 + 4 y zi (t) = 0
dt 2 dt
On taking Laplace transform of the above equation we get,
s 2 Yzi (s) - s y(0) - y ¢(0) + 5 [s Yzi (s) - y(0)] + 4 Yzi (s) = 0

On substituting the initial values of output in the above equation we get,

The roots of quadratic
s2 Yzi(s) – s ´ 0 – 1 + 5 [s Yzi(s) – 0] + 4 Yzi(s) = 0
s 2 + 5s + 4 = 0 are,
\ (s2 + 5s + 4) Yzi(s)= 1 -5 ± 5 2 - 4 ´ 4
s=
1 1 2
Yzi (s) = = -5 ± 3
s 2 + 5s + 4 (s + 1) (s + 4) = = -1, - 4
2
By partial fraction expansion technique, Yzi(s) can be expressed as shown below.
1 D E
Yzi (s) = = +
b
(s + 1) s + 4 g s + 1 s + 4

1 1 1
D = ´ (s + 1) = =
(s + 1) (s + 4) s = -1
-1 + 4 3

1 1 1
E = ´ (s + 4) = = -
(s + 1) (s + 4) s = -4
-4 + 1 3

1 1 1 1
\ Yzi (s) = -
3 s + 1 3 s + 4
On taking inverse Laplace transform of Yzi(s) we get zero-input response, yzi(t)

l
\ Zero - input response, y zi ( t) = L-1 Yzi (s) = L-1 q RS 1 1
-
1 1 UV
T3 s + 1 3 s + 4 W
=
1 -1
L
RS 1 UV - 1 -1
L
RS
1 UV n s
L e -at u(t) =
1
3 T s + 1W 3 T
s + 4 W s + a
1 -t 1 -4t
= e u(t) - e u(t)
3 3
3. 97 Signals & Systems
15. The zeros and poles are two critical complex frequencies at which a rational function of s takes two extreme
values zero and infinity respectively.
16. Since the signal X(s) attains infinte value at poles, the ROC of X(s) does not include poles.
17. In a realizable system, the number of zeros will be less than or equal to number of poles.
18. For a causal signal x(t), in terms of poles of X(s), the ROC is the region to the right of right most pole of X(s),
(i.e., right of the pole with largest real part).
19. For an anticausal signal x(t), in terms of poles of X(s), the ROC is the region to the left of left most pole of X(s),
(i.e., left of the pole with smallest real part).
20. For a signal with causal and anticausal part, in terms of poles of X(s), the ROC is the region in between
largest pole of causal part and smallest pole of anticausal part.
21. The transfer function of a continuous time system is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of output and
Laplace transform of input.
22. The transfer function of an LTI continuous time system is also given by Laplace transform of the impulse
response.(Alternatively, the inverse Laplace transform of transfer function is the impulse response of the
system).
23. For a stable LTI continuous time system the ROC should include the imaginary axis of s-plane.
24. For a stable LTI continuous time causal system, the poles should lie on the left half of s-plane and the
imaginary axis should be included in the ROC.
25. For a stable LTI continuous time noncausal system, the imaginary axis should be included in the ROC.

3.9 Short Questions and Answers

Q3.1 Find the Laplace transform of x(t) = sin2t.
Solution
2t U 1
l q n s RST1- cos
X(s) = L x(t ) = L sin2 t = L
2
VW = 2 L l1q - L lcos 2tq =
LM
1 1
N -
s
2 s s2 + 4
OP
Q
1 Ls + 4 - s O
2 2
= M P = s(s 2+ 4)
2 N s(s + 4) Q 2 2

s
Q3.2 Let x(t) and X(s) be Laplace transform pair. Given that, X(s) = . Find Laplace transform of
s2 + 1
y(t) = x
FG t IJ - x(2t).
H 5K
Solution

RS FG t IJ UV = 5 X (5s) = 5 5s = 25s = s s
l q
If L x(t) = X(s) then by
L x =
T H 5KW 2
(5s) + 1 25s + 1 s 2
2
+
1
25
2
s + 0.04
time scaling property
1
s
l q
L x(at) =
a
X s
e j
a

l q = 21 X FGH 2s IJK = 21 F s I = 41 s s = s s+ 4
L x(2 t) 2
2 2 2
GH 2 JK + 1 4 + 1
R F tI U R F t IU
Now, L ly(t)q = L Sx G J - x(2t)V = L SxG J V - L lx(2t)q
T H 5 K W T H 5K W
s s s(s 2 + 4) - s(s 2 + 0.04) 3.96 s
= 2
- 2 = = 2
s + 0.04 s + 4 (s 2 + 0.04) ( s 2 + 4) (s + 0.04 ) ( s 2 + 4 )

Q3.3 Find the inverse Laplace transform of X(s) =

1 1 LM
+
s
. OP
N
2 s s2 + 4 Q
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 98
Solution

l q
x(t ) = L -1 X(s) == L -1
RS 1 L 1 + s OUV = 1 LM L RS 1 UV + L RS s UVOP -1 -1

T 2 MN s s + 4 PQW 2 N T s W T s + 4 WQ
2 2

1 1 + cos 2 t
= 1 + cos 2 t = = cos2 t
2 2
Q3.4 Let x(t) and X(s) be Laplace transform pair. Given that, x(t) = e–t u(t). Find inverse Laplace transform
of e–3s X(2s).
Solution
l q n s s 1+ 1 Þ X(2s) = 2s1+ 1 = 21
X(s) = L x( t) = L e - t u(t) =
1
s + 21

-1 |R 1 1 |UV = 1 e u(t)
Now, L lX(2s)q = L S -1 -t
2
|T 2 s + |W 2 1
2
( t -3)
1 1 - 2t
\ L ne X(2ss = L lX(2s)q
-1 -3 s -1 - 2
= e u(t) = e u(t - 3)
2 2 t=t-3
t = t -3

Q3.5 Find inverse Laplace transform of,

s s
i) X(s) =
(s 2 + 9)
lq
Re s > 0 ii) X(s) =
(s 2 + 9)
lq
Re s < 0

Solution
i) When Re{s} > 0, the x(t) will be causal or right sided signal.

l q
\ x(t) = L-1 X(s) = L-1 2
RS UV RS
s
= L-1 2
s UV
= cos 3t u(t)
T W T
s +9 s + 32 W
ii) When Re{s} < 0, the x(t) will be anticausal and left sided signal.

\ x(t) = L lX(s)q = L S
-1 R s UV = L RS s UV = cos 3t u(-t)
-1 -1

Ts + 9W Ts + 3 W 2 2 2

4s + 1
Q3.6 l q
Given that, L x(t) = X(s) =
s 2 + 6s + 3
. Determine the initial value, x(0).
Solution
By initial value theorem,
4s + 1
Initial value, x(0) = Lt x(t ) = Lt sX(s) = Lt s ´
t ®0 s®¥ s®¥ s 2 + 6s + 3

s 4+
FG 1 IJ 1
= Lt s ´
H Lt
s K 4+
s 4+0
=4
s®¥ F 6 3 I = s®¥
s G1+ + J
2
6 3
1+ +
=
1+ 0 + 0
H s sK s s 2 2

s+4
Q3.7 l q
Given that, L x(t) = X(s) =
d 2
s s + 7s + 10
. Determine the final value, x(¥).
i
Solution
By final value theorem,
Final value, x(¥) = Lt x( ¥) = Lt sX(s)
t ®¥ s ®0
s+4 s+4 0+4 4
= Lt s ´ = Lt = = = 0.4
s®0 d
s s2 + 7s + 10 i s®0 s 2 + 7 s + 10 0 + 0 + 10 10

bm s m + bm - 1 s m - 1 + .....+ b1 s + b0
Q3.8 Given that, X(s) = . Find Lt x(t).
s(s n + an - 1 s n - 1 + .....+ a1 s + a0 t ®¥

Solution
Using final value theorem,
bm sm + bm - 1 sm -1 + ...... + b1s + b 0 0 + 0 + ...... + 0 + b0 b 0
Lt x(t ) = Lt s X(s) = Lt s = =
t ®¥ s® 0 s®0 s(sn + an - 1sn - 1 +.....+ a1s + a 0 ) 0 + 0 +.....+ 0 + a 0 a0
3. 99 Signals & Systems

2 d
Q3.9 If X(s) = . Find Laplace transform of x(t) .
s+3 dt
Solution
Using initial value theorem,
2 2 2 2
x(0) = Lt s X(s) = Lt s ´
s ®¥ s ®¥
= Lt s ´
s + 3 s ®¥ F 3 I = 3 = 1+ 0 = 2
s G1+ J 1+
H sK ¥
Using time differentiation property,

L
dRS UV
x(t) = s X(s) - x(0) = s ´
2
-2=
2s - 2(s + 3)
=
-6
dt T W s+3 s+3 s+3

0.4
Q3.10 If X(s) = . Find Laplace transform of t x(t).
s + 0.2
Solution
Using frequency differentiation property,

l q
L t x(t) = -
d
X(s) = -
d LM
0.4
=-
d OP
0.4 (s + 0.2)-1 = - 0.4 ´ ( -1) ´ (s + 0.2)-2 =
0.4
ds N
ds s + 0.2 ds Q (s + 0.2)2
Q3.11 The impulse response of a system is e – 4t u(t), and for the input e(t), the response is (1 – e – 4t) u(t). Find
the input x(t).
Solution
Given that, h(t) = e–4t u(t)
l q n s s +1 4
\ H(s) = L h( t) = L e -4t u(t) =

Given that, y(t) = d1 - e i u(t) = u(t) - e u(t)

-4t -4t

1 1 Using convolution theorem

\ Y(s) = L ly(t)q = L nu(t) - e u(t)s = - -4t
s s+4 of Laplace transform
We know that, y(t) = x(t) * h(t)
On taking Laplace transform of above equation we get,
l q l
L y( t) = L x(t ) * h( t) q Þ Y(s) = X(s) H(s)

\ X(s) =
Y(s)
= Y(s) ´
1
=
1
-
1 FG
´ s+4 =
s+4
- 1=
IJ b
s+4-s 4
= g
H(s) H(s) s s+4 H s K
s s

Now input, x(t) = L-1 X(s) = L-1l q RS 4 UV = 4 u(t)

Ts W
Q3.12 The impulse response of a system is (4e – t – 2e – 3t) u(t). Determine the stability of the system.
Solution
d i
Given that, h(t) = 4e - t - 2e -3t u(t) = 4e - t u(t) - 2e -3 t u(t)

\ H(s) = L lh(t)q = L n4e -t

s
u(t) - 2e -3 t u(t)
4 2 4(s + 3) - 2(s + 1) 2s + 10 2(s + 5)
= - = = =
s +1 s + 3 (s + 1) (s + 3) (s + 1) (s + 3) (s + 1) (s + 3)
The poles of H(s) are lying at s = –1 and s = –3, and so they are lying on left half s-plane.
The ROC is the region to the right of right most pole and so imaginary axis is included in ROC.
Since the poles are lying on left half s-plane and the imaginary axis is included in ROC, the given causal system
is stable.
3. 101 Signals & Systems
3.10 MATLAB Programs
Program 3.1
Write a MATLAB program to find Laplace transform of the following
standard causal signals.
a) t b) e-at c) te-at d) cosWt e) sinhWt f) e-at sinWt

%****Program to find Laplace transform of some standard signals

clear all
syms t real; %Let a, t be any real variable
syms a real;
syms s complex; %Let s be complex variable

%(a)
x=t;
disp(‘(a) Laplace transform of “t” is’);
laplace(x)

%(b)
x=exp(-a*t);
disp(‘(b) Laplace transform of “exp(-a*t)” is’);
laplace(x)

%(c)
x=t*exp(-a*t);
disp(‘(c) Laplace transform of “t*exp(-a*t)” is’);
laplace(x)

%(d)
sg=real(s); %s - complex frequency ; sg - sigma ; o-omega
o=imag(s);
s=sg+(i*o);
x=cos(o*t);
disp(‘(d) Laplace transform of “cos(o*t)” is’);
laplace(x)

%(e)
x=sinh(o*t);
disp(‘(e) Laplace transform of “ sinh(o*t)” is’);
laplace(x)

%(f)
x=exp(-a*t)*sin(o*t);
disp(‘(f) Laplace transform of “exp(-a*t)*sin(o*t)” is’);
laplace(x)
OUTPUT
(a) Laplace transform of “t” is
ans =
1/s^2
(b) Laplace transform of “exp(-a*t)” is
ans =
1/(s+a)
(c) Laplace transform of “t*exp(-a*t)” is
ans =
1/(s+a)^2
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 102
(d) Laplace transform of “cos(o*t)” is
ans =
s/(s^2-(1/2*s-1/2*conj(s))^2)
(e) Laplace transform of “ sinh(o*t)” is
ans =
-i*(1/2*s-1/2*conj(s))/(s^2+(1/2*s-1/2*conj(s))^2)
(f) Laplace transform of “exp(-a*t)*sin(o*t)” is
ans =
-i*(1/2*s-1/2*conj(s))/((s+a)^2-(1/2*s-1/2*conj(s))^2)
Program 3.2
Write a MATLAB program to find Laplace transform of the following
standard causal signals.
a) tn b) tn-1/(n-1)! c) tne-at d) tn-1 e-at/(n-1)!

%****Program to find Laplace transform of some standard signals

clear all
syms t real; %Let t,a ,n be a ny r ea l va r ia ble
syms a real;
syms n real;

n=input(‘Enter the value of n’); %g et va lue of n from keyboard

%(a)
x=t^n;
disp(‘(a) Laplace transform of “t^n” is’);
laplace(x)

%(b)
x=t^(n-1)/factorial(n-1);
disp(‘(b) Laplace transform of “t^(n-1)/(n-1)!” is’);
laplace(x)

%(c)
x=(t^n)*exp(-a*t);
disp(‘(c) Laplace transform of “(t^n)*exp(-a*t)” is’);
laplace(x)

%(d)
x=(t^(n-1)*exp(-a*t))/factorial(n-1);
disp(‘(d) Laplace transform of “(t^(n-1)*exp(-a*t))/(n-1)!” is’);
laplace(x)
OUTPUT
Enter the value of n4
(a) Laplace transform of “t^n” is
ans =
24/s^5
(b) Laplace transform of “t^(n-1)/(n-1)!” is
ans =
1/s^4
(c) Laplace transform of “(t^n)*exp(-a*t)” is
ans =
24/(s+a)^5
(d) Laplace transform of “(t^(n-1)*exp(-a*t))/(n-1)!” is
ans =
1/(s+a)^4
3. 103 Signals & Systems
Program 3.3
Write a MATLAB program to find Laplace transform of the following
causal signals.
a) t2-3t b) 1+0.4e-2tsin3t c) 3sin2t+3cos2t

%****Program to find Laplace transform of given signals

clea r a ll
syms t real; %Let t be real variable

%(a)
x=t^2-(3*t);
disp(‘(a) Laplace transform of “t^2-(3*t)” is’);
X=laplace(x);
simplify(X)

%(b)
x=1+0.4*exp(-(2*t))*sin(3*t);
disp(‘(b) Laplace transform of “1+(0.4*exp(-(2*t)))*sin(3*t)” is’);
X=laplace(x);
simplify(X)

%(c)
x=3*sin(2*t)+3*cos(2*t);
disp(‘(c) Laplace transform of “3*sin(2*t)+3*cos(2*t)” is’);
X=laplace(x);
simplify(X)
OUTPUT
(a) Laplace transform of “t^2-(3*t)” is
ans =
-(-2+3*s)/s^3
(b) Laplace transform of “1+(0.4*exp(-(2*t)))*sin(3*t)” is
ans =
1/5*(5*s^2+26*s+65)/s/(s^2+4*s+13)
(c) Laplace transform of “3*sin(2*t)+3*cos(2*t)” is
ans =
3*(s+2)/(s^2+4)

Program 3.4
Write a MATLAB program to find inverse Laplace transform of the following
s-domain signals.
a) 2/s(s+1)(s+2) b) 2/s(s+1)(s+2)2 c) 1/(s2+s+1)(s+2)

%****Program to determine inverse Laplace transform

clear all;
syms s complex;

X=2/(s*(s+1)*(s+2));
disp(‘Inverse Laplace transform of 2/(s(s+1)(s+2)) is’);
x=ilaplace(X);
simplify(x)

X=2/(s*(s+1)*(s+2)^2);
disp(‘Inverse Laplace transform of 2/(s(s+1)(s+2)^2) is’);
x=ilaplace(X);
simplify(x)
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 104
X=1/((s^2+s+1)*(s+2));
disp(‘Inverse Laplace transform of 1/((s^2+s+1)*(s+2)) is’);
x=ilaplace(X);
simplify(x)
OUTPUT
Inverse Laplace transform of 2/(s(s+1)(s+2)) is
ans =
1+exp(-2*t)-2*exp(-t)
Inverse Laplace transform of 2/(s(s+1)(s+2)^2) is
ans =
t*exp(-2*t)-2*exp(-t)+3/2*exp(-2*t)+1/2
Inverse Laplace transform of 1/((s^2+s+1)*(s+2)) is
ans =
-1/3*exp(-1/2*t)*cos(1/2*3^(1/2)*t)
+1/3*3^(1/2)*exp(-1/2*t)*sin(1/2*3^(1/2)*t)+1/3*exp(-2*t)

Program 3.5
Write a MATLAB program to perform convolution of signals,x1(t)= t2-3t
and x 2(t)=t,using Laplace transform, and then to perform deconvolution
using the result of convolution to extract x1(t) and x2(t).
%****Program for convolution & deconvolution using Laplace transform

clear all;
syms t real;
x1t=(t^2-(2*t));
x2t=t;

X1s=laplace(x1t);
X2s=laplace(x2t);
X3s = X1s*X2s; %product of laplace transform of inputs
con12=ilaplace(X3s);
disp(‘Convolution of x1(t) and x2(t) is’);
simplify(con12) % convolution output

decon_X1s=X3s/X1s;
decon_x1t=ilaplace(decon_X1s);
disp(‘The signal x1(t) obtained by deconvolution is’);
simplify(decon_x1t)

decon_X2s=X3s/X2s;
decon_x2t=ilaplace(decon_X2s);
disp(‘The signal x2(t) obtained by deconvolution is’);
simplify(decon_x2t)
OUTPUT
Convolution of x1(t) and x2(t) is
ans =
1/12*t^4-1/3*t^3
The signal x1(t) obtained by deconvolution is
ans =
t
The signal x2(t) obtained by deconvolution is
ans =
t^2-2*t

Program 3.6
Write a MATLAB program to find residues and poles of s-domain signal,
(1.5s3+4.45s 2+4.25s+0.2)/(s3 +3.5s2+3.5s+1)
3. 105 Signals & Systems
%*****Program to find residues and poles of s-domain signal

clear all
s=tf(‘s’);

b=[1.5 4.45 4.25 0.2]; % Numerator coefficients

a=[1 3.5 3.5 1]; % Denominator coefficients

disp(‘The given transfer function is,’);

f=tf([b], [a])

disp(‘The residues, poles and direct terms of given transfer

function are,’);
disp(‘(r - residue ; p - poles ; k - direct terms)’);
[r,p,k]=residue(b,a)

disp(‘The numerator and denominator coefficients extracted from

r,p,k are,’);
[b,a]=residue(r,p,k)
OUTPUT
The given transfer function is,
Transfer function:
1.5 s^3 + 4.45 s^2 + 4.25 s + 0.2
————————————————-
s^3 + 3.5 s^2 + 3.5 s + 1
The residues, poles and direct terms of given transfer function are,
(r - residue ; p - poles ; k - direct terms)
r =
-1.6667
2.2000
-1.3333
p =
-2.0000
-1.0000
-0.5000
k =
1.5000
The numerator and denominator coefficients extracted from r,p,k are,
b =
1.5000 4.4500 4.2500 0.2000
a =
1.0000 3.5000 3.5000 1.0000

Program 3.7
Write a MATLAB program to find the impulse response of the LTI system
governed by the transfer function, H(s)=1/(s2+s+1).

%****Program to find impulse response of continuous time LTI system

syms s complex;
H=1/(s^2+s+1);
disp(‘Impulse response h(t) is’);
h=ilaplace(H);
simplify(h)

s=tf(‘s’);
H=1/(s^2+s+1);
t=0:0.01:20; % set a time vector

h=impulse(H,t); % impulse response of system H

Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 106
plot(t,h);
xlabel(‘time in seconds’);
ylabel(‘h(t)’);
OUTPUT
Impulse response h(t) is
ans =
2/3*3^(1/2)*exp(-1/2*t)*sin(1/2*3^(1/2)*t)
The sketch of impulse response is shown in fig P3.7.

Fig P3.7 : Impulse response of continuous time LTI system. Fig P3.8 : Step response of first and
second order system.
Program 3.8
Write a MATLAB program to find the step response of the first and
second order LTI systems governed by the transfer functions,
H(s)=1/(s+2) and H(s)=1/(s2+2.5s+25).

%********Program to find the step response of I and II order systems

syms s complex;
H1=1/(s+2);
disp(‘Step response of first order system is’);
h1=ilaplace(H1);
simplify(h1)

H2=1/(s^2+2.5*s+25);
disp(‘Step response of second order system is’);
h2=ilaplace(H2);
simplify(h2)

s=tf(‘s’);
H1=1/(s+2);
H2=1/(s^2+2.5*s+25);
t1=0:0.0005:5; % set a time vector
s1=step(H1,t1); % step r espo nse o f fir st o r der system
s2=step(H2,t1); % step r espo nse o f seco nd o r der system
subplot(2,1,1);plot(t1,s1);
xlabel(‘Time in seconds’); ylabel(‘s1(t)’);

subplot(2,1,2);plot(t1,s2);
xlabel(‘Time in seconds’);
ylabel(‘s2(t)’);
3. 107 Signals & Systems
OUTPUT
Step response of first order system is
ans =
exp(-2*t)
Step response of second order system is
` ans =
4/75*15^(1/2)*exp(-5/4*t)*sin(5/4*15^(1/2)*t)
The sketch of step response of first and second order system are shown in fig P3.8.

3.11 Exercises
I. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words
1. The Laplace transform will transform a time domain signal to –––––––––– signal.
2. The imaginary part of complex frequency is called –––––––––– frequency.
3. The real part of complex frequency is called –––––––––– frequency.
4. The ROC of Laplace transform of a causal signal includes all points on the s-plane to the –––––––––– of
abscissa of convergence.
5. A signal is said to be –––––––––– if e - st x( t ) approaches zero as t approaches infinity.
6. If Laplace transform of x(t) is X(s) then Laplace transform of Kx(t) is –––––––––– .
7. If Laplace transform of x(t) is X(s) then Laplace transform of x(t – a) is –––––––––– .
8. When X(s) is a ratio of two polynomials in s, then X(s) is called –––––––––– of s.
9. The –––––––––– are critical frequencies at which the signal X(s) become infinite.
10. The –––––––––– are critical frequencies at which the signal X(s) become zero.
11. The ROC of X(s) consists of stripes parallel to the –––––––––– in s-plane.
12. The –––––––––– is the ratio of Laplace transform of output and input.
13. The Laplace transform of –––––––––– gives the transfer function of the system.
14. For a stable LTI system the ROC should include –––––––––– of s-plane.
15. For a stable causal system –––––––––– should lie on left half of s-plane.
Answers
1. s-domain 6. K X(s) 11. jW - axis
2. radian / real 7. e–asX(s) 12. transfer function
3. neper 8. rational function 13. impulse response
4. right 9. poles 14. imaginary axis
5. exponential order 10. zeros 15. poles

II. State whether the following statements are True/False

1. The signal Kest is an universal signal which represents all types of signals.
2. The Laplace transform is used to transform a frequency domain signal to complex frequency domain.
3. The Laplace transform exists only if the signal is of exponential order.
4. The Laplace transform of the sum of two or more signals is equal to sum of transforms of individual
signals.
5. Laplace transform of convolution of two signals is given by the product of the Laplace transform of the
individual signals.
6. For a rational signal X(s), the ROC includes poles of X(s).
7. For a realizable system the number of finite poles and zeros should be equal.
8. For a causal rational signal X(s) the ROC is the region to the right of rightmost pole.
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 108
9. For an anticausal rational signal X(s) the ROC is the region to the left of leftmost pole.
10. If x(t) is finite and integrable then the ROC is entire s-plane.
11. While forming transfer functions the initial conditions should not be neglected.
12. Zeros and poles of transfer function are complex frequencies.
13. In a transfer function, if s takes the value of a pole, then the transfer function becomes zero.
14. The inverse Laplace transform of the transfer function gives the impulse response.
15. The direct form-I structure uses less number of integrators than direct form-II structure.
Answers
1. True 6. False 11. False
2. False 7. False 12. True
3. True 8. True 13. False
4. True 9. True 14. True
5. True 10. True 15. False

III. Choose the right answer for the following questions

1. When W = 0 in the signal x(t) = Ae st , where s = s + jW, the signal x(t) represents,
a) exponential signal b) step signal c) ramp signal d) sinusoidal signal
+¥

z
2. The mathematical operation x(t) e - st dt is called,
-¥
a) Laplace transform b) two sided Laplace transform
c) one sided Laplace transform d) generalized frequency domain transform
3. The term W in s = s + jW is called,
a) frequency b) real frequency c) complex frequency d) critical frequency
4. A causal signal x(t) is said to be exponential order for any positive value of s if,
a) Lt e + st x ( t ) = ¥ b) Lt e -st x ( t ) = ¥ c) Lt e + st x( t ) = 0 d) Lt e - st x( t ) = 0
t ®¥ t ®¥ t ®¥ t ®¥

5. The ROC of a causal signal x(t) is,

a) entire s-plane b) region in between two abscissa of convergence
c) right of abscissa of convergence d) left of abscissa of convergence
6. The Laplace transform of the causal signal t n u(t) is,
n! n! n n
a) n+1 b) n c) n +1 d)
s s s sn
7. If x(t) and X(s) are Laplace transform pairs, then Laplace transform of e–at x(t) is,
a) eas X(s) b) e–as X(s) c) X(s – a) d) X(s + a)
x(t)
8. If x(t) and X(s) are Laplace transform pairs, then Laplace transform of is,
t
¥ ¥ ¥ ¥
1 1
a) z
0
X(s) ds b) z
s
X(s) ds c)
s0zX(s) ds d)
sszX(s) ds

9. If x(t) is periodic with period T, then Laplace transform of x(t) is defined as,
T T T T
1 1 1 1
a)
1 - e -sT z
0
x(t) e- st dt b)
1 + e - sT z
0
x(t) e- st dt c)
1 - e sT z
0
x(t) e- st dt d)
1 + esT z
0
x(t) e- st dt
3. 109 Signals & Systems
10. If x(t) and X(s) are Laplace transform pair, and X(s) is rational, then which of the following statements are
true.
i) poles and zeros are critical frequencies.
ii) the ROC of X(s) does not include poles.
iii) the number of finite zeros will be less than or equal to number of poles.
a) i and iii only b) i only c) ii only d) all of the above
11. If x(t) and X(s) are Laplace transform pair, and X(s) is rational, then which of the following statements are
true regarding the ROC of X(s).
i) The ROC is bounded by poles or extends to infinity.
ii) If x(t) is right sided, then ROC is right of right most pole.
iii) If x(t) is left sided, then ROC is left of left most pole.
a) i only b) ii only c) ii and iii only d) all of the above
2
12. The inverse Laplace transform of X(s) = is,
s 2 + 2s + 5
a) x(t) = e - t cos2t b) x(t) = e - t sin 2t c) x(t) = e -2 t cos5t d) x(t) = e -2 t sin 5t

4
13. The inverse Laplace transform of X(s) = for ROC Re{s} > –4 and Re{s} < –4 are respectively.
s+5
a) 4 e -5 t u(t) and 4 e-5 t u( - t) b) 4 e5t u(t) and 4 e5 t u( - t)
c) 4 e -5t u(t) and - 4 e -5 t u( - t) d) - 4 e -5 t u(t) and - 4 e -5t u(t)
14. For a continuous time LTI system which of the following statements are true.
i) The transfer function is ratio of Laplace transform of output and input.
ii) The transfer function is ratio of Laplace transform of input and output.
iii) The transfer function is Laplace transform of impulse response.
a) i only b) i and iii c) ii only d) iii only
15. If x(t), y(t) and h(t) are input, output and impulse response of LTI continuous time system respectively then,
a) h(t) = x(t) * y(t) b) x(t) = y(t) * h(t) c) y(t) = x(t) * h(t) d) y(t) = h(t) * h(t)
16. If X(s), Y(s) and H(s) are Laplace transform of input, output and impulse response of LTI continuous time
system respectively then,

a) x(t) = L-1
RS H(s) UV b) x(t) = L-1
RS Y(s) UV c) x(t) = L-1
RS 1 UV l
d) x(t) = L-1 Y( s) H(s) q
T Y(s) W T H(s) W T Y(s) H(s) W
17. The convolution of u(t) with u(t) will be equal to,
a) d(t) b) u(t) c) t u(t) d) t 2 u(t)
18. The convolution of e – at u(t) with e – at u(t) will be equal to,
a) t u(t) b) e -at u(t) c) e -2at u(t) d) te -at u(t)
-4s
19. Given that H(s) = e . What is the impulse response of the system?
a) d (t - 4 ) b) u(t - 4) c) e-4t u(t) d) e4 t u(t)
20.Which of the following statements are true regarding the stability of continuous time system?
i) For stability of LTI system, the ROC should include imaginary axis.
ii) For stability of causal system the poles should lie on left half s-plane.
iii) For stability of noncausal system there is no restriction on location of poles in s-plane.
a) i and ii only b) i and iii only c) ii and iii only d) all of the above
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 110
Answers
1. a 6. a 11. d 16. b
2. b 7. d 12. b 17. c
3. b 8. b 13. c 18. d
4. d 9. a 14. b 19. a
5. c 10. d 15. c 20. d

IV. Answer the following questions

1. Define complex frequency.
2. Define Laplace transform of a signal
3. What is the condition to be satisfied for the existence of Laplace transform?
4. What is abscissa of convergence?
5. What is region of convergence(ROC)?
6. Define inverse Laplace transform.
7. Write any two properties of Laplace transform.
8. State and prove initial value theorem.
9. State and prove final value theorem.
10. Define the convolution theorem of Laplace transform.
11. Write any two properties of ROC of Laplace transform.
12. Write a procedure to determine inverse Laplace transform using convolution theorem.
13. Define transfer function of a continuous time system.
14. Define poles and zeros.
15. Write the procedure to perform convolution using Laplace transform.
16. Write the procedure to perform deconvolution using Laplace transform.
17. What is the relation between impulse response and transfer function of the system?
18. What is the condition for stability of a continuous time LTI system?
19. What is the condition for stability of LTI causal system?
20. What are the basic elements of block diagram?

V. Solve the following problems

E3.1 Find the Laplace transform and the ROC of the following signals using the fundamental definition of
Laplace transform.
d i
a) x(t) = t 2 + 2 t + 4 u(t) b) x(t) = cos2 6t u(t) c) x(t) = e -5t sin 7 t u(t) d) x(t) = e at +b u(t)
E3.2 Find the Laplace transform of the following signals.
a) x(t) = (4 e -2t cos5t - 3e -2t sin5t) u(t) b) x(t) = (t - 2 ) 3 u(t - 2)
c) x(t) = ( 2 - 4t + t 2 ) e - t u(t) d) x(t) = d (t) + (t e-3t + 2 cos5t) u(t)
E3.3 Find the Laplace transform of the following signals.
a) x(t) b) x(t) c) x(t) d) x(t)
2A A Ae–at A
¯ A
A

0 T 2T T t 0 T t t0 1+t 0 –T 0 T t
3 3 t
Fig E3.3.1. Fig E3.3.2. Fig E3.3.3. Fig E3.3.4.
3. 111 Signals & Systems
E3.4 Find the Laplace transform of the signal shown in fig E3.4. x(t)
A
E3.5 Find the initial value, x(0) in time domain for the following
s-domain signals.
10(s + 1) 2s2 + 2 0 T T t
a) X(s) = b) X(s) = 3 2
(s + 2) (s + 6) 8s + 4s2 + 3s + 5 Fig E3.4.
4 1 7 4
c) X(s) = 3 d) X(s) = 3 + 2 +
s + 2s2 + 7s + 1 s s s

E3.6 Find the final value, x(¥) in time domain for the following s-domain signals.
10(s + 1) s (s + 2) (s + 3) s(s + 1)
a) X(s) = b) X(s) = c) X(s) = d) X(s) =
s(s + 2) (s + 4) 2
s +4 s2 (s + 5) s + 2s + 1
2

E3.7 Perform the convolution of x1(t) and x2(t) using Laplace transform.
a) x1 (t) = t e-2 t u(t) ; x 2 (t) = 3 sin4t u(t) b) x1 (t) = (t - 2 ) u(t - 2) ; x2 (t) = e-3t u(t)
c) x1 (t) = 4 t e -5 t u(t) ; x2 (t) = u(t) d) x1 (t) = t 2 u(t) ; x2 (t) = d (t - 7 )
e) x1 (t) = sin t u(t) ; x 2 (t) = t e - t u(t)
E3.8 Determine the poles and zeros of the following s-domain signal and sketch the pole-zero plot.
( s + 2) (s2 + 8s + 20)
X(s) =
(s + 3) (s2 + 2s + 2)
E3.9 Find the inverse Laplace transform of the following signals.
s 2s + 1
a) X(s) = 2 b) X(s) = 3
s + 4s + 3 s + 7s2 + 10s
1 (s + 2)
c) X(s) = 3 d) X(s) = 2
2
s + 2s + 2s + 1 s + 4s + 5
E3.10 Find the inverse Laplace transform of the following signals.
s2 + 2s - 2 4s2 + 15s + 62
a) X(s) = b) X(s) =
s(s + 2) (s - 3) (s + 1) (s2 + 4s + 20)
2s2 + 4s + 34 s3 + 8s2 + 23s + 28
c) X(s) = d) X(s) =
(s + 2) (s2 + 6s + 25) (s + 4s + 13) (s2 + 2s + 5)
2

1
E3.11 Find the inverse Laplace transform of X (s) = using convolution theorem.
s2 (s2 - a 2 )

E3.12 Find the impulse response of the systems represented by following differential equations.
dy(t) d 2 y( t )
a) = x( t - t 0 ) b) 3 + y( t ) = 0.5 x( t )
dt dt
d 2 y( t ) dy dx(t)
c) + 0.8 + 015 . y(t) = 0.2 + x( t )
dt 2 dt dt
E3.13 Using Laplace transform, determine the natural response of the system represented by following
equations.
d 2 y(t) dy( t ) dx( t ) dy( t )
a) + 15
. + 0.36 y(t) = 0.1 + 0.7 x( t ) ; y(0) = 0.3 ; = -0.2
dt 2 dt dt dt t = 0
d 2 y(t) dy( t ) dy( t )
b) 2
+ 10 + 21 y(t) = 8 x( t ) ; y(0) = 2 ; = -3
dt dt dt t =0
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 112
E3.14 Using Laplace transform, determine the forced response of the system represented by following equations.
d 2 y(t) dy( t ) dx( t )
a) 2
+9 + 20 y(t) = 0.2 + 2 x( t ) ; Input x( t ) = 6 u(t)
dt dt dt
d 3y(t) d 2 y( t ) dy(t)
b) 3
+ 10 + 27 + 18 y(t) = 12 x( t ) ; Input x(t) = e-5t u(t)
dt dt 2 dt
E3.15 Using Laplace transform, determine the complete response of the system represented by following
equations.
d 2 y(t) dy( t ) dx( t ) dy( t )
a) + 14
. + 0.4 y(t) = 0.2 + 1.25 x( t ) ; y(0) = 1 ; = -2 ; for input x(t) = 2e-3t u( t )
dt 2 dt dt dt t=0

2
d y(t) dy( t ) dy( t )
b) + 11 + 24 y(t) = 3 x( t ) ; y(0) = 2 ; = -0.5 ; for input x(t) = 4 u( t )
dt 2 dt dt t=0

E3.16 Find the transfer function of the system governed by the following differential equations.
d 3y(t) d 2 y( t ) dy( t ) dx( t )
a) 3
+ 0.4 + 0.3 + 0.1 y(t) = 0.3 + x( t - 1)
dt dt 2 dt dt
d 3 y(t) d 2y( t ) dy( t ) d 2 x( t ) dx ( t )
b) 3
+7 2
+5 + 14 y(t) = 3 +2 + 4 x( t )
dt dt dt dt 2 dt
d 2 y(t) dy ( t )
c) 4 +2 + 8 y(t) = x( t - 3)
dt 2 dt
E3.17 Find the transfer function of the system governed by the following impulse responses.
a) h(t) = d (t - 2) + e -4t u(t) b) h(t) = d (t) + t e-3t u(t) + e -9 t u( t )
c) h(t) = 2 u(t) + 3e-6t u(t) + 4e -7t sin 2t u(t)

E3.18 Determine the transfer function of the system, whose unit step responses are given below.
a) s(t) = [t + cosh 2t] u(t) b) s(t) = [t 2 + 2 e -5t sin 3t] u(t )
c) s(t) = [3t 2 - 4e -7 t + 4e - t ] u(t)
E3.19 Find the impulse response of the continuous time systems governed by the following transfer functions.
1 4 3
a) H(s) = 2 b) H(s) = 2 c) H(s) = 2
s (s + 2 ) s(s - 16) s + 18s + 90
E3.20 Find the response of LTI systems whose input and impulse responses are given below.

a) x(t) = 0.5e -2t u(t) ; h(t) = u(t) b) x(t) = t e - t u(t) ; h(t) = d (t - 2 )

-2 t -6 t
c) x(t) = 3e cos4t u(t) ; h(t) = e u(t)
E3.21 Perform deconvolution operation to extract the signal x1(t).
a) x1 (t) * x2 (t) = (1 + t ) u(t) ; x2 (t) = d (t)
b) x1 (t) * x 2 ( t ) = ( t e - t + 3t 2 ) u(t) ; x 2 (t) = 2e-3t u( t )
c) x1 (t) * x 2 (t) = t 2 u(t) ; x2 (t) = 2 cosh t u(t)
E3.22 Find the unit step response of the systems whose impulse responses are given below.
a) h(t) = (t + sin t) u(t) b) h(t) = d (t - 3) + u(t - 3) c) h(t) = t e -2 t + e -4t u(t) d i
3. 113 Signals & Systems
E3.23 Draw the direct form-I and direct form-II structure of the continuous time systems respresented by the
following equations.
d 2 y(t) dy( t ) d 2 x( t ) dx( t )
a) 2
+5 + 2 y(t) = 3 2
+4 + 6 x( t )
dt dt dt dt
d 3 y(t) d 2 y( t ) dy(t) d 2 x(t) dx(t)
b) 3
+ 0.9 2
+ 12
. + 2.1 y(t) = 31 . + 0.6 + 0.9 x( t )
dt dt dt dt 2 dt
E3.24 Draw the direct form-I and direct form-II structure of the continuous time systems governed by the
following transfer functions.
4s2 + 2s - 0.9 2s3 + 3s2 + 7s + 10
a) H(s) = 3 b) H(s) = 3
s + 2s - 13s + 0.2
2
s - 9s2 + 12s + 13
E3.25 Draw the cascade and parallel structure for the LTI system governed by the following transfer functions.
(s + 2) (s - 5) s2 + 2s
a) H(s) = b) H(s) =
(s + 4) (s + s + 3)
2
(s + 6) (s2 - 7s + 10)

Answers
4 2 s2 + 72
E3.1 a) X(s) = (s + 0.5s + 0.5) , ROC : s > 0 b) X(s) = , ROC : s > 0
s3 s(s2 + 144)
7 eb
c) X(s) = , ROC : s > -5 d) X(s) = , ROC s > -a
(s + 5) 2 + 49 s+ a
4s - 7 6 e -2s
E3.2 a) X(s) = b) X(s) =
s + 2s + 29
2
s4
2s2 s + 8s3 + 47s2 + 168s + 250
4
c) X(s) = d) X(s) =
(s + 1) 3 (s + 3)2 (s2 + 25)

E3.3 a) X(s) =
A LM
-
sT
-
2 sT
1 + e 3 - e 3 - e -sT
OP b) X(s) =
A
1- e - ( s+ a ) T
s N Q (s + a)
A - st 0 2A
c) X(s) = e (1 - e - s ) d) X(s) = (cosh sT - 1)
s Ts2

2A 1 - e 2
F -
sT
I
E3.4 X (s) = 2
Ts -
GG
sT
JJ
1+ e 2 H K
E3.5 a) x(0) = 10 b) x(0) = 0.25 c) x(0) = 0 d) x(0) = 4
E3.6 a) x(¥) = 1.25 b) x(¥) = 0 c) x(¥) = ¥ d) x(¥) = 0

E3.7 a) x1 ( t ) * x2 ( t ) = (0.6 te -2t + 0.12e -2t - 0.12 cos4t - 0.09 sin4t) u(t)

b) x1 ( t ) * x2 ( t ) =
1 LM 1 1 OP
( t - 2 ) - + e -3 ( t - 2 ) u ( t - 2 ) c) x1 (t) * x 2 (t) = 0.16 1 - 5 t e -5t - e -5t u(t)
3 N 3 3 Q
b g
d) x1 ( t ) * x2 ( t ) = t - 7
2
u(t - 7) e) x1 ( t ) * x 2 ( t ) = 0.5 ( t + 1)e - t - cost u(t)

E3.8 p 1 = –3, p 2 = –1+j1, p 3 = –1–j

z 1 = –2, z 2 = –4 + j2, z3 = –4 – j2
Chapter 3 - Laplace Transform 3. 114
-3t -t
E3.9 a) x(t) = [1.5e - 0.5e ] u(t) jW
b) x(t) = [0.1 + 0.5e -2 t -5 t
- 0.6 e ] u(t) s-plane
z2 +j2
b
c) x(t) = e - t + e -0.5 t 0.577 sin 0.866t - cos0.866t u(t) g p1 p2 ´ +j1
-t -0.5t z1
(or) x(t) = e + 1.155e sin (0.866t - 60 ) u(t) o
´
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 s
d) x(t) = e -2 t cos t u(t) p3 ´ -j1

E3.10 a) x(t) =
FG 1 - 1 e -2t
+
13 3 t
e u(t)
IJ z3 -j2
H3 5 15 K Fig 3.8: Pole-zero plot for exercise
b) x(t) = [3e - t + e -2 t cos4t] u(t) problem E3.8.
c) x(t) = 2[e -2 t - e -3 t sin 4t] u(t)
d) x(t) = [e -2 t sin 3t + e - t cos2t] u(t)

E3.11 x(t) =
1 FG sinhat - tIJ u(t)
a2 H a K
-3 t
E3.12 a) h(t) = u (t - t 0 ) d
E3.15 a) y(t) = 0.25 e + 15833
. e - t - 0.8333 e -0.4 t u(t) i
0.5 FG 1 tIJ u(t) b) y(t) = d0.5 - 0.8 e -8 t
+ 2.3 e -3t u(t)
b) h(t) =
3
sin
H 3K i
c) h(t) = [4.7e-0.3 t - 4.5e-0.5t ] u(t)

Y(s) 0.3s + e - s
E3.13 a) y zi (t) = 0.1778e -0.3t + 01222
. e -1.2t u(t) E3.16 a) = 3
X(s) s + 0.4s2 + 0.3s + 0.1
b) y zi (t) =
FG -3 e -7 t
+
11 -3t
e u(t)
IJ Y(s) 3s2 + 2s + 4
H4 4 K b) = 3
X(s) s + 7s2 + 5s + 14
Y(s) e -3s
c) = 2
X(s) 4s + 2s + 8
E3.14 d . -4 t + 1.2 e -5t u(t)
a) y zs (t) = 0.6 - 18e i
-t -3 t -5 t
b) y zs (t) = d0.3e -e + 15
. e - 0.8 e -6 t u(t)
i
-2 s
e (s + 4 ) + 1 2s2 - 4
E3.17 a) H(s) = E3.18 a) H(s) =
(s + 4) s2 - 4
s3 + 16s2 + 70s + 99 7s2 + 10s + 34
b) H(s) = 3 b) H(s) = 2
s + 15s2 + 63s + 81 s(s +10s + 34)
5s3 + 90s2 + 481s + 636 24s3 + 6s2 + 48s + 42
c) H(s) = 3 c) H(s) =
s(s + 20s2 + 137s + 318) s4 + 8s3 + 7s2
1
E3.19 a) h(t) = 2 t - 1 + e - 2 t u(t) E3.20 a) y(t) = 0.25 1 - e -2t u(t)
2
1
b) h(t) = [cosh 4t - 1] u(t) b) y(t) = ( t - 2) e -( t - 2 ) u(t - 2)
4
c) h(t) = e -9t sin 3t u(t) c) y(t) = 0.375 e -2 t ( sin 4t + cos4t) - e-6 t u(t)

E3.21 a) x 1 (t) = (t + 1) u(t) E3.22 a) s(t) = [1 + t - cos t ] u(t)

-t
b) x1 (t) = ( t + 0.5) e + 3t + 4.5t 2
u(t) b) s(t) = u(t - 3) + (t - 3) u(t - 3)
F tI
c) x (t) = G t - J u(t)
3

c) s(t) = 0.25 2 - 2 t e -2 t - e -2t - e -4 t u(t)

1
H 6K