Signals and Systems-23EC02

UNIT-V
Laplace Transforms and Z-Transforms
B.Tech., III-Sem., ECE

1. Concept of Laplace Transform

2. Relation between Laplace and Fourier Transform
3. Existence of Laplace Transform
4. Laplace Transform of Various Classes of Signals
5. Region of Convergence (ROC) in s-domain and Properties
6. Properties of Laplace Transform
7. Inverse Laplace Transform
8. Introduction to Z-Transform (ZT)
9. Z-Transform of various classes of Signals
10. Region of Convergence (ROC) in z-domain and Properties
11. Properties of Z-Transform
12. Inverse Z-Transform
13. Solved Problems
14. Assignment Questions
15. Quiz Questions

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Dr. B. Ramesh Reddy, Professor of ECE & Vice Principal, LBRCE, Mylavaram, NTR Dist., AP. Page 1/58
 Signals and Systems-23EC02 UNIT-V Laplace Transforms and Z-Transforms
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1. Concept of Laplace Transform:

Laplace Transform is a mathematical tool, which is used to evaluate the frequency domain(s-domain)
representation of a given continuous time domain signal.
Laplace Transform of a continuous time signal x(t) is represented with X(s) and it can be obtained
from the formula
∞
LT[ x(𝑡)] = 𝑋(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − − − − − −(1)
−∞

Where, s is a complex variable, s =  + jw

 = Re{s} = Real part of s
w = Im{s} = Imaginary part of s
If x(t) is right sided (causal), then its s-domain can be obtained from the formula
∞
LT[ x(𝑡) ] = 𝑋(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − − − − − (2)
0

If x(t) is left sided (anti-causal), then its s-domain can be obtained from the formula
0
LT[ x(𝑡) ] = 𝑋(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − − − − − (3)
−∞

➢ Equation (1) is called bilateral Laplace Transform

➢ Equations (2) and (3) are called unilateral Laplace Transforms

S-Plane and Pole-Zero Plot:

A graph, which is drawn between Re{s} on x-axes and jIm{s} on y-axes is called s-plane.

j Im{s}

Re{s}
0

(𝑠 − 𝑧1 )(𝑠 − 𝑧2 )(𝑠 − 𝑧3 ) … . .
Let, X(s)=
(𝑠 − 𝑝1 )(𝑠 − 𝑝2 )(𝑠 − 𝑝3 ) … . .
➢ Roots of numerator polynomial are called zeros and which are represented with ‘o’.
➢ Roots of denominator polynomial are called poles and which are represented with ‘x’.
➢ Indicate poles and zeros on s-plane to get pole-zero plot.

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Dr. B. Ramesh Reddy, Professor of ECE & Vice Principal, LBRCE, Mylavaram, NTR Dist., AP. Page 2/58
 Signals and Systems-23EC02 UNIT-V Laplace Transforms and Z-Transforms
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2. Relation between Laplace and Fourier Transforms:

From the basic definition of Fourier Transform
∞
FT[ x(𝑡) ] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝑤𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

From the basic definition of Laplace Transform

∞
LT[ x(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ; 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝑤
−∞
∞
= ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −(𝜎+𝑗𝑤)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞
= ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑤𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

= 𝐹𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 ]

If  = 0  s = jw, then LT [ x(t) ] = FT [ x(t) ].

On the imaginary axes of s-plane, both the Laplace and Fourier Transforms are same.

3. Existance of Laplace Transdorm:

The product of given signal x(t) and the exponential term e-st should be absolutely integrable is called
existence of Laplace Transform or convergence of Laplace Transform.
∞
∫ |𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 |𝑑𝑡 < ∞; 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝑤
−∞
∞
⇒ ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −(𝜎+𝑗𝑤)𝑡 |𝑑𝑡 < ∞
−∞
∞
⇒ ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑤𝑡 |𝑑𝑡 < ∞
−∞
∞
⇒ ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)||𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 ||𝑒 −𝑗𝑤𝑡 |𝑑𝑡 < ∞
−∞
∞
⇒ ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 𝑑𝑡 < ∞
−∞

Note: The range of values of ‘’ or ‘Re{s}’ or ‘s’ for which the basic definition of Laplace
Transform will converges or produces a finite result is called Region of Convergence (ROC).

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Dr. B. Ramesh Reddy, Professor of ECE & Vice Principal, LBRCE, Mylavaram, NTR Dist., AP. Page 3/58
 Signals and Systems-23EC02 UNIT-V Laplace Transforms and Z-Transforms
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4. Laplace Transform of various classes of Signals:

4.1. Impulse Signal, x(t) = δ(t):
∞ ; 𝑡=0
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙, 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝛿(𝑡) = {
0 ; 𝑡≠0

(t)
Height (1/)

t
Width () - Negligible

From the definition of Laplace Transform

∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞
⇒ 𝐿𝑇[𝛿(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝛿(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ; 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙, 𝛿(𝑡)𝑥(𝑡) = 𝛿(𝑡)𝑥(0)
−∞
∞
= ∫ 𝛿(𝑡)𝑒 0 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞
= ∫ 𝛿(𝑡)1𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞
= ∫ 𝛿(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 ; 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 ′1′
−∞

=1

ROC
𝐿𝑇[𝛿(𝑡)] = 𝑋(𝑠) = 1
𝐸𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑒

j Im{s}

ROC

Re{s}

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Dr. B. Ramesh Reddy, Professor of ECE & Vice Principal, LBRCE, Mylavaram, NTR Dist., AP. Page 4/58
 Signals and Systems-23EC02 UNIT-V Laplace Transforms and Z-Transforms
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4.2. Step Signal, 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒖(𝒕):

From the definition of Laplace Transform
∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞
⇒ 𝐿𝑇[𝑢(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑢(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡, 𝑢(𝑡) = 1, 𝑡 > 0
−∞
∞
= ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0

𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ∞
= |𝑔
−𝑠 0

𝑒 −𝑠∞ − 𝑒 𝑠0
=
−𝑠
𝑒 −∞ − 𝑒 0
= ,𝑠 > 0
−𝑠
0−1
= ,𝑠 > 0
−𝑠
1
= ,𝑠 > 0
𝑠

1 𝑅𝑂𝐶
𝐿𝑇[𝑢(𝑡)] = 𝑋(𝑠) =
𝑠 𝑠>0

Pole-Zero Plot with ROC:

j Im{s}

ROC

Re{s}
s=0

Note: X(s) has one pole, which is located at s = 0.

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Dr. B. Ramesh Reddy, Professor of ECE & Vice Principal, LBRCE, Mylavaram, NTR Dist., AP. Page 5/58
 Signals and Systems-23EC02 UNIT-V Laplace Transforms and Z-Transforms
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4.3. Decaying Exponential Signal, 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝒂𝒕 𝒖(𝒕), 𝒂 > 𝟎:

From the definition of Laplace Transform
∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡, 𝑢(𝑡) = 1, 𝑡 > 0
−∞
∞
= ∫ 𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0

𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎)𝑡 ∞
= |𝑔
−(𝑠 + 𝑎) 0

𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎)∞ − 𝑒 (𝑠+𝑎)0
=
−(𝑠 + 𝑎)
𝑒 −∞ − 𝑒 0
= ,𝑠 + 𝑎 > 0
−(𝑠 + 𝑎)
0−1
= , 𝑠 > −𝑎
−(𝑠 + 𝑎)
1
= , 𝑠 > −𝑎
𝑠+𝑎

1 𝑅𝑂𝐶
𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)] = 𝑋(𝑠) =
𝑠+𝑎 𝑠 > −𝑎

Pole-Zero Plot with ROC:

j Im{s}

ROC

Re{s}
s=-a

Note: X(s) has one pole, which is located at s = -a.

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Dr. B. Ramesh Reddy, Professor of ECE & Vice Principal, LBRCE, Mylavaram, NTR Dist., AP. Page 6/58
 Signals and Systems-23EC02 UNIT-V Laplace Transforms and Z-Transforms
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4.4. Raising Exponential Signal, 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒖(−𝒕), 𝒂 > 𝟎:

From the definition of Laplace Transform
∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡; 𝑢(−𝑡) = 1, 𝑡 < 0
−∞
0
= ∫ 𝑒 (𝑎−𝑠)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

𝑒 (𝑎−𝑠)𝑡 0
= | 𝑔
𝑎−𝑠
−∞
𝑒 (𝑎−𝑠)0 − 𝑒 (𝑎−𝑠)(−∞)
=
𝑎−𝑠
𝑒 0 − 𝑒 −∞
= ,𝑎 − 𝑠 > 0
𝑎−𝑠
1−0
= ,𝑎 > 𝑠
𝑎−𝑠
−1
= ,𝑠 < 𝑎
𝑠−𝑎

−1 𝑅𝑂𝐶
𝐿𝑇[𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)] = 𝑋(𝑠) =
𝑠−𝑎 𝑠<𝑎

Pole-Zero Plot with ROC:

j Im{s}

ROC

Re{s}
s=a

Note: X(s) has one pole, which is located at s = a.

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Dr. B. Ramesh Reddy, Professor of ECE & Vice Principal, LBRCE, Mylavaram, NTR Dist., AP. Page 7/58
 Signals and Systems-23EC02 UNIT-V Laplace Transforms and Z-Transforms
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4.5. Signal, 𝒙(𝒕) = −𝒆−𝒂𝒕 𝒖(−𝒕), 𝒂 > 𝟎:

From the definition of Laplace Transform
∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞
⇒ 𝐿𝑇[−𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)] = ∫ (−𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡))𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡; 𝑢(−𝑡) = 1, 𝑡 < 0
−∞
0
= − ∫ 𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎)𝑡 0
=− | 𝑔
−(𝑠 + 𝑎)
−∞
𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎)0 − 𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎)(−∞)
=
𝑠+𝑎
𝑒 0 − 𝑒 −∞
= ,𝑠 + 𝑎 < 0
𝑠+𝑎
1−0
= , 𝑠 < −𝑎
𝑠+𝑎
1
= , 𝑠 < −𝑎
𝑠+𝑎

1 𝑅𝑂𝐶
𝐿𝑇[−𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)] = 𝑋(𝑠) =
𝑠+𝑎 𝑠 < −𝑎

Pole-Zero Plot with ROC:

j Im{s}

ROC

Re{s}
s=-a

Note: X(s) has one pole, which is located at s = -a.

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Dr. B. Ramesh Reddy, Professor of ECE & Vice Principal, LBRCE, Mylavaram, NTR Dist., AP. Page 8/58
 Signals and Systems-23EC02 UNIT-V Laplace Transforms and Z-Transforms
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4.6. Double Exponential Signal, 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝒂|𝒕| , 𝒂 > 𝟎:

From the definition of Laplace Transform
∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞
⇒ 𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −𝑎|𝑡| ] = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑎|𝑡| 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
0 ∞
= ∫ 𝑒 −𝑎(−𝑡) 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑒 −𝑎(𝑡) 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ 0
0 ∞
= ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ 0
0 ∞
(𝑎−𝑠)𝑡
=∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑒 −(𝑎+𝑠)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ 0

𝑒 (𝑎−𝑠)𝑡 0 𝑒 −(𝑎+𝑠)𝑡 ∞
= | 𝑔 + |𝑔
𝑎−𝑠 −(𝑎 + 𝑠) 0
−∞
𝑒 (𝑎−𝑠)0 − 𝑒 (𝑎−𝑠)(−∞) 𝑒 −(𝑎+𝑠)∞ − 𝑒 −(𝑎+𝑠)0
= +
𝑎−𝑠 −(𝑎 + 𝑠)
𝑒 0 − 𝑒 −∞ 𝑒 −∞ − 𝑒 0
= + ;𝑎 − 𝑠 > 0 & 𝑎 + 𝑠 > 0
𝑎−𝑠 −(𝑎 + 𝑠)
1−0 0−1
= + ; 𝑎 > 𝑠, 𝑠 < 𝑎 & 𝑠 > −𝑎
𝑎 − 𝑠 −(𝑎 + 𝑠)
1 1 2𝑎
= + = 2 ; −𝑎 < 𝑠 < 𝑎
𝑎 − 𝑠 𝑎 + 𝑠 𝑎 − 𝑠2
2𝑎 𝑅𝑂𝐶
𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −𝑎|𝑡| ] = 𝑋(𝑠) =
𝑎2 − 𝑠2 −𝑎 < 𝑠 < 𝑎

Pole-Zero Plot with ROC:

j Im{s}

ROC

Re{s}
s=-a s=a

Note: X(s) has two pole, which are located at s = a and s = -a.

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Dr. B. Ramesh Reddy, Professor of ECE & Vice Principal, LBRCE, Mylavaram, NTR Dist., AP. Page 9/58
 Signals and Systems-23EC02 UNIT-V Laplace Transforms and Z-Transforms
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5. Region of Convergence (ROC) in s-domain and Properties:

The range of values of s for which the basic definition of Laplace transform will converges or
produces a finite result is called Region of Convergence (ROC).

Property-1:
If x(t) is right-sided signal with infinite duration, then its ROC is right half of the right most pole.
Ex:
1 𝑅𝑂𝐶
𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)] = 𝑋(𝑠) =
𝑠+𝑎 𝑠 > −𝑎

Property-2:
If x(t) is left-sided signal with infinite duration, then its ROC is left half of the left most pole.
Ex:
−1 𝑅𝑂𝐶
𝐿𝑇[𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)] = 𝑋(𝑠) =
𝑠−𝑎 𝑠<𝑎

Property-3:
If x(t) is both-sided signal with infinite duration, then its ROC is a strip, which lies between two
poles.
Ex:
2𝑎 𝑅𝑂𝐶
𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −𝑎|𝑡| ] = 𝑋(𝑠) =
𝑎2 − 𝑠2 −𝑎 < 𝑠 < 𝑎

Property-4:
If x(t) is finite duration signal, then its ROC is entire s-plane except possibly s=.
Ex:

ROC
𝐿𝑇[𝛿(𝑡)] = 𝑋(𝑠) = 1
𝐸𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑒
Property-5:
Within the ROC, poles do not exist and ROC is independent of zero’s.
Ex: Above all Examples

Property-6:
ROC is a strip, which is parallel to the jw-axes in s-plane.
Ex: Above all Examples

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Dr. B. Ramesh Reddy, Professor of ECE & Vice Principal, LBRCE, Mylavaram, NTR Dist., AP. Page 10/58
 Signals and Systems-23EC02 UNIT-V Laplace Transforms and Z-Transforms
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6. Properties of Laplace Transform:

6.1. Linear Property:
If x1(t), x2(t) are two continuous time signals and LT[ x1(t) ] = X1(s), LT[ x2(t) ] = X2(s),
then LT[ a x1(t) + b x2(t) ] = a X1(s) + b X2(s) is called linear property of Laplace Transform.
Proof: From the definition of Laplace Transform
∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

Replace x(t) with a x1(t) + b x2(t)

∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑎𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑡)] = ∫ (𝑎𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑡))𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞
= ∫ (𝑎𝑥1 (𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 )𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞ ∞
= ∫ 𝑎𝑥1 (𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ −∞
∞ ∞
= 𝑎 ∫ 𝑥1 (𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑏 ∫ 𝑥2 (𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ −∞

= 𝑎𝐿𝑇[𝑥1 (𝑡)] + 𝑏𝐿𝑇[𝑥2 (𝑡)] = 𝑎 𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑏 𝑋2 (𝑠)

4.2. Time Shifting Property:

If x(t) is a continuous time signal and LT[ x(t) ] = X(s),
then LT[ x(t – t0) ] = e -sto X(s) is called time shifting property of Laplace Transform.
Proof: From the definition of Laplace Transform
∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

Replace x(t) with x(t – t0)

∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡, 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝜏, 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝜏
−∞
∞
= ∫ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑒 −𝑠(𝑡0 +𝜏) 𝑑𝜏
−∞
∞
= ∫ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑒 −𝑗𝑤𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞
∞
−𝑠𝑡0
=𝑒 ∫ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑒 −𝑠𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞
−𝑠𝑡0
=𝑒 𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)]
= 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡0 𝑋(𝑠)

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4.3. Time Reversal Property:

If x(t) is a continuous time signal and LT[ x(t) ] = X(s),
then LT[ x(-t) ] = X(-s) is called time reversal property of Laplace Transform.
Proof:
From the definition of Laplace Transform
∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

Replace x(t) with x(-t)

∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(−𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(−𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 , 𝐿𝑒𝑡 − 𝑡 = 𝜏 ⇒ 𝑑𝑡 = −𝑑𝜏
−∞
∞
= ∫ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑒 −𝑠(−𝜏) 𝑑𝜏
−∞
∞ ∞
= ∫ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑒 −(−𝑠)𝜏 𝑑𝜏 ; 𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝑋(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ −∞

= 𝑋(−𝑠)

4.4. Conjugate Property:

If x(t) is a continuous time signal and LT[ x(t) ] = X(s),
then LT[ x*(t) ] = X*(s*) is called conjugate property of Laplace Transform.
Proof:
From the definition of Laplace Transform
∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

Replace x(t) with x*(t)

∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥 ∗ (𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥 ∗ (𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞ ∗
−𝑠∗ 𝑡
= (∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 𝑑𝑡)
−∞

= (𝑋(𝑠 ∗ ))∗
= 𝑋 ∗ (𝑠 ∗ )

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4.5. Time Scaling Property:

If x(t) is a continuous time signal and LT[ x(t) ] = X(s),
1 𝑠
then LT[ x(at) ] = |𝑎| 𝑋 (𝑎)is called time scaling property of Laplace Transform.

Proof:
From the definition of Laplace Transform
∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

Case-1 (a > 0) : Replace x(t) with x(at)

∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑎𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑎𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 , 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑡 = 𝜏 ⇒ 𝑎𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝜏
−∞
∞
= ∫ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑒 −𝑠𝜏/𝑎 (𝑑𝜏/𝑎)
−∞

1 ∞ 𝑠
−( )𝜏
∞
= ∫ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑒 𝑎 𝑑𝜏; 𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝑋(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 −∞ −∞
1 𝑠
= 𝑋 ( ) − − − − − −(1)
𝑎 𝑎

Case-2 (a > 0): Replace x(t) with x(-at)

∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(−𝑎𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(−𝑎𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 , 𝐿𝑒𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡 = 𝜏 ⇒ 𝑎𝑑𝑡 = −𝑑𝜏
−∞
∞ 𝜏
= ∫ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑒 −𝑠(−𝑎) (𝑑𝜏/𝑎)
−∞

1 ∞ 𝑠
= ∫ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑒 −(−𝑎)𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝑎 −∞
1 𝑠
= 𝑋 ( ) − − − − − (2)
𝑎 −𝑎

Compare equations (1) and (2)

1 𝑠
⇒ 𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑎𝑡)] = 𝑋( )
|𝑎| 𝑎

Note: If the time domain signal x(t) is scaled with ‘a’ then the frequency domain / s-domain X(s) is
scaled with ‘1/a’.

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4.6. Shifting in s-domain Property:

If x(t) is a continuous time signal and LT[ x(t) ] = X(s),
then LT[e sot x(t) ] = X(s-so) is called shifting in s-domain property of Laplace Transform.
Proof: From the definition of Laplace Transform
∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

Replace x(t) with e sot x(t)

∞
𝑠0 𝑡
𝐿𝑇[𝑒 𝑥(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑒 𝑠0 𝑡 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞ ∞
= ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗(𝑠−𝑠0)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ; 𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝑋(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ −∞

= 𝑋(𝑠 − 𝑠0 )
4.7. Time Differentiation Property:
If x(t) is a continuous time causal signal and LT[ x(t) ] = X(s),
𝑑
then LT[ dt 𝑥(𝑡) ] = 𝑠𝑋(𝑠) − 𝑥(0) is called time differentiation property of Laplace Transform.

Proof: From the definition of Laplace Transform

∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 , 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥(𝑡)𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑎𝑙
−∞
∞
⇒ 𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
𝑑
Replace x(t) with dt 𝑥(𝑡)
∞
𝑑 𝑑
𝐿𝑇 [ 𝑥(𝑡)] = ∫ ( 𝑥(𝑡)) 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
dt 0 dt
∞
𝑑
= ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ( 𝑥(𝑡)) 𝑑𝑡
0 dt
∞ ∞
= 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑥(𝑡) | 𝑔 − ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (−𝑠)𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0 0
∞
= 𝑒 −∞ 𝑥(∞) − 𝑒 −0 𝑥(0) + 𝑠 ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0

= 0 − 𝑥(0) + 𝑠𝑋(𝑠)
= 𝑠𝑋(𝑠) − 𝑥(0)
𝑑2 𝑑
Note: LT ⌈ 2 𝑥(𝑡)⌉ = 𝑠 2 𝑋(𝑠) − 𝑠𝑥(0) − 𝑥 ′ (0); 𝑥 ′ (0) = 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0
dt dt

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4.8. Time Integration Property:

If x(t) is a continuous time signal and LT[ x(t) ] = X(s),
𝑡 𝑋(𝑠)
then LT[ ∫−∞ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑑𝜏] = is called time integration property of Laplace Transform.
𝑠

Proof:
From the definition of Laplace Transform
∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
𝑡
Replace x(t) with ∫−∞ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑑𝜏
𝑡 ∞ 𝑡
𝐿𝑇 [∫ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑑𝜏] = ∫ (∫ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑑𝜏) 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ −∞ −∞
𝑡
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ∞ ∞
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
= ∫ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 | 𝑔 − ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
−∞ −𝑠 −∞ −∞ −𝑠
1 ∞
= 0 − 0 + ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑠 −∞
𝑋(𝑠)
=
𝑠

4.9. Differentiation in s-domain Property:

If x(t) is a continuous time signal and LT[ x(t) ] = X(s),
𝑑
then LT[t x(𝑡)] = - 𝑋(𝑠) is called differentiation in s-domain property of Laplace Transform.
ds

Proof:
From the definition of Laplace Transform
∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝑋(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

Differentiate X(s) w.r.t ‘s’

∞
𝑑 𝑑
𝑋(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠 −∞ 𝑑𝑠
∞
= ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (−𝑡)𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞
= − ∫ 𝑡𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

= −𝐿𝑇[𝑡𝑥(𝑡)]
𝑑
⇒ 𝐿𝑇[𝑡𝑥(𝑡)] = − 𝑋(𝑠)
𝑑𝑠
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4.10. Integration in s-domain Property:

If x(t) is a continuous time signal and LT[ x(t) ] = X(s),
𝑥(𝑡) ∞
then LT [ ] = ∫𝑠 𝑋(𝑠)ds is called integration in s-domain property of Laplace Transform.
𝑡

Proof:
From the definition of Laplace Transform
∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝑋(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

Integrate X(s) w.r.t ‘s’ over the range s to ∞

∞ ∞ ∞
∫ 𝑋(𝑠)ds = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) (∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠) 𝑑𝑡
𝑠 −∞ 𝑠
∞
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ∞
= ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) ( | 𝑔 ) 𝑑𝑡
−∞ −𝑡 𝑠
∞
𝑒 −∞ − 𝑒 −0
= ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
−∞ −𝑡
∞
0−1
= ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
−∞ −𝑡
𝑥(𝑡)
= 𝐿𝑇 [ ]
𝑡
∞
𝑥(𝑡)
⇒ 𝐿𝑇 [ ] = ∫ 𝑋(𝑠)ds
𝑡 𝑠

4.11. Initial Value Theorem:

If x(t) is a continuous time causal signal and LT[ x(t) ] = X(s), then the initial value of a causal signal
can be computed from x(t) as well as X(s) by using the formula
Lt Lt
𝑥(0) = 𝑥(𝑡) = sX(𝑠) is called initial value theorem.
𝑡→0 𝑠→∞
Proof:
From differentiation property of Laplace Transform
𝑑
𝐿𝑇 [ 𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝑠𝑋(𝑠) − 𝑥(0)
dt
𝑑
⇒ 𝑠𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑥(0) + 𝐿𝑇 [ 𝑥(𝑡)]
dt
∞
𝑑
= 𝑥(0) + ∫ ( 𝑥(𝑡)) 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 dt

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Apply as limit 𝑠 → ∞
∞
Lt 𝑑
sX(𝑠) = 𝑥(0) + ∫ ( 𝑥(𝑡)) 𝑒 −∞ 𝑑𝑡
𝑠→∞ 0 dt

= 𝑥(0) + 0
Lt Lt
⇒ 𝑥(0) = 𝑥(𝑡) = sX(𝑠)
𝑡→0 𝑠→∞

4.12. Final Value Theorem:

If x(t) is a continuous time causal signal and LT[ x(t) ] = X(s), then the final value of a causal signal
can be computed from x(t) as well as X(s) by using the formula
Lt Lt
𝑥(∞) = 𝑥(𝑡) = sX(𝑠) is called final value theorem.
𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0

Proof:
From differentiation property of Laplace Transform
𝑑
𝐿𝑇 [ 𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝑠𝑋(𝑠) − 𝑥(0)
dt
𝑑
⇒ 𝑠𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑥(0) + 𝐿𝑇 [ 𝑥(𝑡)]
dt
∞
𝑑
= 𝑥(0) + ∫ ( 𝑥(𝑡)) 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 dt
Apply as limit 𝑠 → 0
∞
Lt 𝑑
sX(𝑠) = 𝑥(0) + ∫ ( 𝑥(𝑡)) 𝑒 −0 𝑑𝑡
𝑠→0 0 dt
∞
𝑑
= 𝑥(0) + ∫ ( 𝑥(𝑡)) 𝑑𝑡
0 dt
∞
= 𝑥(0) + 𝑥(𝑡) | 𝑔
0
= 𝑥(0) + 𝑥(∞) − 𝑥(0)
= 𝑥(∞)
Lt Lt
⇒ 𝑥(∞) = 𝑥(𝑡) = sX(𝑠)
𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0

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4.13. Time Convolution Theorem:

If x1(t), x2(t) are two continuous time signals and LT[ x1(t) ] = X1(s), LT[ x2(t) ] = X2(s),
then LT[ x1(t) * x2(t) ] = X1(s) X2(s) is called time convolution theorem.
Proof:
From the definition of Laplace Transform
∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

Replace x(t) with x1(t) * x2(t)

∞
𝐿𝑇[𝑥1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑡)] = ∫ (𝑥1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑡))𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞ ∞
= ∫ (∫ 𝑥1 (𝜏) 𝑥2 (𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑑𝜏) 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ −∞
∞ ∞
= ∫ 𝑥1 (𝜏) (∫ 𝑥2 (𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡) 𝑑𝜏
−∞ −∞
∞
= ∫ 𝑥1 (𝜏)𝐿𝑇[𝑥2 (𝑡 − 𝜏)]𝑑𝜏
−∞
∞
= ∫ 𝑥1 (𝜏)𝑒 −𝑠𝜏 𝑋2 (𝑠)𝑑𝜏
−∞
∞
= 𝑋2 (𝑠) ∫ 𝑥1 (𝜏)𝑒 −𝑠𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞

= 𝑋2 (𝑠)𝑋1 (𝑠)

= 𝑋1 (𝑠)𝑋2 (𝑠)

4.14. Frequency Convolution Theorem:

If x1(t), x2(t) are two continuous time signals and LT[ x1(t) ] = X1(s), LT[ x2(t) ] = X2(s),
then LT[ x1(t) x2(t) ] = X1(s) * X2(s) is called frequency convolution theorem.

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7. Inverse Laplace Transform:

We know that the Laplace Transform is used to convert continuous time domain signal into
frequency domain or s-domain representation. Similarly, the frequency domain or s-domain
representation can be converted into continuous time domain signal by using inverse Laplace
Transform. Some of the formulas used in inverse Laplace Transform are

S.No. Laplace Transform Inverse Laplace Transform

1. 𝐿𝑇[𝛿(𝑡)] = 1 𝐿−1 [1] = 𝛿(𝑡)

1
2. 𝐿𝑇[𝑢(𝑡)] = , 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} > 0
𝑠 1 𝑢(𝑡), 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > 0
𝐿−1 [ ] = {
1 𝑠 −𝑢(−𝑡), 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} < 0
3. 𝐿𝑇[−𝑢(−𝑡)] = , 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} < 0
𝑠
1
4. 𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)] = , 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} > −𝑎
𝑠+𝑎 1 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡), 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > −𝑎
−1
𝐿 [ ] = { −𝑎𝑡
1 𝑠+𝑎 −𝑒 𝑢(−𝑡), 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} < −𝑎
5. 𝐿𝑇[−𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)] = , 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} < −𝑎
𝑠+𝑎

𝑚! 1 𝑡 𝑚−1
6. 𝐿𝑇[𝑡 𝑚 𝑢(𝑡)] = , 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} > 0 𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝑢(𝑡), 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} > 0
𝑠 𝑚+1 𝑠𝑚 (𝑚 − 1)!
1 1
7. 𝐿𝑇[𝑡𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)] = , 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} > −𝑎 𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝑡𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡), 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} > −𝑎
(𝑠 + 𝑎)2 (𝑠 + 𝑎)2

2𝑎 2𝑎
8. 𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −𝑎|𝑡| ] = , −𝑎 < 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} < 𝑎 𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝑒 −𝑎|𝑡| , −𝑎 < 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} < 𝑎
𝑎2 − 𝑠2 𝑎2 − 𝑠2
𝑠 𝑠
9. 𝐿𝑇[𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑡)𝑢(𝑡)] = , 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} > 0 𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑡)𝑢(𝑡), 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > 0
𝑎 + 𝑠2
2 𝑎2 + 𝑠2

𝑎 𝑎
10. 𝐿𝑇[𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑡)𝑢(𝑡)] = , 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} > 0 𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑡)𝑢(𝑡), 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > 0
𝑎 + 𝑠2
2 𝑎2 + 𝑠2

11. 𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )] = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡0 𝑋(𝑠) 𝐿−1 [𝑒 −𝑠𝑡0 𝑋(𝑠)] = 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )

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8. Introduction to Z-Transform (ZT):

Z-Transform is a mathematical tool, which is used to evaluate z-domain representation of a discrete
time domain sequence.
Z-Transform of a discrete time signal or sequence x(n) is represented with X(z) and it can be
evaluated by using the formula
∞

ZT[ x(𝑛) ] = 𝑋(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛 − − − − − − − (1)

𝑛=−∞

Above equation (1) is called bi-directional or both sided Z-Transform, because x(n) is both-sided.
If x(n) is causal or right sided, then its Z-Transform can be defined as
∞

ZT[ x(𝑛) ] = 𝑋(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛 − − − − − − − −(2)

𝑛=0

If x(n) is anti-causal or left sided, then its Z-Transform can be defined as

−1

ZT[ x(𝑛) ] = 𝑋(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛 − − − − − − − −(3)

𝑛=−∞

Above equations (2) and (3) are called uni-directional or one-sided Z-Transform.
Where, z is a complex variable, and it can be defined as
z = r e j
= r cos() + j r sin()
= Re{ z } + j Im{ z }
Where, r is magnitude of z and  is phase of z or digital frequency, measured in rad/sample.
A graph, which is drawn between Re{ z } = r cos() on x-axis and jIm{ z } = jr sin() on y-axis is
called z-plane.

j Im{z}
jr  Re{z}=rcos() Im{z}=jrsin()  z
00 r j0 r

Re{z} 900 0 jr r
-r r
1800 –r j0 r
-jr 2700 0 –jr r

z-plane is a circle, centered about origin with a radius of  z

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9. Z-Transform of various classes of Signals:

9.1. Right-sided Signal with Infinite Duration, x(n) = a n u(n)
From the basic definition of Z-Transform,
∞

ZT[ x(𝑛) ] = ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛

𝑛=−∞

ZT[ a n u(n) ] = a
n = −
n
u(n)z −n

=  a n z −n
n =0

 n
a
=  
n =0 z
2 3 
a a a a
= 1 +   +   +   + ....... +  
z z z z
1 a
= , if 1
a z
1−
z
1
= , a  z
z-a
z
z
X ( z) = , z  a
z−a
𝑧 ROC
𝑍𝑇[𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)] = 𝑋(𝑧) =
𝑧−𝑎 |𝑧|>|𝑎|

Pole-Zero Plot with ROC:

j Im{z}

z=0 z=a Re{z}

ROC

Note: X(z) has one zero, which is located at z=0 and one pole, which is located at z=a.

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9.2. Left-sided Signal with Infinite Duration, x(n) = –a n u(–n – 1):

From the basic definition of z transform
∞

ZT[ x(𝑛) ] = ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛

𝑛=−∞

ZT[ - a u(-n - 1) ] =
n
[ - a
n = −
n
u(-n - 1) ] z −n
−1
= −  a n z −n
n = −

−1 n
a
=−  
n = − z
 n
z
= −  
n =1  a 

 z   z  2  z 3 z 


= −   +   +   + ....... +   
 a   a   a   a  

z   z   z  2  z 3 z 


= −  1 +   +   +   + ....... +   
a   a   a   a   a  
 
 
z 1  z
= −  , if 1
 a  1− z  a
 
 a
z a 
= −    , if z  a
a a-z
z
= , z  a
z-a
𝑧 ROC
𝑍𝑇[−𝑎𝑛 𝑢(−𝑛 − 1)] = 𝑋(𝑧) =
𝑧−𝑎 |𝑧|<|𝑎|

Pole-Zero Plot with ROC:

j Im{z}

ROC
z=0 z=a Re{z}

Note: X(z) has one zero, which is located at z=0 and one pole, which is located at z=a.

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9.3. Both-sided Signal with Infinite Duration, x(n) = a  n:

From the basic definition of z transform
∞

ZT[ x(𝑛) ] = ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛

𝑛=−∞

ZT[ a ] =
n
a
n =−
n
z −n
−1 
= a
n =−
n
z −n +  a
n =0
n
z −n
−1 
= a
n=−
-n
z −n +  an z −n
n=0
−1  n
a
=  (az)
n=−
-n
+  
n=0  z 

  n
a
=  (az)n +   
n=1 n=0  z 

  a 1  a  2 a 


 
= az + (az) + (az) + ....... + (az) + 1+   +   + ...... +   
2 3

  z   z   z  
  a 1  a  2 a 



= az 1+ az + (az) + (az) + ....... + (az) + 1+   +   + ...... +   
2 3 

  z   z   z  
 
 1   1  a
= az   + , if az  1 & 1
1− az  1− a  z
 z
 az   z 
= + , if z  1/ a & a  z
1− az   z − a 
 az(z - a) + z(1- az) 
= , if z  1/ a & z  a
 (1− az )( z − a ) 
 z(az - a 2 + 1- az) 
= , a  z  1/ a
 (1− az )( z − a ) 
 z(1- a 2 ) 
= , a  z  1/ a
 (1− az )( z − a ) 
 z(1- a 2 ) 
= , a  z  1/ a
 - a(z − 1 / a )( z − a ) 
 z(a - 1/a) 
= , a  z  1/ a
 (z − 1 / a )( z − a ) 

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1 ROC
𝑧 (𝑎 − 𝑎)
⌊𝑛⌋
𝑍𝑇[𝑎 ] = 𝑋(𝑧) = 1
1 |𝑎| < |𝑧| <
(𝑧 − 𝑎) (𝑧 − 𝑎) |𝑎|

Pole-Zero Plot with ROC:

j Im{z}

ROC

Re{z}
z=0 z=a z=1/a

Note: X(z) has one zero, which is located at z=0 and two poles, which is located at z=a and z=1/a.

9.4. Finite duration Signal:

Example-1: x(n) = {1} Example-2: x(n) = {1,-1} Example-3: 𝑥(𝑛) = {1, −1}
↑
From the definition of From the basic definition of From the basic definition of
z-transform z-transform z-transform
 

 x(n)z  x(n)z
−n 
ZT[ x(n) ] = ZT[ x(n) ] = −n

n=− n = −
ZT[ x(n) ] =  x(n)z
n =−
−n

= x(0)z −0 = x(0)z −0 + x(1)z −1 = x(-1 )z −( −1 ) + x( 0 )z −0

= 1 1 = 1 1 − 1 z −1 = 1 z − 1 z 0
=1 = 1 − z −1 = z −1
z −1
=
z

ROC
𝑍𝑇[𝑥(𝑛)] = 𝑋(𝑧) = 1
Entire z-plane
𝑧−1 ROC
𝑍𝑇[𝑥(𝑛)] = 𝑋(𝑧) =
𝑧 Entire z-plane except z=0
ROC
𝑍𝑇[𝑥(𝑛)] = 𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑧 − 1
Entire z-plane except z=

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10. Region of Convergence (ROC) in z-domain and Properties:

The range of values of z for which the basic definition of z transform will converges or produces a
finite result is called Region of Convergence (ROC).

Property-1:
If x(n) is right-sided sequence with infinite duration, then its ROC is outside the circle of outermost
pole.
Ex:
𝑧 ROC
𝑍𝑇[𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)] = 𝑋(𝑧) =
𝑧−𝑎 |𝑧|>|𝑎|

j Im{z}

z=0 z=a Re{z}

ROC

Property-2:
If x(n) is left-sided sequence with infinite duration, then its ROC is inside the circle of innermost
pole.
Ex:
𝑧 ROC
𝑍𝑇[−𝑎𝑛 𝑢(−𝑛 − 1)] = 𝑋(𝑧) =
𝑧−𝑎 |𝑧|<|𝑎|

j Im{z}

ROC
z=0 z=a Re{z}

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Property-3:
If x(n) is both-sided sequence with infinite duration, then its ROC is a finite duration ring, which lies
between two poles.
Ex:
1 ROC
𝑧 (𝑎 − 𝑎)
⌊𝑛⌋
𝑍𝑇[𝑎 ] = 𝑋(𝑧) = 1
1 |𝑎| < |𝑧| <
(𝑧 − 𝑎) (𝑧 − 𝑎) |𝑎|

j Im{z}

ROC

Re{z}
z=0 z=a z=1/a

Property-4:
If x(n) is finite duration sequence, then its ROC is entire z-plane except possibly z=0 and/or z=.
Ex:
ROC
𝑍𝑇[𝑥(𝑛)] = 𝑋(𝑧) = 1
Entire z-plane
𝑧−1 ROC
𝑍𝑇[𝑥(𝑛)] = 𝑋(𝑧) =
𝑧 Entire z-plane except z=0
ROC
𝑍𝑇[𝑥(𝑛)] = 𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑧 − 1
Entire z-plane except z=

Property-5:
Within the ROC, poles do not exist.
Ex: Above all examples.

Property-6:
ROC is independent of zero’s.
Ex: Above all examples.

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11. Properties of Z Transform:

11.1. Linear Property:
If x1(n), x2(n) are two discrete time sequences and ZT[ x1(n) ] = X1(z), ZT[ x2(n) ] = X2(z),
then ZT[ a x1(n) + b x2(n) ] = a X1(z) + b X2(z) is called linear property of z transform
Proof: From the basic definition of z transform of a sequence x(n)
∞

ZT[ x(𝑛) ] = ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛

𝑛=−∞

replace x(n) with a x1(n) + b x2(n)


ZT[ a x 1 (n) + b x 2 (n)] =  [ a x (n) + b x
n = −
1 2 (n) ] z −n

=  [ a x (n) + b x
n = −
1 2 (n) ] z −n

=  [ a x (n) z
n = −
1
−n
+ b x 2 (n) z −n ]
 
=  [ a x (n) z
n = −
1
−n
]+ [ b x
n = −
2 (n) z −n ]
 
= a  x 1 (n) z −n + b  [ x 2 (n) z −n ]
n = − n = −

= a ZT[ x1 (n) ] + b ZT[ x 2 (n) ]

= a X1 (z) + b X 2 (z)

11.2. Time Shifting Property:

If x(n) is a discrete time sequence and ZT[ x(n) ] = X(z),
then ZT[ x(n – n0) ] = z -no X(z) is called time shifting property of z transform.
Proof: From the basic definition of z transform of a sequence x(n)

ZT[ x(n) ] =  x(n)z
n = −
−n


ZT[ x(n - n 0 ) ] =  x(n - n
n = −
0 )z −n , Let n − n0 = m  n = n0 + m

=  x(m)z
m = −
−( n0 +m)


=  x(m)z
m = −
−n0
z -m

= z −n0  x(m) z
m = −
-m

−n0
=z ZT [ x(n) ]
= z −n0 X(z)

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11.3. Time Reversal Property:

If x(n) is a discrete time sequence and ZT[ x(n) ] = X(z),
then ZT[ x(– n) ] = X(1/z) is called time reversal property of z transform.
Proof: From the basic definition of z transform of a sequence x(n)
∞

ZT[ x(𝑛) ] = ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛

𝑛=−∞

ZT[ x(-n) ] =  x(-n)z
n = −
−n
, Let n = −m, n = −m,
−
=  x(m)z
m=
−( − m)

−
=  x(m)
m=
(z −1 ) −m

− −m
 1
=  x(m)  
m= z
= ZT[ x(n) ] with replacement of z = 1/z
 1
= X 
z
11.4. Conjugate Property:
If x(n) is discrete time sequence and ZT[ x(n) ] = X(z),
then ZT[ x*(n) ] = X*(z*) is conjugate property of z transform.
Proof: From the basic definition of z transform of a sequence x(n)
∞

ZT[ x(𝑛) ] = ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛

𝑛=−∞

ZT[ x * (n) ] =  x * (n)z
n = −
−n

 x * (n) ((z*) ) *

−n
=
n = −

=  [ x(n) (z*)
n = −
−n
]*
*
  
=   x(n) (z*)−n 
n = − 
= (ZT [ x(n) ] with z = z*) *
= (X(z) with z = z*) *
= [ X(z*) ] *
= X * (z*)

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11.5. Exponential or Scaling in z-domain Property:

If x(n) is a discrete time sequence and ZT[ x(n) ] = X(z),
then ZT[ an x(n) ] = X(z/a) is called exponential or scaling in z-domain property.
Proof: From the basic definition of z transform of a sequence x(n)
∞

ZT[ x(𝑛) ] = ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛

𝑛=−∞
n
Replace x(n) with a x(n)

ZT[ a n x(n) ] = a
n = −
n
x(n)z−n

= 
n = −
x(n) a n z −n

 -n
z
= 
n = −
x(n)  
a
z
= X 
a

11.6. Multiplication by n or Differentiation in z-domain Property:

If x(n) is a discrete time sequence and ZT[ x(n) ] = X(z),
then ZT[nx(n)]= - d/dz [ X(z) ] is called multiplication by n or differentiation in z domain property.
Proof:
From the basic definition of z transform of a sequence x(n)
∞

ZT[ x(𝑛) ] = 𝑋(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛

𝑛=−∞

Differentiate w.r.t z

d d −n
[ X(z) ] =  x(n) z
dz n = − dz

=  x(n) (-n)z
n = −
−n −1


=  x(n) (-n)z
n = −
−n
z −1

= − z −1  [ n x(n) ] z −n
n = −

d 1
[ X(z) ] = − ZT[ nx(n) ]
dz z
d
ZT[ nx(n) ] = − z [ X(z) ]
dz

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11.7. Initial Value Theorem:

If x(n) is a discrete time causal sequence and ZT[ x(n) ] = X(z), then the initial value of a causal
signal can be computed from x(n) as well as X(z) by using the formula
Lt Lt
𝑥(0) = 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑋(𝑧) is called initial value theorem.
𝑛→0 𝑧→∞
Proof:
From the basic definition of z transform of a sequence x(n)

ZT[ x(n) ] =  x(n)z
n = −
−n


X(z) =  x(n)z −n
n =0

= x(0) + x(1)z −1 + x(2)z −2 + ...........

x(1) x(2)
= x(0) + + 2 + ...........
z z
Apply as limit z → 
Lt x(1) x(2)
X(z) = x(0) + + 2 + ...........
z→  
= x(0) + 0 + 0 + ...............
= x (0 )
Lt Lt
 x (0 ) = x(n) = X(z)
n→0 z→

11.8. Final Value Theorem:

If x(n) is a discrete time causal sequence and ZT[ x(n) ] = X(z), then the final value of a causal signal
can be computed from x(n) as well as X(z) by using the formula
Lt Lt Lt
𝑥(∞) = 𝑥(𝑛) = (1-z -1 )𝑋(𝑧) = (z-1)𝑋(𝑧) is called final value theorem.
𝑛→∞ 𝑧→1 𝑧→1
Proof: From the basic definition of z transform of a causal sequence x(n)
∞

ZT[ x(𝑛) ] = ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛

𝑛=0

Replace x(n) by x(n) – x(n – 1)


ZT[ x(n) - x(n - 1)] =  [ x(n) - x(n - 1) ]z −n
n =0

X(z) - z -1 X(z) =  [ x(n) - x(n - 1) ]z −n
n =0

(1 - z -1 )X(z) =  [ x(n) - x(n - 1) ]z −n
n =0

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Apply as z → 1
Lt Lt 

z →1
(1 - z )X(z) =
-1

z →1
 [ x(n) - x(n - 1) ]z
n =0
−n

 Lt
=  [ x(n) - x(n - 1) ] z −n
n =0 z →1

=  [ x(n) - x(n - 1) ]
n =0

= [ x(0) − x(−1)] + [ x(1) − x(0)] + [ x(2) − x(1)] + ...........

.............................. + [ x( − 1) − x( − 2)] + [ x() − x( − 1)]
= − x(−1) + x()
= x ( )
Lt Lt Lt
 x ( ) = x(n) = (1 - z -1 )X(z) = (z - 1 )X(z)
n→ z →1 z →1

11.9. Time Convolution Theorem:

If x1(n), x2(n) are two discrete time sequences and ZT[ x1(n) ] = X1(z), ZT[ x2(n) ] = X2(z),
then ZT[ x1(n) * x2(n) ] = X1(z) X2(z) is called time convolution theorem.
Proof:
From the basic definition of z transform of a sequence x(n)
∞

ZT[ x(𝑛) ] = ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛

𝑛=−∞

Replace x(n) by x1(n) * x2(n)


ZT[ x1(n) * x 2 (n) ] =  [ x (n) * x
n=−
1 2 (n) ] z −n

 
 −n
=    [ x (m) x (n - m) ]
n=− m=−
 z
1

2

change the order of summation


  
= 
m= −
x 1 (m)   x 2 (n - m) z −n 
 n=− 

=  x (m) (ZT[x (n - m)])
m= −
1 2


=  x (m) z
m= −
1
−m
ZT[x 2 (n) ]

=  x (m) z
m= −
1
−m
X 2 (z)

= X1(z)X2 (z)

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12. Inverse Z-Transform:

Inverse z-transform is used to evaluate the discrete time sequence x(n) from the z-domain X(z) and
its Region of Convergence (ROC). Various methods of Inverse z transform are given below.
➢ Partial Fractions Method
➢ Power Series Method or Long Division Method
➢ Residue Method or Contour Integral Method

12.1. Partial Fractions Method:

In this method, take X(z)/z and split into partial fractions and finally multiply with z and use the
following formulas to obtain the time domain sequence x(n).
➢ ZT[ (n)] = 1  Z – 1[ 1 ] =  (n)
➢ ZT[ (n-m)] = z-m  Z – 1[ z-m ] =  (n - m)
➢ ZT[x(n-m)] = z-m X(z) Z – 1[ z-m X(z)] = x (n - m)
z
ZT[ an u( n ) ] = , z a
z-a 𝑧 𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)], 𝑖𝑓 | 𝑧 | > 𝑎
➢ ⇒ 𝑍 −1 [𝑧−𝑎] = { 𝑛
z −𝑎 𝑢(−𝑛 − 1)], 𝑖𝑓 | 𝑧 | < 𝑎
ZT[-an u(-n - 1)] = , z a
z-a
𝑎𝑧 𝑎𝑧
➢ 𝑍𝑇[𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)] = (𝑧−𝑎)2 , | 𝑧 | > 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑍 −1 ((𝑧−𝑎)2 ) = 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛), 𝑖𝑓 | 𝑧 | > 𝑎
𝑎2 𝑧 𝑎2 𝑧
➢ 𝑍𝑇[𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)] = (𝑧−𝑎)3 , | 𝑧 | > 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑍 −1 ((𝑧−𝑎)3) = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛), 𝑖𝑓 | 𝑧 | > 𝑎

Example:
𝑁(𝑧)
𝑋(𝑧) =
(z-p1 )(z-p2 )(z-p3 )
𝑋(𝑧) 𝑁(𝑧)
⇒ =
𝑧 𝑧(z-p1 )(z-p2 )(z-p3 )
X(z) A B C D
= + + +
z z z − p1 z − p2 z − p3
 z   z   z 
X(z) = A + B   + C   + D  
 z − p1   z − p2   z − p 3 
  z   z   z 
x(n) = Z −1  A + B   + C   + D  
  z − p1   z − p 2   z − p 3 
 z   z   z 
x(n) = A Z −1(1) + B Z −1   + C Z −1   + D Z −1  
 z − p1   z − p2   z − p3 
= A (n) + Bp1nu (n) + Cp2nu (n) + Dp3nu (n)

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12.2. Power Series or Long Division Method:

Partial fraction method is not suitable to evaluate the time domain sequence x(n) when the z-domain
X(z) consists of one pole or the factorization of denominator part of X(z) is not possible, to solve
such problems, the power series or long division method is used. Process of power series or long
division method is given below.
Case 1:
To obtain the causal or right sided sequence, assume x(n) = 0, n < 0.
From the basic definition of z transform

ZT[ x(n) ] =  x(n)z
n=−
−n


X(z) =  x(n)z−n
n =0

X(z) = x(0) + x(1) z −1 + x(2) z −2 + .................(1)

It is the negative power series expansion of X(z)
From given X(z) = N(z) / D(z), determine the negative power series polynomial by using long
division method.
X(z) = N(z) / D(z) = a + b z – 1 + c z – 2 +…………. (2)
Now compare equations 1 & 2, implies

𝑥(𝑛) = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . }
↑

It is the sequence representation of required discrete time domain signal

Case 2:
To obtain the anti-causal or left sided sequence, assume x(n) = 0, n > 0.
From the basic definition of z transform

ZT[ x(n) ] =  x(n)z
n = −
−n

−1
X(z) =  x(n)z
n = −
−n

X(z) = x( −1) z + x( −2) z 2 + x( −3) z 3 + .................(1)

It is the positive power series expansion of X(z)
From given X(z) = N(z) / D(z), determine the positive power series polynomial by using long
division method.
X(z) = N(z) / D(z) = a z + b z 2 + c z 3 +…………. (2)

Now compare equations 1 & 2, implies 𝑥(𝑛) = {. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 𝑑, 𝑐, 𝑏, 𝑎, 0}

↑

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12.3. Residue Method or Contour Integral Method:

If the z-domain X(z) has multiple poles at a single location, then residue or contour integral method
is convenient to evaluate discrete time sequence x(n).
𝑝(𝑧) 1 𝐿𝑡 𝑑 𝑁−1
𝐼𝑓 𝑋(𝑧) = , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥(𝑛) = [ 𝑁−1 (𝑝(𝑧) 𝑧 𝑛−1 )]
(𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑁 (𝑁 − 1)! 𝑧 → 𝑎 𝑑𝑧
Where,
p(z) : Numerator polynomial of X(z)
z=a : Location of pole
N : Number of poles located at z = a.

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13. Solved Problems:

13.1. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝒕 𝒖(𝒕) + 𝒆−𝟑𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)]
1 1
= + , 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} > −1 & 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} > −3
𝑠+1 𝑠+3
2(𝑠 + 2)
= , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > −1
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)

13.2. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝒕 𝒖(−𝒕) + 𝒆−𝟑𝒕 𝒖(−𝒕)
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡) + 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)]
−1 −1
= + , 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} < −1 & 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} < −3
𝑠+1 𝑠+3
−2(𝑠 + 2)
= , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} < −3
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)

13.3. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝒕 𝒖(−𝒕) + 𝒆−𝟑𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡) + 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)]
−1 1
= + , 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} < −1 & 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} > −3
𝑠+1 𝑠+3
−2
= , −3 < 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} < −1
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)

13.4. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝒕 𝒖(𝒕) + 𝒆−𝟑𝒕 𝒖(−𝒕)
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)]
1 −1
= + , 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} > −1 & 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} < −3
𝑠+1 𝑠+3
2
= , 𝐷𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝐸𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)

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13.5. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝟑𝒆−𝟐|𝒕| − 𝟐𝒆−𝟑|𝒕|

𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇[3𝑒 −2|𝑡| − 2𝑒 −3|𝑡| ]
2(2) 2(3)
=3 −2 2 , −2 < 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} < 2 & − 3 < 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} < 3
22
−𝑠 2 3 − 𝑠2
12 12
= −
4 − 𝑠2 9 − 𝑠2
9 − 𝑠 2 − (4 − 𝑠 2 )
= 12
(4 − 𝑠 2 )(9 − 𝑠 2 )
60
= , −2 < 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} < 2
(4 − 𝑠 2 )(9 − 𝑠 2 )

13.6. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝟑)

𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡 − 3)]
= 𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −2(𝑡−3+3) 𝑢(𝑡 − 3)]
= 𝑒 −6 𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −2(𝑡−3) 𝑢(𝑡 − 3)]
1
= 𝑒 −6 𝑒 −3𝑠
𝑠+2
𝑒 −3(𝑠+2)
= , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > −2
𝑠+2

𝝅
13.7. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝟐𝑪𝒐𝒔 (𝟔𝒕 + 𝟒 ) 𝒖(𝒕)
𝜋
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇 [2𝐶𝑜𝑠 (6𝑡 + ) 𝑢(𝑡)]
4
𝜋 𝜋
= 𝐿𝑇 [2 (𝐶𝑜𝑠(6𝑡)𝐶𝑜𝑠 ( ) − 𝑆𝑖𝑛(6𝑡)𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( )) 𝑢(𝑡)]
4 4

= 𝐿𝑇[√2(𝐶𝑜𝑠(6𝑡) − 𝑆𝑖𝑛(6𝑡))𝑢(𝑡)]
𝑠 6
= √2 ( − )
62 + 𝑠 2 62 + 𝑠 2
√2(𝑠 − 6)
= , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > 0
36 + 𝑠 2

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𝝅
13.8. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝟒𝑪𝒐𝒔𝟐 (𝟑𝒕 + 𝟖 ) 𝒖(𝒕)
𝜋
LT[𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇 [4𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 (3𝑡 + 8 ) 𝑢(𝑡)]
𝜋
= 𝐿𝑇 [2 + 2𝐶𝑜𝑠 (6𝑡 + ) 𝑢(𝑡)]
4
= 𝐿𝑇[2 + √2(𝐶𝑜𝑠(6𝑡) − 𝑆𝑖𝑛(6𝑡))𝑢(𝑡)]
2 𝑠 6
= + √2 ( 2 2
− 2 )
𝑠 6 +𝑠 6 + 𝑠2
2 √2(𝑠 − 6)
= + , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > 0
𝑠 36 + 𝑠 2

13.9. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒕𝒆−𝟐|𝒕|

𝐿𝑇[𝑦(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇[𝑡𝑥(𝑡)], 𝒙(𝑡) = 𝑒 −2|𝑡|
𝑑
=− 𝑋(𝑠)
𝑑𝑠
𝑑 2(2)
=− ( 2 )
𝑑𝑠 2 − 𝑠 2
𝑑 4
=− ( )
𝑑𝑠 4 − 𝑠 2
−4(−2𝑠)
= −( )
(4 − 𝑠 2 )2
−8𝑠
= , −2 < 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} < 2
(4 − 𝑠 2 )2

13.10. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒕𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝒕)𝒖(𝒕)

𝐿𝑇[𝑦(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇[𝑡𝑥(𝑡)]
𝑑
=− 𝑋(𝑠)
𝑑𝑠
𝑑 2
=− ( 2 )
𝑑𝑠 2 + 𝑠 2
𝑑 2
=− ( )
𝑑𝑠 4 + 𝑠 2
−2(2𝑠)
= −( )
(4 + 𝑠 2 )2
4𝑠
= , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > 0
(4 + 𝑠 2 )2

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13.11. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒕𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝟐𝒕)𝒖(𝒕)

𝐿𝑇[𝑦(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇[𝑡𝑥(𝑡)]
𝑑
=− 𝑋(𝑠)
𝑑𝑠
𝑑 𝑠
=− ( 2 )
𝑑𝑠 2 + 𝑠 2
𝑑 𝑠
=− ( )
𝑑𝑠 4 + 𝑠 2
(4 + 𝑠 2 )1 − 𝑠(2𝑠)
= −( )
(4 + 𝑠 2 )2
4 + 𝑠 2 − 2𝑠 2
= −( )
(4 + 𝑠 2 )2
−4 + 𝑠 2
= , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > 0
(4 + 𝑠 2 )2

13.12. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝒃𝒕)𝒖(𝒕)

𝑏
𝐿𝑇[𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑡)𝑢(𝑡)] = , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > 0
𝑏2 + 𝑠 2

⇒ 𝐿𝑇[𝑦(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑡)𝑢(𝑡)]

𝑏
= , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > −𝑎
𝑏2 + (𝑠 + 𝑎)2

13.13. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝒂𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒃𝒕)𝒖(𝒕)

𝑠
𝐿𝑇[𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑏𝑡)𝑢(𝑡)] = 2 , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > 0
𝑏 + 𝑠2

⇒ 𝐿𝑇[𝑦(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑏𝑡)𝑢(𝑡)]

𝑠+𝑎
= , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > −𝑎
𝑏2 + (𝑠 + 𝑎)2

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 Signals and Systems-23EC02 UNIT-V Laplace Transforms and Z-Transforms
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𝒆−𝒂𝒕 −𝒆−𝒃𝒕
13.14. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒖(𝒕)
𝒕

𝑥(𝑡)
𝐿𝑇[𝑦(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇 [ ]
𝑡
∞
= ∫ 𝑋(𝑠)𝑑𝑠
𝑠
∞
1 1
=∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑠
𝑠 𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+𝑏
∞
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑠 + 𝑎| − 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑠 + 𝑏| | , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > −𝑎 & 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > −𝑏
𝑠
𝑠+𝑎 ∞
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 | |
𝑠+𝑏 𝑠
𝑠+𝑎
= 0 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 | |
𝑠+𝑏
𝑠+𝑏
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 | | , 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} > −𝑏, 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 > 𝑏, & 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} > −𝑎, 𝑖𝑓 𝑏 > 𝑎
𝑠+𝑎

𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒂𝒕)−𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒃𝒕)
13.15. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒖(𝒕)
𝒕

𝑥(𝑡)
𝐿𝑇[𝑦(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇 [ ]
𝑡
∞
= ∫ 𝑋(𝑠)𝑑𝑠
𝑠
∞
𝑠 𝑠
=∫ ( − 2 ) 𝑑𝑠
𝑠 𝑎2 +𝑠 2 𝑏 + 𝑠2
1 ∞
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑎2 + 𝑠 2 | − 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑏 2 + 𝑠 2 | | , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > 0
2 𝑠
1 𝑎2 + 𝑠 2 ∞
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 | 2 |
2 𝑏 + 𝑠2 𝑠
1 𝑎2 + 𝑠 2
= 0 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 | 2 |
2 𝑏 + 𝑠2
1 𝑏2 + 𝑠 2
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 | 2 | , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > 0
2 𝑎 + 𝑠2

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𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝒂𝒕)
13.16. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒖(𝒕)
𝒕

𝑥(𝑡)
𝐿𝑇[𝑦(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇 [ ]
𝑡
∞
= ∫ 𝑋(𝑠)𝑑𝑠
𝑠
∞
𝑎
=∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑠
𝑠 𝑎2
+ 𝑠2
𝑠 ∞
= 𝑇𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) |
𝑎 𝑠
𝜋 𝑠
= − 𝑇𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
2 𝑎
𝑠
= 𝐶𝑜𝑡 −1 ( ) , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > 0
𝑎

𝟐(𝒔+𝟏)
13.17. Find initial and final values of a signal x(t), given 𝑿(𝒔) = 𝒔𝟐 +𝟒𝒔+𝟕

Initial value:
Lt
𝑥(0) = 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑡→0
Lt
= sX(𝑠)
𝑠→∞
Lt 2(𝑠 + 1)
= 𝑠 2
𝑠 → ∞ 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 7
Lt 2𝑠 2 + 𝑠
=
𝑠 → ∞ 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 7
=2

Final value:
Lt
𝑥(∞) = 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑡→∞
Lt
= sX(𝑠)
𝑠→0
Lt 2(𝑠 + 1)
= 𝑠 2
𝑠 → 0 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 7
Lt 2𝑠 2 + 𝑠
=
𝑠 → 0 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 7
=0

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 Signals and Systems-23EC02 UNIT-V Laplace Transforms and Z-Transforms
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𝟐
13.18. Find the value of x(t) as t→, given 𝑿(𝒔) = 𝒔(𝟏+𝒔)

Lt
𝑥(∞) = 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑡→∞
Lt
= sX(𝑠)
𝑠→0
Lt 2
= 𝑠
𝑠 → 0 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)
Lt 2
=
𝑠 → 0𝑠 + 1
=2

𝒂
13.19. Find the final value of a signal x(t), given 𝑿(𝒔) = 𝒔𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 , 𝑹𝒆{ 𝒔} > 𝟎

Final value:
Lt
𝑥(∞) = 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑡→∞
Lt
= Sin(at)
𝑡→∞
= Sin(∞)
= -1 ≤ 𝑥(∞) ≤ 1

13.20. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝒕 𝒖(𝒕) ∗ 𝒆−𝟑𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) ∗ 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)]
1 1
= , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > −1 & 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > −3
𝑠 + 1𝑠 + 3
1
= , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > −1
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)

13.21. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝒕 𝒖(−𝒕) ∗ 𝒆−𝟑𝒕 𝒖(−𝒕)
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡) ∗ 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)]
−1 −1
= , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} < −1 & 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} < −3
𝑠 + 1𝑠 + 3
1
= , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} < −3
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)

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13.22. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒆−𝒕 𝒖(−𝒕) ∗ 𝒆−𝟑𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)
𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇[𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡) ∗ 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)]
−1 1
= , 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} < −1 & 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > −3
𝑠 + 1𝑠 + 3
−1
= , −3 < 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} < −1
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)

13.23. Determine the Laplace Transform of 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝟑𝒆−𝟐|𝒕| ∗ 𝟐𝒆−𝟑|𝒕|

𝐿𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝐿𝑇[3𝑒 −2|𝑡| ∗ 2𝑒 −3|𝑡| ]
2(2) 2(3)
=3 2 2 , −2 < 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} < 2 & − 3 < 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} < 3
22
− 𝑠 3 − 𝑠2
2

12 12
=
4 − 𝑠2 9 − 𝑠2
144
= , 2 < 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} < 2
(4 − 𝑠 )(9 − 𝑠 2 )
2

𝒔+𝟐
13.24. Determine the Inverse Laplace Transform of 𝑿(𝒔) = (𝒔+𝟏)(𝒔+𝟑)

𝑠+2
𝑋(𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)
𝐴 𝐵
= + −1+ 2 1
𝑠+1 𝑠+3 A= =
−1+ 3 2
1 1 1 −3+ 2 1
= ( + ) B= =
2 𝑠+1 𝑠+3 − 3 +1 2

1 −𝑡
(𝑒 𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)), 𝑖𝑓 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} > −1
2
1
𝑥(𝑡) = (−𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡) − 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)), 𝑖𝑓 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} < −3
2
1 −𝑡 −3𝑡
{2 (−𝑒 𝑢(−𝑡) + 𝑒 𝑢(𝑡)), 𝑖𝑓 − 3 < 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠} < −1

𝟏
13.25. Determine the Laplace Transform of tx(t), if 𝑿(𝒔) = 𝒔𝟐 +𝒔+𝟏
𝑑
𝐿𝑇[𝑡𝑥(𝑡)] = − 𝑋(𝑠)
𝑑𝑠
𝑑 1
=− ( 2 )
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑠 + 1
−1(2𝑠 + 1)
= −( 2 )
(𝑠 + 𝑠 + 1)2
2𝑠 + 1
=
(𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 1)2

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𝟓−𝒔
13.26. Determine the Inverse Laplace Transform of 𝑿(𝒔) = 𝒔𝟐 −𝒔−𝟐 by assuming the Fourier

Transform of the signal x(t) exists.

5−𝑠
𝑋(𝑠) =
𝑠2
−𝑠−2
5−𝑠
=
(𝑠 − 2)(𝑠 + 1)
𝐴 𝐵 5−2
A= =1
= + 2 +1
𝑠−2 𝑠+1
5 +1
1 2 B= = −2
= − −1− 2
𝑠−2 𝑠+1

Required signal should be bounded, where -1 < Re{s} < 2

𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒆𝟐𝒕 𝒖(−𝒕) − 𝟐𝒆−𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)

𝟏
13.27. Find the final value of a signal x(t), given 𝑿(𝒔) = 𝒔(𝒔−𝟏)

Initial and final value theorems are used only for causal signal, where all the poles should be left
sided. But in this case, one pole is located at s=1 (right hand side).
1
𝑋(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 − 1)
𝐴 𝐵
= +
𝑠 𝑠−1
−1 1
= +
𝑠 𝑠+1

Causal signal,
𝑥(𝑡) = −𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑒 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
= (𝑒 𝑡 − 1)𝑢(𝑡)
⇒ 𝑥(∞) = 𝑒 ∞ − 1
=∞

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𝟏 𝒏 𝟏 𝒏
13.28. Evaluate the Z-Transform of 𝒙(𝒏) = 𝟑 (𝟐) 𝒖(𝒏) − 𝟐 (𝟑) 𝒖(𝒏)

  1 n 1
n

ZT[ x(n) ] = ZT 3  u(n) − 2  u(n)
  2   3 
 1  n   1  n 
X(z) = 3ZT   u(n) − 2 ZT   u(n)
 2    3  
3z 2z 1 1
= − , z  & z 
1 1 2 3
z− z−
2 3
z (3 z − 1 − 2 z + 1) 1
= , z 
 1  1 2
 z −  z − 
 2  3
z2 1
= , z 
 1  1 2
 z −  z − 
 2  3

1 𝑛 1 𝑛 𝑧2 ROC
𝑍𝑇 [3 ( ) 𝑢(𝑛) − 2 ( ) 𝑢(𝑛)] = 𝑋(𝑧) =
2 3 1 1 1
(𝑧 − 2) (𝑧 − 3) |𝑧|>
2

13.29. Evaluate the Z-Transform of 𝒙(𝒏) = 𝟑(𝟐)𝒏 𝒖(−𝒏 − 𝟏) − 𝟐(𝟑)𝒏 𝒖(−𝒏 − 𝟏)


ZT[ x(n) ] = ZT 3(2) u( − n − 1 ) − 2(3) u( − n − 1 )
n n

  
X(z) = 3ZT (2) u( − n − 1 ) − 2ZT (3) u( − n − 1 )
n n

= 3ZT (2) u( − n − 1 )− 2ZT (3) u( − n − 1 )
n n

− 3z − 2 z
= − , z  2& z  3
z −2 z −3
− z (3z − 9 − 2 z + 4)
= , z 2
(z − 2)(z − 3)
−𝑧(𝑧 − 5)
𝑋(𝑧) = , |𝑧|<2
(𝑧 − 2)(𝑧 − 3)

−𝑧(𝑧 − 5) ROC
𝑍𝑇[3(2)𝑛 𝑢(−𝑛 − 1) − 2(3)𝑛 𝑢(−𝑛 − 1)] = 𝑋(𝑧) =
(𝑧 − 2)(𝑧 − 3) |𝑧|<2

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 Signals and Systems-23EC02 UNIT-V Laplace Transforms and Z-Transforms
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𝟏 𝒏
13.30. Evaluate the Z-Transform of 𝒙(𝒏) = 𝟑 (𝟐) 𝒖(𝒏) − 𝟐(𝟑)𝒏 𝒖(−𝒏 − 𝟏)

  1 n 
ZT[ x(n) ] = ZT 3  u(n) − 2(3) u( − n − 1 )
n

  2  
 1  n 

X(z) = 3ZT   u(n) − 2 ZT (3) u( − n − 1 )
n

 2  
3z 2(− z ) 1
= − , z  & z 3
1 z −3 2
z−
2
z (3 z − 9 + 2 z − 1) 1
= ,  z 3
 1
 z − ( z − 3)
2
 2
5 z ( z − 2) 1
= ,  z 3
 1
 z −  ( z − 3)
2
 2

1 𝑛 5𝑧(𝑧 − 2) ROC
𝑍𝑇 [3 ( ) 𝑢(𝑛) − 2(3)𝑛 𝑢(−𝑛 − 1)] = 𝑋(𝑧) =
2 1 1
(𝑧 − 2) (𝑧 − 3) <|𝑧|<3
2

𝟏 𝒏 𝟏 𝒏
13.31. Evaluate the Z-Transform of 3x1(n)+2x2(n), 𝒙𝟏 (𝒏) = (𝟐) 𝒖(𝒏) and 𝒙𝟐 (𝒏) = (𝟑) 𝒖(𝒏)

ZT[ 3x1(n) + 2 x2(n) ] = 3ZT[ x1(n)] + 2 ZT[x2(n) ]

 1  n   1  n 
= 3ZT   u(n) + 2 ZT   u(n)
 2    3  
3z 2z 1 1
= + , z  &z 
1 1 2 3
z− z−
2 3
z( 3 z − 1 + 2 z − 1 ) 1
= , z 
 1  1 2
 z −  z − 
 2  3
z (5 z − 2) 1
= , z 
 1  1 2
 z −  z − 
 2  3

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Dr. B. Ramesh Reddy, Professor of ECE & Vice Principal, LBRCE, Mylavaram, NTR Dist., AP. Page 45/58
 Signals and Systems-23EC02 UNIT-V Laplace Transforms and Z-Transforms
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𝟏 𝒏+𝟏
13.32. Evaluate the Z-Transform of 𝒙(𝒏) = 𝟑 (𝟐) 𝒖(𝒏 − 𝟗)

  1  n+1   1  n−9+10 
ZT 3  u(n − 9 )  = 3ZT   u(n − 9 )
  2    2  
1
10
 1  n−9 
= 3  ZT   u(n − 9 )
2  2  
1
10
 1  n 
= 3  z −9 ZT   u(n)
2  2  
 
 1  −9  z 
10
1
= 3  z , z 
2 z−1 2
 
 2
10
1
3 
=   , z 
2 1
 1 2
z8  z − 
 2

13.33. Evaluate the Z-Transform of u(n) and u(-n)

We know that,
𝑧
𝑍𝑇[𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)] = , |𝑧|>𝑎
𝑧−𝑎
Put a = 1
𝑧
𝑍𝑇[𝑢(𝑛)] = , |𝑧|>1
𝑧−1
Apply time shifting property of z Transform
1/ z
ZT [u (−n)] = , 1/ z  1
1/ z − 1
1
= , z 1
1− z

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13.34. Evaluate the Z-Transform of nanu(n)

We know that,
𝑧
𝑍𝑇[𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)] = , |𝑧|>𝑎
𝑧−𝑎
Apply differentiation in z domain property

d  z 
ZT[na nu(n)] = − z  
dz  z − a 
 ( z − a )(1) − z (1) 
= − z  
 ( z − a ) 2

 z−a−z
= − z  
2 
 ( z − a ) 
az
=
( z − a)2
13.35. Evaluate the initial value of a causal signal x(n) from the z domain
𝒛(𝟓𝒛 − 𝟐) 𝟏
𝑿(𝒛) = , |𝒛|>
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
(𝒛 − 𝟐) (𝒛 − 𝟑)

Lt
x ( 0) = X(z)
z→
Lt z (5 z − 2)
=
z → 1  1
 z −  z − 
 2  3
2
Lt 5−
= z
z → 1  1
1 − 1 − 
 2 z  3 z 
5−0
=
(1 − 0)(1 − 0)
=5
13.36. Evaluate the final value of a causal signal x(n) from the z domain
𝑧(5𝑧 − 2) 1
𝑋(𝑧) = , |𝑧|>
1 1 2
(𝑧 − 2) (𝑧 − 3)

Lt Lt ( z − 1) z (5 z − 2)
x ( ) = (z - 1)X(z) ==
z →1 z → 1 1  1
 z −  z − 
 2  3
(1 − 1)(1)(5 − 2)
= =0
(1 − 1 / 2)(1 − 1 / 3)

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13.37. Evaluate the Z-Transform of anu(n)*nanu(n)

We know that,
𝑧
𝑍𝑇[𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)] = , |𝑧|>𝑎
𝑧−𝑎
and
𝑎𝑧
𝑍𝑇[𝑛𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)] = ,| 𝑧 | > 𝑎
(𝑧 − 𝑎)2

ZT[a nu(n) * na nu(n)] = ZT[a nu(n)]ZT[nanu(n)]

z az
=
z − a ( z − a)2
az 2
= , z a
( z − a )3

13.38. Determine the right sided or causal sequence x(n) using partial fractions method
z(z + 1)
X(z) =
 1  1  1
+1
3
 z -  z - 
 2  4  A= 2 = 2 =6
X ( z) z +1 1 1 1
= -
z  1  1  2 4 4
 z -  z -  1 5
 2  4  +1
A B B= 4 = 2 = −10
= + 1 1 −1
1 1 -
z- z-
2 4 4 2 4
   
 z   z 
X ( z ) = 6  − 10 
z- 1  z- 1 
    For a causal or
 2  4
right sided signal
   
 z   z  z 
1
x(n) = 6 Z −1   − 10Z −1   2
z- 
1 z- 1  and
   
 2  4 z 
1
n n 4
1 1
= 6  u (n) − 10  u (n)
2 4

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13.39. Determine the left sided or anti-causal sequence x(n) using partial fractions method
z(z + 1)
X(z) =
 1  1 
 z -  z - 
 2  4 
    For anti-causal or
 z   z  left sided signal
= 6  − 10 
z- 1  z-1  z 
1
   
 2  4 2
and
   
 z   z  z 
1
x ( n) = 6 Z −1
 − 10Z 
−1
 4
z- 1  z- 1 
   
 2  4
n n
1 1
= −6  u ( − n − 1) + 10  u (− n − 1)
2 4

13.40. Determine both sided sequence x(n) using partial fractions method
z(z + 1)
X(z) =
 1  1 
 z -  z - 
 2  4 
    For both sided signal
 z   z  1
= 6  − 10  z 
z- 1  z- 1  2
    and
 2  4
1
    z 
 z   z  4
x(n) = 6 Z −1   − 10Z −1  
z- 
1 z- 1 
   
 2  4
n n
1 1
= −6  u (− n − 1) − 10  u (n)
2 4

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13.41. Determine the right sided or causal sequence x(n) using partial fractions method
z +1
X(z) =
 1  1 
 z -  z - 
 2  4  0 +1
A= =8
X ( z) z +1  1  1 
=  0 −  0 - 
z  1  1   2  4 
z  z -  z - 
 2  4  1 3
A B C +1
= + + B= 2 = 2 = 12
z z- 1 z- 1 11 1 1
2 4  - 
22 4 8
   
 z   z  1 5
X ( z ) = 8 + 12  − 20  +1
z- 1  z- 1  C= 4 = 4 = −20
    1  1 1  −1
 2  4
 - 
     4 a 2causal
4 For  16 or
 z   z 
x(n) = 8Z −1[1] + 12Z −1   − 20Z −1   right sided signal
z- 
1 z- 1  z 
1
& z 
1
   
 2  4 2 4
n n
1 1
= 8 (n) + 12  u (n) − 20  u (n)
2 4

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13.42. Determine the right sided or causal sequence x(n) from power series method
𝑧+1
𝑋(𝑧) =
1 1
(z- 2) (z- 4)

We know that the negative power series expansion of X(z) is

𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑥(0) + 𝑥(1)𝑧 −1 + 𝑥(2)𝑧 −2 +. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
Given,
𝑧+1 𝑧+1
𝑋(𝑧) = =
1 1 3 1
(z- 2) (z- 4) 𝑧 2 − 4 𝑧 + 8

Apply long division method and evaluate the negative power series expansion of X(z)
3 1 7 19
𝑧 2 − 𝑧 + ) z + 1 (𝑧 -1 + 𝑧 −2 + 𝑧 −3 +. . . . . . . . . . .
4 8 4 16
3 1
𝑧 − + 𝑧 −1
4 8
7 1 −1
− 𝑧
4 8
7 21 −1 7 −2
− 𝑧 − 𝑧
4 16 32
19 −1 7
𝑧 + 𝑧 −2
16 32
19 −1 57 −2 19 −2
𝑧 − 𝑧 + 𝑧
16 64 128
71 −2 19 −2
𝑧 − 𝑧 . . . . . . . . . ..
64 128
7 19 −3
𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑧 -1 + 𝑧 −2 + 𝑧 +. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
4 16

Compare equations (1) and (2)

7 19
 𝑥(0) = 0, x(1) = 1, x(2) = 4 , 𝑥(3) = 16 , . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Sequence representation of causal sequence x(n),

7 19
𝑥(𝑛) = {0, 1, , ,............. . }
↑ 4 16

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13.43. Determine the left sided or anti-causal sequence x(n) from power series method
𝑧+1
𝑋(𝑧) =
1 1
(z- 2) (z- 4)

We know that the positive power series expansion of X(z) is

𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑥(1)𝑧1 + 𝑥(2)𝑧 2 + 𝑥(2)𝑧 3 +. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)

Given
𝑧+1 𝑧+1 1+𝑧
𝑋(𝑧) = = =
1 1 3 1 1 3
(z- 2) (z- 4) 𝑧 2 − 4 𝑧 + 8 8 − 4 𝑧 + 𝑧 2

Apply long division method and evaluate the positive power series expansion of X(z)
1 3
− 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 ) 1 + z (8 + 56𝑧 + 272𝑧 2 + 1184𝑧 3 +. . . . . . . . . . .
8 4
1 - 6z + 8 z 2
7z − 8z 2
7𝑧 − 42𝑧 2 + 56𝑧 3
34z 2 - 56 z 3
34z 2 − 204𝑧 3 + 272𝑧 4
148z 3 − 272𝑧 4 . . . . . . . . . ..
𝑋(𝑧) = 8 + 56𝑧 + 272𝑧 2 + 1184𝑧 3 +. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)

Compare equations (1) and (2)

 𝑥(0) = 8, x(-1) = 56, x(-2) = 272, 𝑥(−3) = 1184, . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Sequence representation of anti-causal sequence,

𝑥(𝑛) = {. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1184, 272, 56, 8}

↑

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13.44. Determine the causal signal x(n) from Residue method

𝑧
𝑋(𝑧) =
(𝑧 − 2)3
Given p(z) = z, N = 3 and a =2.
 dN-1 
x(n) =
1
(N − 1)!
Lt

z → a  dzN-1
(
p(z) zn −1  )

 d2 
=
1 Lt

z → 2  dz 2
(
z z n −1  )
2! 
d 
( )
2
1 Lt
=  zn 
2 z → 2  dz 2


=
1
2
Lt
z→2

n (n - 1) z n - 2 
1
= n (n - 1) 2 n - 2
2
n (n - 1) 2 n
= u(n)
8

13.45. Determine the causal signal x(n) from Residue method

𝑧2
𝑋(𝑧) =
(𝑧 − 2)3
Given p(z) = z2, N = 3 and a =2.
 dN-1 
x(n) =
1
(N − 1)!
Lt

z → a  dzN-1
(
p(z) zn −1  )

 d2 
=
1 Lt

z → 2  dz 2
(
z 2 z n −1  )
2! 
d 
( )
2
1 Lt
=  z n +1 
2 z → 2  dz 2


=
1
2
Lt
z→2

(n + 1) n z n -1 
1
= n (n + 1) 2 n -1
2
n (n + 1) 2 n
= u(n)
4

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13.46. Determine the causal signal x(n) from Residue method

1
𝑋(𝑧) =
(𝑧 − 2)4
Given p(z) = 1, N = 4 and a =2.
 dN-1 
x(n) =
1
(N − 1)!
Lt

z → a  dzN-1
(
p(z) zn−1  )

 d3 
=
1 Lt

z → 2  dz 3
1 zn−1  ( )
3! 
 d3 
=
1 Lt

z → 2  dz 3
(
zn−1  )
6 

=
1
6
Lt
z→2

(n − 1) (n - 2)(n - 3) z n-4 
1
= (n - 1) (n - 2)(n - 3) 2 n-4
6
(n - 1) (n - 2)(n - 3) 2 n
= u(n)
96

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14. Assignment Questions:

1. Determine the Laplace Transform of following signals

(i)𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑡)𝑢(𝑡) (ii)𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑡)𝑢(𝑡)
2. Determine the Laplace Transform and associated ROC of the signal,
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
3. Determine all posible signals corresponding to the s-domain
𝑠 + 16
𝑋(𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 + 8)
4. Evaluate the Z-Transform and indicate the ROC for the following sequences
(i)𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜃)𝑢(𝑛) (ii)𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑎𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝜃)𝑢(𝑛)
5. Apply properties to Evaluate the Z-Transform and associated ROC for x(n)=an+10 u(n-10
6. Apply partial fractions method and compute all possible cases of x(n) from X(z)
𝑧+1
𝑋(𝑧) =
(𝑧 − 1/2)(𝑧 − 1/4)(𝑧 − 1/8)
7. Apply power series method and Evaluate both the causal and Non-causal sequences from
𝑧2 + 𝑧 + 1
𝑋(𝑧) = 3
2𝑧 + 3𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 4
𝑧(𝑧−2)
8. Apply Residue method and Obtain the causal sequence x(n) from 𝑋(𝑧) = (𝑧−1/4)3

9. Compute the initial value of a causal sequence x(n) from the z-domain
𝑧(𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 + 2)
𝑋(𝑧) =
(2𝑧 − 1/2)(4𝑧 − 1/4)(8𝑧 − 1/8)
10. Calculate the final value of a causal sequence x(n) from the z-domain
𝑧(𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 + 2)
𝑋(𝑧) =
1 1 1
(𝑧 − 1) (𝑧 − ) (𝑧 − ) (𝑧 − )
2 4 8
11. Find the Inverse z-transform X(z)=log(1+az-1)
12. Determine the z-transform of a convoluted sequence, 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑢(𝑛) ∗ 𝑛𝑢(𝑛) ∗ 𝑛2 𝑢(𝑛)
13. Find a causal sequence from the z-domain
1 1 1
(i)𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑧−1 (ii) 𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑧 2(𝑧−1) (iii) 𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑧 99 (𝑧−99)

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15. Quiz Questions:

Q. No. Question Description Answer

1. Laplace transform of x(t) is defined by_______
 
(1). X ( s) =  x(t ) e dt − st
(2). X ( s) =  x(t ) e st dt
− − 1

(3). X ( s) =  x(t ) e − jwt dt (4). None of the above
−
2. Inverse Laplace transform of X(s) is defined by_______
 + j  + j
1 1
2  −j 2j  −j
(1). x(t ) = st
X ( s) e ds (2). x(t ) = X ( s) e st ds
2
 + j
1
(3). x(t ) =  X (s) e
st
ds (4). None of the above
2  
−j

3. Laplace transform and Fourier transform are equal if the value of σ is_______
3
(1). One (2). Infinity (3). Zero (4). None of the above
4. The Laplace transform of x(t) is convergence if,_______
 

 x(t )e  x(t ) dt
− st
(1). dt =  (2). 
− −
 
4
 x(t )e  x(t )e
− st − st
(3). dt   (4). dt  
− −
5. The Laplace transform of x(t ) = e − at u (t ) is_____
1 1 1 1
(1). (2). (3). (4). None of the above
s+a s−a ( s + a) 2
6. The range of Re{s}, for which the Laplace transform converges is called_______
(1). Region of Divergence (2). Region of Convergence (3). Both 1& 2 2
(4). None of the above
7. The Region of Convergence of signal x(t) = x(t ) = e − at u (t ) is_____
3
(1). Re{s} = 0 (2).Re{s} = a (3). Re{s} > -a (4). Re{s} < -a
8. The Region of Convergence of signal x(t) = x(t ) = − e − at u (−t ) is_____
4
(1). Re{s} = 0 (2).Re{s} = a (3). Re{s} > -a (4). Re{s} < -a
9. The Laplace transform of x(at) is _________
1 S S 1 1
(1). X (2). X (3). X ( S ) (4). None of the above
a a a a
S 0t
10. The Laplace transform of x (t )e is _________
1 S 2
(1). X (2). X ( S − S 0 ) (3). X ( S + S 0 ) (4). None of the above
a a
11. dn
The Laplace transform of x(t ) is _________
dt n 3
(1). X (s ) (2). SX (S ) (3). S n X (S ) (4). None of the above

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12. The Laplace transform of the x(t) = u(t) – u(t-T)

1 + e−s e−s 1 1 − e−s 4
(1). (2). (3). (4).
s s s s
13. 2( S + 1)
The Laplace transform of x(t) is X(S) = 2 , then the initial value of x(t) is_
S + 2S + 5 1
(1). 2 (2). 0 (3). -2 (4). 5
14. 2( S + 1)
The Laplace transform of x(t) is X(S) = 2 , then the final value of x(t) is__
S + 2S + 5 2
(1). 2 (2). 0 (3). -2 (4). 5
15. The ROC of the Laplace transform of the function x(t ) = e − ( a + 2 ) t +5u (t ) is_______
3
(1). Re{s} > a+7 (2). Re{s} > a+5 (3). Re{s} > a+2 (4). Re{s} > a
16. If x(t) is two sided signal, then its ROC is________
(1). Right sided (2). Left sided
4
(3). Entire S - Plane (4). Finite duration strip, which lies between two
poles.
17. If x(t) is right sided signal, then its ROC is________
(1). Right half of the S-Plane (2). Left half of the S-Plane 1
(3). Entire S - Plane (4). Finite duration strip, which lies between two poles.
18. The Laplace transform of Cos(at)u(t) is______
a S a S 2
(1). 2 (2). 2 (3). 2 (4). 2
S +a 2
S +a 2
S −a 2
S − a2
19. The Laplace transform of e − at Cos (bt ) is______
s −b S s+b a 3
(1). (2). (3). (4).
( S + b) + a
2 2
( S + b) + a
2 2
( S + b) + a
2 2
( S + b) 2 + a 2
20. s+5
The inverse Laplace transform of X ( s) =
( s + 1) ( s + 3) 4
−t −3 t −3 t −t −t −3t −t −3t
(1). e − e (2). e +e (3). 2e + e (4). 2e − e
21. t
If X(s) is Laplace transform of x(t), then the Laplace transform of  x( )d is____
− 1
X (S )
(1). (2). SX ( S ) − x(0) (3). SX (S ) (4). None of the above
S
22. Laplace transforms of f(t) and g(t) are F(s) and G(s), respectively. Which one of the
following expressions gives the inverse Laplace transform of F(s)G(s)? 2
(1). f(t)g(t) (2). f(t)*g(t) (3). f(t)-g(t) (4). None of the above
23. ( S + 3)
The Laplace transform of x(t) is X(S) = , then the initial value of x(t) is____
S ( S + 2) 4
(1). 3/2 (2). 0 (3). -2 (4). 1
24. ( S + 3)
The Laplace transform of x(t) is X(S) = , then the final value of x(t) is____
S ( S + 2) 1
(1). 3/2 (2). 0 (3). -2 (4). 1
25. A system is said to be causal, if it’s all poles of system function _____
(1). Lies on right side of the ROC. (2). Lies on left side of the ROC. 2
(3). Includes jw axis (4). None of the above

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Dr. B. Ramesh Reddy, Professor of ECE & Vice Principal, LBRCE, Mylavaram, NTR Dist., AP. Page 57/58
 Signals and Systems-23EC02 UNIT-V Laplace Transforms and Z-Transforms
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26. A system is said to be stable, if it’s all poles of system function _____
(1). Lies on right side of the ROC. (2). Lies on left side of the ROC. 3
(3). Includes jw axis (4). None of the above
27. e − as
The inverse Laplace transform of X ( S ) = is_____
s 4
(1). e − at (2). u (t ) (3). (t − a )u (t − a )) (4). u (t − a )
28. 2
The inverse Laplace transform of X ( S ) = , if ROC re{s} > 1
( S + 4)(S − 1)
2 2 2 2
(1). − e − 4t u (t ) + e t u (t ) (2). e − 4t u (t ) − e t u (t ) 1
5 5 5 5
2 2
(3). − e − 4t u (t ) − e t u (t ) (4). None of the above
5 5
29. If the poles are lies to left sided of ROC, its associated time domain signal is_____
1). Left sided signal. (2). Right sided signal. 2
(3). Two sided (4). None of the above

30. What is the ROC of ZT[u(n)]

B
(A)|z|>0 (B)|z|>1 (C)0<|z|<1 (D)|z)<0
31. Find the z-domain of x(n)={1,0,1}
A
(A)1+z-1 (B) z+1+z-1 (C) z+z-1 (D) 1+z
32. Determine the Z-transform of x(n)=(n-9) z-9

33. 1 1
What is the ROC of z transform of “ ( )𝑛 𝑢(𝑛) + ( )𝑛 𝑢(𝑛) + 𝑢(𝑛) ” |z|>1
2 3

34. If ZT of anu(n) * bnu(n) is X(z)/(z-a)(z-b), then X(z) is

C
(A)1 (B) z (C) z2 (D) 1+z
35. If ZTof u(-n) is k/X(z), then k-X(z) is z

36. 1
Find a causal sequence from the z-domain 𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑧−1 u(n-1)

37. 9
If 𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑧 9(𝑧−9)and x(n)=an-bu(n-c), then a,b,c=
D
(A)9,9,9 (B) 9,10,9 (C) 10,9,9 (D) 9,9,10
38. 𝑧(𝑧+1)
Find the initial value of a sequence x(n) from 𝑋(𝑧) = (3𝑧−1)(2𝑧−1) 1/6

39. 𝑧(𝑧+1)
Find the final value of a sequence x(n) from 𝑋(𝑧) = (𝑧−1)(2𝑧−1) 2

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Dr. B. Ramesh Reddy, Professor of ECE & Vice Principal, LBRCE, Mylavaram, NTR Dist., AP. Page 58/58