4.

Represent and analyze signals and systems

using continuous time complex exponentials
using the Laplace transform methods.

Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Communication Systems Engineering

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 Content

Definition of the Laplace Transformation

Properties and Theorems of the Laplace Transform

The Inverse Laplace transform

Solving Differential Equations Using Initial Conditions

Transform Analysis of LTI Systems

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 Objectives
Objectives
❖ Represent and analyze signals and systems using continuous time
complex exponentials using the Laplace transform methods..

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 Introduction to Laplace Transform
In mathematics, the Laplace transform is an integral transform named after its
discoverer Pierre-Simon Laplace. It takes a function of a real variable t (often
time) to a function of a complex variable s (frequency).
The Laplace transform can be used to analyze a large class of continuous-time
problems involving signals that are not absolutely integrable.
The output of an LTI system is obtained by multiplying the Laplace transform
of the input by the Laplace transform of the impulse response, which is
defined as the transfer function of the system.
The transfer function generalizes the frequency response characterization of
an LTI system’s input-output behavior and offers new insights into system
characteristics.
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 Introduction to Laplace Transform
The Laplace transform comes in two varieties:
1. unilateral, or one sided which is a convenient tool for solving
differential equations with initial conditions. and
2. bilateral, or two sided, that offers insight into the nature of system
characteristics such as stability, causality, and frequency response.
The primary role of the Laplace transform in engineering is the transient and
stability analysis of causal LTI systems described by differential equations.

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 The Laplace Transform
Let 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 be a complex exponential with complex frequency 𝑠 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝜔. We
may write
The real part of 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 is an exponentially damped cosine, and the imaginary
part is an exponentially damped sine, as depicted in Fig. below. assumed that
𝛼 is negative.

Real and imaginary parts of the complex exponential 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 , where 𝑠 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝜔.

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 Eigenfunction Property of 𝑒 𝑠𝑡
Consider applying an input of the form x(t) = 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 to an LTI system with
impulse response h(t). The system output is given by

We use x(t) = 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 to obtain

We define the transfer function

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 Eigenfunction Property of 𝑒 𝑠𝑡
so that we may write

𝑒 𝑠𝑡 as an eigenfunction of the LTI system and the transfer function H(s) is the
corresponding eigenvalue.
In polar form H(s) is given by;
Thus, the LTI system output is given by;

using 𝑠 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝜔 to obtain

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 3.1 Introduction to Fourier Analysis
The system changes the amplitude of the input by |H(𝛼 + j𝜔)| and shifts the
phase of the sinusoidal components by ∅ (𝛼 + j𝜔).

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 Laplace Transform Representation
Given the simplicity of describing the action of the system on inputs of the
form 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 , we now seek a representation of arbitrary signals as a weighted
superposition of eigenfunctions 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 .

This indicates that H(𝜎 + j𝜔) is the Fourier transform of h(t)𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 . Hence,
the inverse Fourier transform of H(𝜎 + j𝜔) must be h(t)𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 ; that is,

We may recover h(t) by multiplying both sides of this equation by 𝑒 𝑠𝑡

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 Laplace Transform Representation

Now, substituting 𝑠 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝜔 and d𝜔 = ds/j into Eq. (6.3) we get

Thus, H(s) is the Laplace transform of h(t) and that h(t) is the inverse Laplace
transform of H(s).
The Laplace transform of x(t) is

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 Laplace Transform Representation
and the inverse Laplace transform of X(s) is

We express this relationship with the notation

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 Convergence
A necessary condition for convergence of the Laplace transform is the
absolute integrability of x(t)𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 That is, we must have

The range of 𝝈 for which the Laplace transform converges is termed as the
region of convergence (ROC).
The Laplace transform exists for signals that do not have a Fourier transform.
By limiting ourselves to a certain range of 𝝈, we may ensure that x(t)𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 is
absolutely integrable, even though x(t) is not absolutely integrable by itself.

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 The s-Plane
It is convenient to represent the complex frequency s graphically in terms of a
complex plane termed the s-plane, as depicted in Fig. below. The horizontal
axis represents the real part of s (i.e., the exponential damping factor 𝝈), and
the vertical axis represents the imaginary part of s (i.e., the sinusoidal
frequency 𝝎).

The s-plane. The horizontal axis is Re{s} and the vertical axis is Im{s}. Zeros are
depicted at s = -1 and s = -4 ± 2j, and poles are depicted at s = -3, s = 2 ± 3j,
and s = 4.
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 Poles and Zeros

The most commonly encountered form of the Laplace transform in

engineering is a ratio of two polynomials in s; that is.

It is useful to factor X(s) as a product of terms involving the roots of the

denominator and numerator polynomials:

The 𝑐𝑘 are the roots of the numerator polynomial and are termed the zeros
of X(s). The 𝑑𝑘 are the roots of the denominator polynomial and are termed
the poles of X(s).
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 Laplace Transform Representation

We denote the locations of zeros in the s-plane with the “ O ” symbol and the
locations of poles with the “X” symbol, as illustrated in Fig. above.
Example 1 Determine the Laplace transform of and depict the
ROC and the locations of poles and zeros in the s-plane. Assume that 𝑎 is real.
Solution:

To evaluate 𝑒 − 𝑠−𝑎 𝑡
at the limits, we use 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 to write

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 Laplace Transform Representation

Now, if 𝜎 > 𝑎, then 𝑒 − 𝑠−𝑎 𝑡 goes to zero as t approaches infinity, and

The ROC for this signal is thus 𝜎 > 𝑎, or equivalently, Re(s) > 𝑎.

The ROC for 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 u(t) is depicted by the shaded region. A pole is located
at 𝑠 = 𝑎.
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 Laplace Transform Representation

Example 2 an anticausal signal is zero for t > 0. Determine the Laplace

transform and ROC for the anticausal signal
Solution:

The ROC and the location of the pole at 𝑠 = 𝑎. are depicted in Fig. below.

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 Laplace Transform Representation

The ROC for 𝑦 𝑡 = −𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡) is depicted by the shaded region. A pole

is located at 𝑠 = 𝑎.

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 The Unilateral Laplace Transform

It is advantageous to define the unilateral or one-sided Laplace transform,

which is based only on the nonnegative-time (t > 0) portions of a signal
where, do not need to consider the ROC.
The unilateral Laplace transform of a signal x(t) is defined by

The lower limit of 0− implies that we do include discontinuities and impulses

that occur at t = 0 in the integral. Hence, X(s) depends on x(t) for t≥ 0.

where the subscript u in 𝑙𝑢 denotes the unilateral transform.

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 The Unilateral Laplace Transform

Naturally, the unilateral and bilateral Laplace transforms are equivalent for
signals that are zero for times t < 0.
Thus, is equivalent to

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 Properties of the Unilateral Laplace Transform

The properties of the Laplace transform are similar to those of the Fourier
transform;
The properties described in this section specifically apply to the unilateral
Laplace transform.
assuming that and
1. Linearity:-

The linearity of the Laplace transform follows from its definition as an

integral and the fact that integration is a linear operation.
Scaling
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 Properties of the Unilateral Laplace Transform

Time Shift

A shift of t in time corresponds to multiplication of the Laplace transform by

the complex exponential 𝑒 −𝑠𝜏 The restriction on the shift arises because the
unilateral transform is defined solely in terms of the nonnegative-time
portions of the signal.
s-Domain Shift

Multiplication by a complex exponential in time introduces a shift in complex

frequency s into the Laplace transform.
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 Properties of the Unilateral Laplace Transform

Figure.4 Time shifts for which the unilateral Laplace transform time-shift
property does not apply, (a) A nonzero portion of x(t) that occurs at times t & 0
is shifted to times t < 0. (b) A nonzero portion of x(t) that occurs at times t < 0
is shifted to times 𝑡 ≥ 0.

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 Properties of the Unilateral Laplace Transform

Convolution

Convolution in time corresponds to multiplication of Laplace transforms. This

property only applies when x(t) = 0 and y(t) = 0 for t < 0.
Differentiation is s-domain

Differentiation in the s-domain corresponding's to multiplication by −𝑡 in the

time domain
Example: Find the unilateral Laplace transform of

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 Properties of the Unilateral Laplace Transform

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 Properties of the Unilateral Laplace Transform

Example 2; Find the Laplace transform of the output of the RC circuit depicted
in Fig. below for the input x t = te2t u(t).

Figure: RC circuit for Examples 2 and 6.10. Note that RC = 0.2 s.

Solution: The impulse response of the RC circuit was obtained as

❖ We apply the convolution property to obtain the Laplace transform of the

output y(t) as the product of the Laplace transforms of the input x(t) and
impulse response h(t):
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 Properties of the Unilateral Laplace Transform

Y(s) = H(s)X(s). Using RC = 0.2 s , we obtain

Next, we use the s-domain differentiation property

and we conclude that

Note that Fourier methods are not applicable to this particular problem
because the FT of the input signal x(f) does not exist, since x(t) is not
absolutely integrable.

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 Properties of the Unilateral Laplace Transform
Differentiation is t-domain
Suppose that the Laplace transform of x(t) exists, and consider the unilateral
Laplace transform of dx(t)/dt. By definition,

Integrating by parts, we obtain

Since X(s) exists, it follows that x(t)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 approaches zero as t approaches
infinity; thus, x(t)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 |𝑡=∞ = 0.

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 Properties of the Unilateral Laplace Transform

Let x(t) = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) . Find the Laplace transform of dx(t)/dt by direct

calculation and by using Eq.6.18

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 Properties of the Unilateral Laplace Transform

The general form for the differentiation property is

Integration Property

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 Initial- and Final-Value Theorems
The initial- and final-value theorems allow us to determine the initial value,
x(0+ ),and the final value, x(∞), of x{t) directly from X(s).
The initial-value theorem states that,

The initial-value theorem does not apply to rational functions X(s) in which
the order of the numerator polynomial is greater than or equal to that of the
denominator polynomial order. The final-value theorem states that

The final-value theorem applies only if all the poles of X(s) are in the left half
of the s-plane, with at most a single pole at s = 0.

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 Initial- and Final-Value Theorems

Example: Determine the initial and final values of a signal x(t) whose
unilateral Laplace transform is

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 Inversion of the Unilateral Laplace Transform
The inverse Laplace transforms can be determined using the one-to-one
relationship between a signal and its unilateral Laplace transform.
In the study of LTI systems described by integro-differential equations, we
frequently encounter Laplace transforms that are a ratio of polynomials in s.
In this case, the inverse transform is obtained by expressing X(s) as a sum of
terms for which we already know the time function, using a partial-fraction
expansion. Suppose

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 Inversion of the Unilateral Laplace Transform

If X(s) is an improper rational function, (i.e., M ≥ N), then we may use long
division to express X(s) in the form
where,
The numerator polynomial B(s) now has order one less than that of the
denominator polynomial, and the partial-fraction expansion method is used to
determine the inverse transform of X(s).
Given that the impulse and its derivatives are zero at 𝑡 = 0− , we find the
inverse transform of the terms in the sum component of
using the pair and the differentiation property given by Eq.
(6.18). We obtain
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 Inversion of the Unilateral Laplace Transform

Where 𝛿 (𝑘) (t) denotes the kth derivative of the impulse 𝛿(t).
Now we factor the denominator polynomial as a product of pole factors to
obtain
where P < N. If all the poles 𝑑𝑘 are distinct, then, using a partial-fraction
expansion, we may rewrite X(s) as a sum of simple terms:

Here, the Ak are determined by using the method of residues or by solving a

system of linear equations as described in Appendix B.
The inverse Laplace transform of each term in the sum may now be found
from Eq. (6.11), resulting in the pair
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 Inversion of the Unilateral Laplace Transform

If a pole 𝑑𝑖 is repeated r times, then there are r terms in the partial-fraction

expansion associated with that pole, namely,

The inverse Laplace transform of each term is found using Eqs. (6.23) and
(6.17) to obtain

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 Inversion of the Unilateral Laplace Transform

Example: Inversion by Partial-Fraction Expansion Find the inverse Laplace

transform of

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 Inversion of the Unilateral Laplace Transform

Example: Inversion by Partial-Fraction Expansion Find the inverse Laplace

transform of
Solution: We use a partial-fraction expansion of X(s) to write

Solving for 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , and 𝐴3 by the method of residues, we obtain

Using Eqs. (6.23) and (6.24), we may construct x(t) from the inverse Laplace
transform of each term in the partial-fraction expansion as follows:
The pole of the first term is at s = -1, so

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 Inversion of the Unilateral Laplace Transform

The second term has a pole at s = -2; thus,

The double pole in the last term is also at s = -2; hence.

Combining these three terms, we obtain

Example 6.8 Inverting an Improper Rational Laplace Transform Find the inverse
unilateral Laplace transform of

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 Inversion of the Unilateral Laplace Transform
Solution: We use long division to express X(s) as the sum of a proper rational
function and a polynomial in s:

Thus, we may write

Using a partial-fraction expansion to expand the rational function, we obtain

Term-by-term inversion of X(s) yields

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 Inversion of the Unilateral Laplace Transform
The partial-fraction expansion procedure is applicable to either real or
complex poles.
A complex pole usually results in complex-valued expansion coefficients and a
complex exponential function of time.
The inverse Laplace transforms of these quadratic terms are exponentially
damped sinusoids.
Suppose, then, that 𝛼 + 𝑗𝜔0 and 𝛼 − 𝑗𝜔0 make up a pair of complex-
conjugate poles. The first-order terms associated with these two poles in the
partial-fraction expansion are written as

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 Inversion of the Unilateral Laplace Transform
In order for this sum to represent a real-valued signal, 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 must be
complex conjugates of each other. Hence, we may replace these two terms
with the single quadratic term.

where both 𝐵1 and 𝐵2 are real valued. We then solve for 𝐵1 and 𝐵2 and factor
the result into the sum of two quadratic terms for which the inverse Laplace
transforms are known. That is, we write

where 𝐶1 = 𝐵1 and 𝐶2 = (𝐵1 𝛼+ 𝐵2 )/𝜔0 . The inverse Laplace transform of

the first term is given by
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 Inversion of the Unilateral Laplace Transform

Likewise, the inverse Laplace transform of the second term is obtained from
the pair

Example: Inverse Laplace Transform for Complex-Conjugate Poles Find

the inverse Laplace transform of

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 Inversion of the Unilateral Laplace Transform
Solution: There are three poles in X(s). By trial and error; we find that s = 1 is
a pole. We factor s -1 out of 𝑠 3 + 𝑠 2 −2 to obtain 𝑠 2 + 2s + 2 = 0 as the
equation defining the remaining two poles. Finding the roots of this quadratic
equation gives the complex conjugate poles s = -1 ± 𝑗.
➢ We may write the quadratic equation 𝑠 2 + 2s + 2 in terms of the perfect
square (𝑠 2 + 2s + 1) + 1 = (𝑠 + 1)2 + 1, so the partial-fraction expansion
for X(s) takes the form

➢ The expansion coefficient A is easily obtained by the method of residues. That

is, we multiply both sides by (s - 1) and evaluate at s = 1 to obtain
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 Inversion of the Unilateral Laplace Transform

The remaining expansion coefficients 𝐵1 and 𝐵2 are obtained by placing both

terms on the right-hand side of Eq. (6.27) over a common denominator and
equating the numerator of the result to the numerator of X(s). We thus write

Equating coefficients of 𝑠 2 gives 𝐵1 = 2, and equating coefficients of s° gives

𝐵2 = -2. Hence,
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 Inversion of the Unilateral Laplace Transform

In arriving at the second equation, we have factored 2s - 2 into 2(s + 1) - 4.

Now we take the inverse Laplace transform of each term,
Putting these results together, we obtain

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 Solving Differential Equations with Initial Conditions

The primary application of the unilateral Laplace transform in systems analysis

is solving differential equations with nonzero initial conditions.
The initial conditions are incorporated into the solution as the values of the
signal and its derivatives that occur at time zero in the differentiation property
given by Eq. (6.19).
Example RC Circuit Analysis Use the Laplace transform to find the voltage
across the capacitor, y(t), for the RC circuit depicted in Fig. 6.7 in response to
3
the applied voltage x(t) = 𝑒 −2𝑡 u(t) and initial condition y(0− ) = -2.
5

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 Solving Differential Equations with Initial Conditions

Fig. 6.7

Solution: Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we may describe the behavior of the
circuit in Fig. 6.7 by the differential equation

Letting RC = 0.2 s, we obtain

Now we take the unilateral Laplace transform of each side of the differential
equation and apply the differentiation property of Eq. (6.18), yielding
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 Solving Differential Equations with Initial Conditions

Solving for Y(s), we get

Next, we use and the initial condition 𝑦 0− obtaining

Expanding Y(s) in partial fractions results in

and taking the inverse unilateral Laplace transform yields the voltage across the
capacitor:
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 Solving Differential Equations with Initial Conditions

The Laplace transform method for solving differential equations offers a clear
separation between the natural response of the system to initial conditions and
the forced response of the system associated with the input.
Taking the unilateral Laplace transform of both sides of the general differential
equation

we obtain
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 Solving Differential Equations with Initial Conditions

Where,

and we have assumed that the input is zero for t < 0.

We note that C(s) = 0 if all the initial conditions on y(t) are zero and
B(s)X(s) = 0 if the input x(t) is zero. Now, we separate the effects of the initial
conditions on y(t) and the input to write

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 Solving Differential Equations with Initial Conditions
Where,

The term 𝑌 (𝑓) (s) represents the component of the response associated
entirely with the input, or the forced response, of the system. The same term
represents the output when the initial conditions are zero. The term 𝑌 (𝑛) (s)
represents the component of the output due entirely to the initial conditions,
or the natural response, of the system. This term represents the system output
when the input is zero.
Example: Finding the Forced and Natural Responses Use the unilateral Laplace
transform to determine the output of a system represented by the differential
equation
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 Solving Differential Equations with Initial Conditions
In response to the input x(t) = u(t). Assume that the initial conditions on the
system are

Identify the forced response of the system, 𝑌 (𝑓) (s), and the natural response
𝑌 (𝑛) (s) .
Solution: Using the differentiation property in Eq. (6.19) and taking the
unilateral Laplace transform of both sides of the differential equation, we obtain

Solving for Y(s), we get

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 Solving Differential Equations with Initial Conditions

The first term is associated with the forced response of the system, 𝑌 (𝑓) (s).
The second term corresponds to the natural response, 𝑌 (𝑛) (s). Using
X(s) = 1/s and the initial conditions Eq. (6.28), we obtain

and

Partial fraction expansions of both terms yields

and

Next, taking the inverse unilateral Laplace transforms of 𝑌 (𝑓) (s) and 𝑌 (𝑛) (s), we
obtain

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 Solving Differential Equations with Initial Conditions

and

The output of the system is y(t) = 𝑌 (𝑓) (s)+ 𝑌 (𝑛) (s). Figures 6.8(a), (b), and (c)
depict the forced response, natural response, and system output, respectively.
(on page 506)

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 Properties of the Bilateral Laplace Transform

The bilateral Laplace transform involves the values of the signal x(t) for both
t ≥ 0 and t < 0 and is given by

The properties of linearity, scaling, s-domain shift, convolution, and

differentiation in the s-domain are identical for the bilateral and unilateral
Laplace transforms, although the operations associated by these properties
may change the region of convergence (ROC).
To illustrate the change in ROC that may occur, consider the linearity
property.
If with ROC 𝑅𝑥 and with ROC 𝑅𝑦 , then
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 Properties of the Bilateral Laplace Transform

with ROC at least 𝑅𝑥 ∩ 𝑅𝑦 , where the

symbol P indicates intersection.
Time Shift

The restriction on the shift that is present in the unilateral property is

removed because the bilateral Laplace transform is evaluated over both
positive and negative values of time.
Note that the ROC is unchanged by a time shift.
Differentiation in the Time Domain

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 Properties of the Bilateral Laplace Transform

where Rx is the ROC associated with X(s). Differentiation in time

corresponds to multiplication by s. The ROC associated with sX(s ) may be
larger than Rx if X(s) has a single pole at s = 0 on the ROC boundary.
Multiplication by s, corresponding to differentiation, cancels this pole and
therefore eliminates the dc component in x(t).
Example: Using the Bilateral Time-Shift and Differentiation Properties Find the
Laplace transform of
Solution: We know from Example 6.1 that
with ROC Re(s) > -3.
From the time-shift property
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 Properties of the Bilateral Laplace Transform

Now applying the time-differentiation property

Integration with Respect to Time

Integration corresponds to division by s. Since this introduces a pole at s = 0

and we are integrating to the right, the ROC must lie to the right of s = 0.
The initial- and final-value theorems apply to the bilateral Laplace transform,
with the additional restriction that x{t) = 0 for t < 0.

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 Properties of the Bilateral Laplace Transform

Group Assignment
Problem 6.11 Determine the bilateral Laplace transform and the
corresponding ROC for each of the following signals:

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 Properties of the Region of Convergence
Once we know the ROC properties, we can often identify the ROC from
knowledge of the Laplace transform X(s) and limited knowledge of the
characteristics of x(t).
convergence of the bilateral Laplace transform for a signal x(t) implies that
for some values of 𝜎.
The set of 𝜎 for which this integral is finite determines the ROC of the
bilateral Laplace transform of x(t) .
Suppose x(t) is a finite-duration signal; that is, x(t) = 0 for t < a and t > b. If
we can find a finite bounding constant A such that |x(t)|≤ A, then

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 Properties of the Region of Convergence

In this case, we see that 𝐼(𝜎) is finite for all finite values of 𝜎, and we
conclude that the ROC for a finite-duration signal includes the entire s-plane.
a finite-duration signal includes the entire s-plane. Now we separate 𝐼(𝜎) into
positive- and negative-time sections; that is,
where and
In order for 𝐼(𝜎) to be finite, both of these integrals must be finite. This implies
that |x(t)| must be bounded in some sense.
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 Properties of the Region of Convergence

Suppose we can bound |x(t)| for both positive and negative t by finding the
smallest constants A > 0 and 𝜎𝑝 such that

and the largest constant 𝜎𝑝 such that

A signal x(t) that satisfies these bounds is said to be of exponential order. The
bounds imply that |x(t)| grows no faster than 𝑒 𝜎𝑝 𝑡 for positive t and 𝑒 𝜎𝑛 𝑡
for negative t. There are signals that are not of exponential order, such as
𝑡 2
𝑒 or 𝑒 3𝑡 , but such signals generally do not arise in the study of physical
systems.
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 Properties of the Region of Convergence

Using the exponential order bounds on |x(t)|, we may write.

and

We note that 𝐼_𝜎 is finite whenever 𝜎 < 𝜎𝑛 and 𝐼𝑛 (n) is finite whenever
𝜎 < 𝜎𝑝 . The quantity 𝐼𝜎 is finite at values 𝜎 for which both 𝐼_𝜎 and 𝐼+ 𝜎 are
finite. Hence, the Laplace transform converges for 𝜎𝑝 < 𝜎 < 𝜎𝑛 . Note that if
𝜎𝑝 > 𝜎𝑛 , then there are no values of a for which the bilateral Laplace
transform converges.

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 Properties of the Region of Convergence
We may draw the following conclusions from the analysis just presented:
Define a left-sided signal as a signal for which x(t) = 0 for t > b, a right-sided
signal as a signal for which x(t) = 0 for t < a, and a two-sided signal as a signal
that is infinite in extent in both directions. Note that a and b are arbitrary
constants. If x(t) is of exponential order, then
➢ The ROC of a left-sided signal is of the form 𝜎 < 𝜎𝑛 .
➢ The ROC of a right-sided signal is of the form 𝜎 < 𝜎𝑝 .
➢ The ROC of a two-sided signal is of the form 𝜎𝑝 < 𝜎 < 𝜎𝑛 .

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 Properties of the Region of Convergence

Example 6.16 ROC of a Sum of Exponentials Consider the two signals

Specifically, we may write, for a continuous-time system.
and
Identify the ROC associated with the bilateral Laplace transform of each signal.
Solution: We check the absolute integrability of by writing

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 Properties of the Region of Convergence
The first term converges for 𝜎 < -1, while the second term converges for
𝜎 > -2. Hence, both terms converge for -2 < 𝜎 < - 1. This is the intersection
of the ROC for each term.

Figure (a) The shaded regions denote the ROCs of each individual term. The
doubly shaded region is the intersection of the individual ROCs and represents
the ROC of the sum. (b) The shaded regions represent the individual ROCs. In
this case there is no intersection, and the Laplace transform of the sum does not
converge for any value of s.
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 Properties of the Region of Convergence

The ROC for each term and the intersection of the ROCs, which is shown as the
doubly shaded region, are depicted in Fig. 6.15(a). The reader may verify that the
Laplace transform of 𝑥1 (t) is

which has poles at s = -1 and s = -2. We see that the ROC associated with 𝑥1 (s)
is the strip of the s-plane located between the poles.
For the second signal, 𝑥2 (t) , we have

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 Properties of the Region of Convergence

The first term converges for 𝜎 < -2 and the second term for 𝜎 > -1. Here,
there is no value of 𝜎 for which both terms converge, so the intersection is
empty. Hence, there are no values of s for which X2(s) converges, as
illustrated in Fig. 6.15(b). Thus, the bilateral Laplace transform of x2( t) does
not exist.

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 Inversion of the Bilateral Laplace Transform

The primary difference between the inversions of bilateral and unilateral

Laplace transforms is that we must use the ROC to determine a unique
inverse transform in the bilateral case.
Suppose we wish to invert the ratio of polynomials in s given by

As in the unilateral case, if M ≥ N, then we use long division to express

where

is expressed as a partial-fraction expansion in terms of non repeated poles; that

is,
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 Inversion of the Bilateral Laplace Transform

We have

where 𝛿 (𝑘) (t) denotes the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ derivative of the impulse 𝛿(t).

Note that the ROC of X(s) is the same as the ROC of X(s) because the
Laplace transform of the impulse and its derivatives converge everywhere in
the s-plane.
In the bilateral case, there are two possibilities for the inverse Laplace
transform of each term in the partial-fraction expansion of : We may use
either the right-sided transform pair
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 Inversion of the Bilateral Laplace Transform

or the left-sided transform pair

The ROC associated with X(s) determines whether the left-sided or right-
sided inverse transform is chosen.
Example 6.17 Inverting a Proper Rational Laplace Transform. Find the inverse
bilateral Laplace transform of

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 Inversion of the Bilateral Laplace Transform

Solution: Use the partial-fraction expansion

The ROC and the locations of the poles are depicted in Fig. 6.16. We find the
inverse Laplace transform of each term, using the relationship between the
locations of poles and the ROC:
The pole of the first term is at s = -1. The ROC lies to the right of this pole,
so Eq. (6.35) is applicable, and we choose the right-sided inverse Laplace
transform,
The second term has a pole at s = 1. Here, the ROC is to the left of the pole,
so Eq. (6.36) is applicable, and we choose the left-sided inverse Laplace
transform
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 Inversion of the Bilateral Laplace Transform

The pole in the last term is at s = -2. The ROC is to the right of this pole, so
from Eq. (6.35) we choose the right-sided inverse Laplace transform,

Combining these three terms, we obtain

Figure 6.16 Poles and ROC for Example 6.17.

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 The Transfer Function

The output of an LTI system is related to the input in terms of the impulse
response via the convolution

if we take the bilateral Laplace transform of both sides of this equation and use
the convolution property, then we have from which it follows that
implies that

That is, the transfer function is the ratio of the Laplace transform of the
output signal to the Laplace transform of the input signal. This definition
applies at values of s for which X(s) is nonzero.
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 The Transfer Function and Differential-Equation
System Description
The transfer function may be related directly to the differential-equation
description of an LTI system by using the bilateral Laplace transform.
The input and output of an Nth-order LTI system is described by the
differential equation

If x(t) = 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 , then y(t) = 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 H(s) Substitution of 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 for x(t) and 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 H(s) for
y(t) into the differential equation gives

We now use the relationship

and solve for H(s) to obtain
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 The Transfer Function and Differential-Equation System
Description
H(s) is a ratio of polynomials in s and is thus termed a rational transfer
function.
The coefficient of 𝑠 𝑘 in the numerator polynomial corresponds to the
coefficient 𝑏𝑘 of the kth derivative of x(t). The coefficient of 𝑠 𝑘 in the
denominator polynomial corresponds to the coefficient 𝑎𝑘 of the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ
derivative of y(t).
Example 6.19 Transfer Function of a Second-Order System. Find the transfer
function of the LTI system described by the differential equation

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 The Transfer Function and Differential-Equation System
Description
Solution: Apply Eq. (6.39) to obtain

The poles and zeros of a rational transfer function offer much insight into LTI
system characteristics.
The transfer function is expressed in pole-zero form by factoring the
numerator and denominator polynomials in Eq. (6.39) as follows:

where 𝑐𝑘 and 𝑑𝑘 are the zeros and poles of the system, respectively. Knowledge
of the poles, zeros, and gain factor completely determines the transfer
function H(s) and thus offers yet another description of an LTI system.
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 Class work
1. Find the inverse LT of

2. Find the differential equation of the system

described by:-

BY Demessu
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Signal and System Analysis
 BY Demessu
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Signal and System Analysis
 Refereces
❖ Oppenheim (MIT Professor., Signals and Systems 2nd edition
❖ Simon Haykin and Barry Van Veen Signals and Systems, Second Edition, John,
Wiley & Sons, 2003.

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 Thank You

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Signal and System Analysis