IRRIGATION CANALS

Canals - or artificial waterways, are waterways or engineered channels built for drainage
management (e.g. flood control and irrigation) or to service water transport vehicles (e.g. water
taxi). They carry free, calm surface flow under atmospheric pressure, and can be thought of as

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artificial rivers. The canals can be built out of concrete, stone, brick, or any kind of flexible
membrane that resolves difficulties of durability like seepage and erosion. Alternatively, the
canals can also be dug out of the ground. The water for irrigation can be sourced either directly
from a river or from tanks and reservoirs.

Source: https://www.britannica.com/technology/canal-waterway

Figure 1: Example of a canal

Irrigation Canal - an irrigation canal is a meticulously designed hydraulic conveyance

system that channels water from its source (reservoir, river, etc.) to various users, often covering
vast distances (tens or hundreds of kilometers). Its primary function is to deliver the right amount
of water at the right time to its users while minimizing losses and ensuring the infrastructure's
integrity. This involves preventing overflows and ensuring sufficient water levels for gravity-fed
offtakes. The canal’s dimensions are carefully calculated to provide adequate water flow to
agricultural fields, ensuring optimal irrigation throughout the designated areas.

Source: https://www.britannica.com/technology/irrigation Source: https://www.aboutcivil.org/canal-irrigation-uses-effects.html

Figure 2. Example of Irrigation Canal Figure 3. Example of Irrigation Canal

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Criteria in Designing a Canal

Here are some key factors to consider when designing a canal:

Water Flow and Capacity

The amount of water that will flow through the canal and its capacity to handle
that flow are two of the most important factors to consider in canal design. The
canal must be designed to accommodate the expected volume of water while
maintaining a consistent flow.
Topography and Terrain
The topography and terrain of the area where the canal will be built will have a
significant impact on its design. To effectively transport water through the terrain
without causing damage or erosion, the canal’s alignment, slope, and depth must
be carefully chosen.
Water Quality
Another critical factor to consider is the quality of the water being transported
through the canal. The canal must be designed to reduce the risk of contamination
while also ensuring that the water is fit for its intended purpose.
Safety and security
If canals are not designed with appropriate safety features, they can pose a
significant risk to public safety. The canal must be designed to prevent accidents
like falls and drownings, as well as to prevent unauthorized access.
Environmental Impact
Canals can have a significant environmental impact, and their design must account
for this. The canal must be designed to have as little impact on the local ecosystem as
possible while also protecting any natural habitats that may be affected.
Maintenance and operation
Finally, the canal’s design must account for the system’s ongoing maintenance
and operation. The canal must be easy to maintain and operate, with appropriate
access points and monitoring systems in place.

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Types of Canals (based on canal surface)

Earthen Canal (unlined canal) - Earthen canals are simply dug in the ground and the bank
is made up from the removed earth. The disadvantages of earthen canals are the risk of
the side slopes collapsing and the water loss due to seepage. They also require continuous
maintenance in order to control weed growth and to repair damage done by livestock and
rodents. While earthen canals have their disadvantages, they can still be a viable option in
specific agricultural contexts where low-cost, localized solutions are sufficient to meet
the irrigation needs. However, as agriculture evolves and water conservation becomes
more critical, there is a growing trend toward adopting more efficient and sustainable
irrigation methods.

Source:https://steemit.com/hede-io/@dwin0603/earth-canal

Figure 4. Earthen Canal

Lined Canals – are earthen canals lined with impermeable materials. Though relatively
expensive, the idea of lining is to prolong the life of the channel.

Advantages of Canal Lining

Seepage Reduction
The main purpose behind the lining of the canal is to reduce seepage losses. In some
soils, the seepage loss of water in unlined canals is about 25 to 50% of total water
supplied. The cost of canal lining is high, but it is justifiable for its efforts in saving

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 most of the water from seepage losses. Canal lining is not necessary if seepage
losses are very small.
Prevention of Water Logging
Water logging is due to phenomenal rise in the water table due to uncontrolled
seepage in an unlined canal. This seepage affects the surrounding groundwater
table and makes the land unsuitable for irrigation. So, this problem of water
logging can be surely prevented by providing proper lining to the canal sides.
Increase in Commanded Area
Commanded area is the area that is suitable for irrigation purposes. The water
carrying capacity of lined canal is much higher than the unlined canal and hence
more area can be irrigated using lined canals.
Increase in Channel Capacity
The capacity of a channel can also be increased via canal lining. Compared to an
unlined canal, the surface of a lined canal is often smooth and permits rapid water
flow. The capacity of a channel increases with the flow velocity. Hence, the lining
of a canal will improve the channel capacity. On the other hand, this increase in
capacity also allows for a reduction in the channel dimensions, maintaining the
previous capacity of the unlined canal and thus saving the cost of the construction.
Less Maintenance
The maintenance cost of unlined canals is much higher than that of lined canals.
The deposition of silt volume is much higher in unlined canals, which makes the
maintenance cost of unlined canals much higher. Unlike the unlined canals, the
flow of water in the lined canals is high, which does not allow the deposition of
silt easily on the canal bed. Thus, lessening their cost of maintenance. Moreover,
weeds and plants can easily grow on the beds of unlined canals, which affects the
velocity of the flow of water.
Safety Against Floods
The bed and sides of lined canals can withstand flooding conditions while the
unlined canals cannot. In the case of unlined canals, the bed and sides can easily
erode away with water during flood conditions, while the bed and sides of lined
canals are protected with a hard stratum, which prevents its weathering.

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Disadvantages of Canal Lining

Some of its disadvantages are:

Initial investment is high in canal lining.

Shifting of the outlet is high because it involves dismantling and relaying the lining.
The construction period of the lined canal is longer.
Skilled labor and sophisticated construction equipment are required for canal lining.
IV. IRRIGATION CANAL LININGS

Types of Canal Lining

The canal linings can be majorly classified into two categories based on the nature of the
surface:

1. Earthen Type Canal Lining

Earthen-type canal linings are further classified into two categories:

Compacted Earth Lining - When earthen materials are present at the site or in situ,
compacted earth lining is preferred. If the earthen material is not present at the site,
this type of canal lining becomes quite costly. Compacted earthen material is used for
lining in this type as the process of compaction reduces the void size of the soil by
displacing water and air. Reduction in void size of the soil increases the density, shear
strength and compressive strength of the soil and reduces its permeability. This
ultimately results in the reduction of the volume and settlement of the surface. In this
type of canal lining proper compaction of soil is needed to get the better results.

Source: https://testbook.com/civil-engineering/canal-lining

Figure 5. Compacted Earth Lining

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 Soil Cement Lining - This type of canal lining can be constructed using cement,
sandy soil and water which hardens to a concrete-like material. To provide additional
strength or to protect from erosion, the layer of soil cement is sometimes covered
with coarse soil in case of large channels. Proper curing of the soil cement lining
should be provided, and it should be protected from weathering for a period of seven
days by providing a 50mm layer of soil, straw, or hessian bags over it and keeping it
moistened. The dry mix method and plastic mix methods are used for constructing
soil cement canal lining.

Source: https://testbook.com/civil-engineering/canal-lining

Figure 6. Soil Cement Lining

2. Hard Surface Type Canal Lining

Hard Surface type canal linings can be further classified into the following categories:

Cement Concrete Lining - These types of canal linings are widely used as they are
hydraulically efficient, tough, durable, and relatively impermeable. These canal
linings are suitable for large and small canals with high or low flow velocities. The
cement concrete linings can be reinforced cement concrete lining or plain cement
concrete lining. Reinforced concrete linings are more durable and can withstand more
hydrostatic pressure than plain cement concrete linings. There are several procedures
of lining using cement concrete,
o Cast in situ lining
o Shortcrete lining
o Precast concrete lining

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 Cement mortar lining

Source: https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/canal-
linings types-advantages/11052/

Figure 7. Cement Concrete Lining

Brick Lining or Tile lining - In this type of canal lining, bricks or tiles are laid along
the bed and sides of the canal using cement mortars which are used to provide smooth
finish after laying the bricks or tiles.

Source: https://testbook.com/civil-engineering/canal-lining

Figure 8. Brick or Tile Lining

Plastic Lining - It is a new method or type of canal lining in which thin plastic sheets
are used to protect the seepage losses of canal water. There are three types of plastic
sheets which are used in this type of canal lining. They are- low-density polyethylene,
polyvinyl chloride and high-density polyethylene. Some of the advantages of this type
of canal lining are that the plastic sheets are thin, easy to handle, help in speedy
construction and are unaffected by different chemicals. The plastic film is spread on

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the prepared subgrade of the soil. V- Trenches are provided to anchor the membrane
on the banks. The plastic film is then covered with soil cover.

Source: https://testbook.com/civil-engineering/canal-lining

Figure 9. Plastic Lining

Boulder Lining - As the name says, in this type of canal lining several boulders or
stone blocks are used for canal lining. Dressed stone blocks are not present in nature.
So, irregular blocks are dressed according to the requirements. Dressed stone blocks
are preferred to rough stone blocks or boulders because rough stone blocks provide
greater resistance to the flowing water in the canal. Thus, this type of canal lining is
preferred where head loss is not an important consideration and where the stones and
blocks are available in abundance and at a moderate cost.

Source: https://testbook.com/civil-engineering/canal-lining

Figure 10. Boulder Lining

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V. IRRIGATION STRUCTURES
The irrigation system consists of a (main) intake structure or (main) pumping station, a
conveyance system, a distribution system, a field application system, and a drainage system.

Figure 11. An irrigation system

The (main) intake structure, or (main) pumping station, directs water from the source of supply,
such as a reservoir or a river, into the irrigation system

The conveyance system assures water transport from the main intake structure or main pumping
station up to the field ditches.

The distribution system assures water transport through field ditches to the irrigated fields.

The field application system assures the transport of water within the fields

The drainage system removes the excess water (caused by rainfall and/or irrigation) from the
fields.

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 Main Intake Structure and Pumping Station

1. Main Intake Structure

The intake structure is built at the entry to the irrigation system. Its purpose is to direct
water from the original source of supply (lake, river, reservoir etc.) into the irrigation system.

Figure 12. An intake structure

Pumping Station

In some cases, the irrigation water source lies below the level of the irrigated fields. Then a
pump must be used to supply water to the irrigation system.

Figure 13. A pumping station

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 There are several types of pumps, but the most commonly used in irrigation is the
centrifugal pump.

Conveyance and Distribution System

The conveyance and distribution systems consist of canals transporting the water through
the whole irrigation system. Canal structures are required for the control and measurement of the
water flow.

1. Open Canals

An open canal, channel, or ditch, is an open waterway whose purpose is to carry water
from one place to another. Channels and canals refer to main waterways supplying water to one
or more farms. Field ditches have smaller dimensions and convey water from the farm entrance
to the irrigated fields.

Canal characteristics

According to the shape of their cross-section, canals are rectangular (a), triangular (b),
trapezoidal (c), circular (d), parabolic (e), and irregular or natural (f).

https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#5.2%20conveyance%20and%20distribution%20system

Figure 14. Some examples of canal cross-sections

The freeboard of the canal is the height of the bank above the highest water level
anticipated. It is required to guard against overtopping by waves or unexpected rises in water
level.

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 Figure 15. A typical cross-section of a trapezoidal canal

Where;

a = top width of the canal

a1 = top width of the water level h = height of the canal
h1 = height or depth of the water in the canal
b = bottom width of the canal
h:w = side slope of the canal f = free board (=h-h1)
The bottom slope of the canal does not appear on the drawing of the cross-section but
on the longitudinal section. It is commonly expressed in percentage or per mil.

Figure 16. A bottom slope of a canal

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 Earthen Canals
Earthen canals are simply dug in the ground and the bank is made up from the removed
earth.

Source: https://tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcS1yVkpt4eB9iRnXb_EnIZ5D8gOOH6gX9swAtsL2OC

Figure 17. An earthen canal

The disadvantage of earthen canals are the risk of the side slopes collapsing and the
water loss due to seepage. They also require continuous maintenance in order to control weed
growth and to repair damage done by livestock and rodents.
Lined Canals
Earthen canals can be lined with impermeable materials to prevent excessive seepage
and growth of weeds. Lining canals is also an effective way to control canal bottom and bank
erosion. The materials mostly used for canal lining are concrete slabs, brick or rock masonry
and asphaltic concrete. The construction cost is much higher than for earthen canals.
Maintenance is reduced for lined canals, but skilled labor is required.

Figure 18. A lined canal

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 2. Canal Structures
The flow of irrigation water in the canals must always be under control. For this purpose,
canal structures are required. They help regulate the flow and deliver the correct amount of
water to the different branches of the system and onward to the irrigated fields.
There are four main types of structures: erosion control structures, distribution control
structures, crossing structures and water measurement structures.
Erosion control structures
a. Canal erosion
Canal bottom slope and water velocity are closely related, as the following example will
show.

A cardboard sheet is lifted on one side 2cm from the ground. A small ball is placed at
the edge of the lifted side of the sheet. It starts rolling downward, following the slope direction.
The sheet edge is now lifted 5cm from the ground, creating a steeper slope. The same ball
placed on the top edge of the sheet rolls downward, but this time much faster. The steeper the
slope, the higher the velocity of the ball.

Source: https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#5.2%20conveyance%20and%20distribution%20system

Figure 19. The relationship between slope and velocity

Water poured on the top edge of the sheet reacts exactly the same as the ball. It flows
downward and the steeper the slope, the higher the velocity of the flow.

Water flowing in steep canals can reach very high velocities. Soil particles along the
bottom and banks of an earthen canal are then lifted, carried away by the water flow, and
deposited downstream where they may block the canal and silt up structures. The canal is said

224
to be under erosion; the banks might eventually collapse.

b. Drop structures and chutes

Drop structures or chutes are required to reduce the bottom slope of canals lying on steeply
sloping land to avoid high velocity of the flow and risk of erosion. These structures permit the
canal to be constructed as a series of relatively flat sections, each at a different elevation.

Source:https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#5.2%20conveyance%20and%20distribution%20system

Figure 20. Longitudinal section of a series of drop structures

Drop structures take the water abruptly from a higher section of the canal to a lower one. In a
chute, the water does not drop freely but is carried through a steep, lined canal section. Chutes
are used where there are big differences in the elevation of the canal.

Distribution control structures

Distribution control structures are required for easy and accurate water distribution within the
irrigation system and on the farm. A water control structure is a water management system that
conveys water, controls the direction or rate of flow, or maintains a desired water surface
elevation.

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These are also used for water quality control, such as sediment reduction, temperature
regulation, and/or reducing the discharge of flow containing nutrients. These structures can
also be used to create or protect fish and wildlife habitat and other natural resources.

a. Division boxes

Division boxes are used to divide or direct the flow of water between two or more
canals or ditches. Water enters the box through an opening on one side and flows out through
openings on the other sides. These openings are equipped with gates.

Source: https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#5.2%20conveyance%20and%20distribution%20system

Figure 21. A division box with three gates

b. Turnouts

When water is to be taken from a lateral channel into a field distribution channel or
from a channel into a field, a turnout is used. Turnouts are constructed in the bank of a canal.
They divert part of the water from the canal to a smaller one. Turnouts may be portable or built
in. They are sometimes equipped with gates to control the flow of water. The most common
turnouts are box turnouts, spiles, and siphon tubes.
c. Checks

To divert water from the field ditch to the field, it is often necessary to raise the water
level in the ditch. Checks are structures placed across the ditch to block it temporarily and to
raise the upstream water level. Checks can be permanent structures or portable.

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Source: https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#5.2%20conveyance%20and%20distribution%20system

Figure 22. The use of spiles and siphons (turnouts)

Source: https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#5.2%20conveyance%20and%20distribution%20system

Figure 23. A permanent concrete check and a portable metal check

Crossing structures

It is often necessary to carry irrigation water across roads, hillsides, and natural depressions.
Crossing structures, such as flumes, culverts, and inverted siphons, are then required.

a. Flumes

Flumes are human-made channels for water, in the form of an open declined gravity
chute whose walls are raised above the surrounding terrain. They are used to carry irrigation
water across gullies, ravines, or other natural depressions. They are usually made of wood
(bamboo), metal or concrete which often need to be supported by pillars or trestles elevated,
following the natural contours of the land.

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 Source: https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-a-flume.html

Figure 24. A flume supported by assembled logs

b. Culverts

Culverts are used to carry the water across roads. The structure consists of masonry or
concrete headwalls at the inlet and outlet connected by a buried pipeline.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culvert#/media/File:Feccia_Culvert_2011_SE.jpg

Figure 25. A multiple culvert assembly in Italy

c. Inverted siphons
When water must be carried across a road which is at the same level as or below the canal
bottom, an inverted siphon is used instead of a culvert. The structure consists of an inlet and

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outlet connected by a pipeline. Inverted siphons are also used to carry water across wide
depressions.

Source: https://knowyourwaternews.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/2022-04-CAP-Siphon-Infographic-thumb.png

Figure 26. Cross-section of an Inverted Siphon

C. Protective Structures

1. Drop Structures

Grade-control structures, or drop structures, are used to reduce the slope of a channel.
They stabilize the banks and bed of a channel by velocity reduction and contain the effects of
energy dissipation. Types of drop structures are log and timber drop structures, corrugated pipe
grade-control structures, gabions, and weirs. The efficiency of grade- control structures decreases
with increasing stream size.

2. Gravity Walls

Gravity walls are massive walls that rely on their mass to restrain the movement of soil.

Concrete wall – designed such that no tension is developed, and no reinforcing steel
is required for their construction.
Masonry Wall – this type of wall has been adapted to the construction of very large walls.
Gabion wall - are baskets made of metal mesh or geotextiles that are filled with stone and
have wide usage in hydraulic structures.

3. Cantilever Walls

Refers to a reinforced concrete base with a stem wall cantilevered upward from the base.
The stem is designed to resist the lateral earth and hydrostatic forces. The soil above the base

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provides mass to resist movement. The wall stem may be supported or stiffened by
buttresses fronting the wall or by counterforts behind the wall.

4. Hardpoints

Hardpoints consist of stone fills spaced along an eroding bank line. The structures extend
short distances into the river channel and are supplemented with a root section. The majority of
the structure is invisible as the lower part consists of rock placed underwater, and the upper part
is covered with topsoil and seeded with native vegetation.

5. Retards
Located near the toe of the bank slope parallel to the streamflow. It is used to decrease
the velocity behind the structure. They can be adapted to a wide range of conditions and are
usually less costly.
D. Regulating Structures
Regulatory works or canal regulation works are the hydraulic structures constructed across
the canals to facilitate complete control over the flow of water in the irrigation canals. These
structures are necessary for efficient working as well as for the safety of an irrigation channel.
1. Canal Fall
A canal fall is a solid masonry structure that is constructed on the canal if the natural
ground slope is steeper than the designed channel bed slope. If the difference in slope is
smaller, a single fall can be constructed. If it is of higher then falls are constructed at regular
suitable intervals.

Source: https://i0.wp.com/theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/types-of-canal-falls.jpg?w=1170&ssl=1

Figure 27. Canal Fall

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 The location of the canal fall depends upon the topography of canal and the economy of
excavation or filling. Among the two will decide the location of the canal fall across the canal.
By understanding topographic conditions, we can provide the required type of fall which will
give good results. At the same time, the provided falls is economical and more useful. So,
economical calculation is also important. Unbalanced earth work on upstream and downstream
result the project more uneconomical. Irrigation canals are designed for a prescribed bed slope
so that velocity becomes non- silting or non-scouring. But if the ground topography is such that
in order to maintain the canal designed slope, indefinite filling from falling ground level is to
be made. This indefinite filling is avoided by constructing a hydraulic structure in the place of
sudden bed level. This hydraulic structure is called canal fall or drop. Beyond the canal fall, the
canal again maintains its designed slope.Thus, a canal fall or drop is an irrigation structure
constructed across a canal to lower down its bed level to maintain the designed slope when
there is a change of ground level. This falling water at the fall has some surplus energy. The
fall is constructed in such a way that it can destroy this surplus energy.
Types of Canal Falls and their Importance
a. Ogee Canal Falls
Ogee curve is the combination of convex and concave curves. So, Ogee fall consists of
both convex and concave curves gradually. This gradual combination helps to provide smooth
transition of flow and also reduce the impact. If the canal natural ground surface is suddenly
changed to a steeper slope, ogee fall is recommended for that canal. Stone pitching is provided
in the upstream and downstream of the fall.

Source: https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/canal-falls-types-importance/12894/

Figure 28. Ogee Canal Falls

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b. Rapid Canal Falls
Rapid fall consists a long sloping glacis. It is constructed if the available natural ground
surface is plane and long. For this, a bed of rubble masonry is provided and it is finished with
cement mortar of 1:3 ratio. To maintain the slope of bed curtain walls are provided at both
upstream and downstream. Rapid falls are high priced constructions.

Source: https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/canal-falls-types-importance/12894/

Figure 29. Rapid Canal Falls

c. Stepped Canal Falls
As in the name itself, stepped fall consist vertical steps at gradual intervals. Stepped fall
is the modification of rapid fall. It is suitable for the canal which has its upstream at very high
level as compared to downstream. These two levels are connected by providing vertical steps
or drops.

Source: https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/canal-falls-types-importance/12894/

Figure 30. Stepped Canal Falls

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d. Trapezoidal Notch Canal Falls
In case of trapezoidal notch falls, a high crested wall is built across the channel and
trapezoidal notches are provided in that wall. Trapezoidal falls are very economical and
suitable for low discharges. Nowadays, this type of falls are widely used because of their
simplicity and popularity.

Source: https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/canal-falls-types-importance/12894/

Figure 31. Trapezoidal Notch Canal Falls

e. Well Type Canal Falls

Well type falls are also called as syphon drop falls. In this case, an inlet well with pipe
at its botton is constructed in upstream. The pipe carries the water to downstream well or
reservoir. If the discharge capacity is more than 0.29 cu.m. then downstream well is preferred
otherwise reservoir is suitable.

Source:https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/canal-falls-types-importance/12894/

Figure 32. Well Type Canal Falls

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f. Simple Vertical Drop (Sarda) Falls

Simple vertical drop fall or sarda fall consists of single vertical drop which allows the
upstream water to fall with sudden impact on downstream. The downstream acts like cushion
for the upstream water and dissipate extra energy. This type of fall is tried in Sarda Canal UP
(India) and therefore, it is also called Sarda Fall.

Source: https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/canal-falls-types-importance/12894/

Figure 33. Simple Vertical Drop Falls

g. Straight Glacis Canal Falls
This is the modern type of construction, in which a raised crest is constructed across the
canal and a gentle straight inclined surface is provided from raised crest to the downstream.
The water coming from upstream crosses the raised crest and falls on inclined surface with
sufficient energy dissipation.

Source: https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/canal-falls-types-importance/12894/

Figure 34. Straight Glacis Canal Fall

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h. Montague Type Canal Falls
Montage fall is similar to straight glacis fall but in this case the glacis is not straight. It
is provided in parabolic shape to introduce the vertical component of velocity which improves
the energy dissipation to more extent.

Source: https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/canal-falls-types-importance/12894/

Figure 35. Montague Canal Fall

i. English (Baffle) Canal Falls
In this case, straight glacis fall is extended as baffle platform with baffle wall. This is
suitable for any discharge. The baffle wall is constructed near the toe of the straight glacis at
required distance in designed height. The main purpose of the baffle wall is to create hydraulic
jump from straight glacis to baffle platform.

Source: https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/canal-falls-types-importance/12894/

Figure 36. English or Baffle Canal Fall

Canal Head Regulators
Canal head regulators are structures constructed at the entrance (the head) of the
canal where it takes off from a reservoir.
The regulator serves the following purposes:
a. It regulates the flow of irrigation water entering into the canal.

235
 It can be used as a meter for measuring the discharge.
It regulates and prevents excessive silt entry into the canal.

Source:https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fm.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Da72BqKeBw&psi

Figure 37. Canal Head Regulator

3. Cross Regulator
A cross regulator is a hydraulic structure constructed across the canal to regulate the
irrigation water supplies. It may be constructed across any type of canal main, branch, or
distributary.
The following considerations make it necessary to construct a regulator across the canal:
When due to inadequate supply, the water level is lowered, the off-taking channels do
not get their proper share. A cross regulator is provided to raise the water level.
Sometimes it becomes necessary to carry out some repair works on a canal. The
cross regulator if existing above the reach of the canal, it can be closed and repairs
can be done efficiently.
Sometimes, it is necessary to close the canal below a particular point. Say when
there is no demand for irrigation water during a particular period.
When the costly headworks are not constructed in the initial stages, the cross-
regulator helps regulate the canal supplies.
Cross regulators divide long canal reach into smaller ones and make it possible to
maintain the reach successfully and efficiently. For efficient functioning they
should be spaced 10 to 13 km apart on the main canal and 7 to 10 km on the
branches.

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 Distributary Head Regulator
It is a hydraulic structure constructed at the head of a distributary.
This regulator performs the same functions as that of a head regulator:
It regulates the supply of the distributary.
It can be used many times as a meter.
It is also a silt-selective structure.
The distributary head regulator controls the flow in the distributary. By
closing the gates distributary can be dried to carry out repairs or
maintenance works.

Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fm.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D a72BqKeBw&psi

Figure 38. Distributary head regulator and parent canal cross regulator

E. Water Measurement Structures

The principal objective of measuring irrigation water is to permit efficient distribution and
application. By measuring the flow of water, a farmer knows how much water is applied during
each irrigation.

In irrigation schemes where water costs are charged to the farmer, water measurement
provides a basis for estimating water charges.

The most commonly used water-measuring structures are weirs and flumes. In these
structures, the water depth is read on a scale which is part of the structure. Using this reading, the

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flow-rate is then computed from standard formulas or obtained from standard tables prepared
specially for the structure.

Weirs

In its simplest form, a weir consists of a wall of timber, metal or concrete with an
opening with fixed dimensions cut in its edge. A small barrier built across a river,
stream, or canal to control the flow of water. Weirs are commonly used in irrigation
systems to divert, store, or regulate the distribution of water for agricultural purposes.
The opening, called a notch, may be rectangular, trapezoidal or triangular.

Source:https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#:~:text=There%20are%20four%2

Figure 39. Rectangular Weir

Source:https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#:~:text=There%20are%20four%2

Figure 40. Triangular Weir

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 Source:https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#:~:text=There%20are%20four%2

Figure 41. Trapezoidal Weir

b. Parshall flumes

Is an economical and accurate way of measuring water flow in open channels and
non-full pipes. It is used to measure volumetric flow rate in industrial discharges,
municipal sewer lines, and influent/effluent flows in wastewater treatment plants.
The Parshall flume consists of a metal or concrete channel structure with three main
sections: (1) a converging section at the upstream end, leading to (2) a constricted or
throat section and (3) a diverging section at the downstream end.
Depending on the flow condition (free flow or submerged flow), the water depth
readings are taken on one scale only (the upstream one) or on both scales
simultaneously.

Source:https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#:~:text=There%20are%20four%2

Figure 42. Parshall Flume

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 Cut-throat flume

The Cutthroat flume is a class of flow measurement flume developed during 1966/1967 that
is used to measure the flow of surface waters, sewage flows, and industrial discharges.
The cut-throat flume is similar to the Parshall flume, but has no throat section, only
converging and diverging sections. Unlike the Parshall flume, the cut-throat flume has a
flat bottom. Because it is easier to construct and install, the cut-throat flume is often
preferred to the Parshall flume.

Source:https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#:~:text=There%20are%20four%2
Figure 43. Cut-throat Flume

F. Drainage Structure

Drainage structures used on streets and highways collect water, transferring it away from
the road. These often consist of curbs and curb inlets, gutters, culverts, catch basins and
drop inlets. Their purpose is to keep roadways free of water, draining into ditches and
underground structures, and transferring to creeks and rivers.

Source: https://camerons-inc.com/services-2/irrigation-and-drainage/

Figure 44. Example of a Drainage Structure

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The water flowing from the saturated soil downward to deeper layers, feeds the groundwater
reservoir. As a result, the groundwater level (often called groundwater table or simply water
table) rises. Following heavy rainfall or continuous over-irrigation, the groundwater table may
even reach and saturate part of the rootzone.

Source: https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e07.htm Source: https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e07.htm

Figure 45. Before heavy rain Figure 46. After heavy rain

VI. Drainage

It is the process involved in the removal of excess water in the soil. Excess water may be
caused by rainfall or by using too much irrigation water but may also have other origins
such as canal seepage or floods

Two Types of Drainage

Natural Drainage

It is drainage consisting of native soils such as a natural swale or topographic depression

which gathers or conveys run-off to a permanent or intermittent watercourse or waterbody.

Artificial Drainage

It employs the help of pipes, wells, and other constructed materials to achieve a successful
drainage solution. A dry well system implements the use of an underground storage container
with downspouts and drains connected to it. Many areas have some natural

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 drainage; this means that excess water flows from the farmers' fields to swamps or to
lakes and rivers. Natural drainage, however, is often inadequate and artificial or man-
made drainage is required.

Two Types of Artificial Drainage

Surface Drainage

is the removal of excess water from the surface of the land. This is normally
accomplished by shallow ditches, also called open drains.

Source: https://www.baumerk.com/en/blog/what-is-drainage-how-to-install-dranaige

Figure 47. Surface Drainage

Subsurface Drainage

Subsurface drainage is the removal of water from the root zone. It is accomplished by
deep open drains or buried pipe drains.

Source: https://blessingland.com/blog/drainage-solutions/

Figure 48. Subsurface Drainage

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a) Deep Open Drain
Is excavated to a depth that is sufficient to intercept the water table in order to
capture and convey the groundwater from flat, poorly drained land.

Source: https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e07.htm

Figure 49. Deep Open Drain

b) Pipe Drain
These are buried pipes with openings through which the soil water can enter. The
pipes convey the water to a collector drain.

Source: https://www.othmann-pipes.com.ph/pipe-application/drainage

Figure 50. Pipe Drain

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Deep Open Drain vs. Pipe Drain

Deep Open Drain Pipe Drains

• Use land that otherwise could be used • Buried pipes cause no loss of cultivable
for crops land and maintenance requirements are
very limited
• Restrict the use of machine • The installation costs, however, of pipe
drains may be higher due to the
materials, the equipment and the
skilled manpower involved
• Require many bridges and culverts for
road crossings and access to the fields
• Require many frequent maintenance
(weed control, repairs, etc.)