Canal Irrigation System
Defn: Canal is defined as an artificial waterway constructed to carry water from source for
different purposes like irrigation, water supply, hydropower etc.
Canal Losses
Canal losses due to seepage and evaporation
Water loss either by evaporation from the surface or by seepage through the peripheries of the
channels.
While determining the designed channel capacity, a provision for these losses must be made.
The losses are sometimes as high as 20% to 50% water diverted.
Evaporation
• The water lost by evaporation depends on temperature, wind velocity, humidity etc.
• Generally, the water lost by evaporation is 1% to 2% of total canal discharge and about 2% to
3% of total loss.
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• In worst case evaporation loss can be up to 7%
Seepage
Canal Losses
Seepage loss occurs by two mechanism: percolation and absorption.
Percolation loss
• Deep percolation of water from surface to
ground water table.
• Percolation loss is very high compared to
absorption.
Absorption loss
• Absorption loss occurs just below canal bed.
• Unsaturated zone exists between the two
saturated zones.
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Classification of Canals:
1) Based on nature of source of supply
A. Permanent canals (have continuous flow of water)
✓ Perennial canal : These canal gets continuous supplies from the sources throughout
the year.ie generally from the snow-fed rivers.
✓ Non-perennial canal: This canal gets supply only for some part of year
B. Inundation canals (flood water management, flow above certain water level)
No head regulator is provided at the head of flood canal.
2) Based on the function of the canal
▪ Irrigation canal (used to carry water to the field)
▪ Hydropower canal ( Used to carry to powerhouse for hydropower generation)
▪ Feeder canal (only feeds other canals)
▪ Carrier canals (carries water for direct irrigation and also to feed another canal)
Also called as multipurpose canal. 3
3) Based on discharge in canal and its importance in canal network
▪ Main canal: takes supply directly from river
Irrigation can’t be done from main canal
▪ Branch canal (discharge > 5cumec)
▪ Major distributary (0.25 – 5 cumec)
▪ Minor distributary (less than 0.25 cumec)
▪ Water course or field channel (owned and constructed by the farmers)
4) Based on canal alignment
a) Ridge canal/watershed canal
• It is the most desirable alignment
• Canal flows along the ridge line or watershed line.
• It can irrigate the commanded area on its both sides
• Cross drainage can be avoided
• Suitable in plain areas
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b) Contour Canal c) Side slope Canal
• Canal aligned parallel to contours • Canal aligned perpendicular to contour
• Irrigates only one side of commanded area so lines.
called as single bank canal • Cross drainage can be avoided
• Cross drainage structures needs to be provided • River and canal flows parallel
• Suitable in hilly areas
5) Based on financial output
▪ Protective canal (to protect particular area from famine)
▪ Productive canal (to generate revenue to the nation)
6) Based on the soil through which it is constructed
▪ Alluvial canal (Canal formed on alluvial soil i.e soft soil)
▪ Non-alluvial canal (Canal formed on Non-alluvial soil i.e hard rock)
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7) Based on the presence of lining
Lined canals: Canals with their surface lined by impervious materials like concrete, brick etc
Unlined canals: Canals with their surface in natural condition.
8) Others
▪ Drain canal : To drain water from water logged areas.
▪ Ditch Canal : Acts as drainage of parent canal.
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Canal Cross section
Canal section is formed by three different method of earthwork. They are:
a) Fully cutting b)fully filling c) partly cutting partly filling
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Balancing depth of canal:
The depth of cutting that will result in balance of earthwork
i.e. earthwork of excavation equal to that of filling is called
balancing depth.
If the balance between cutting and feeling occur, the need of
spoil bank and borrow pits are completely eliminated
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Elements of canal cross section
Free Board Dowel
Bank Level Service Road
FSL
Berm GL
Spoil Bank
Bank
Burrow Pit
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Elements of canal cross section
Freeboard(FB) Discharge (m3/s) Free board
▪Margin between FSL (Full supply level) and bank level (m)
▪Depends upon discharge in the canal Less than 3 0.45
3-30 0.6
Canal banks 30-60 0.75
▪Primary purpose is to retain water More than 60 0.9
▪Serves as service road
▪Should be wide enough so that at least 0.5 m cover is available above saturation line
Service roads:
▪ Roads provided on canals for inspection purpose, service and maintenance
▪ Generally provided 0.4 m to 1.0 m above FSL depending upon canal size.
Berms
Horizontal portion on ground level between toe of bank and top edge of cutting
Berms are provided for following purposes:
▪Stability of bank
▪Scope for future expansion 10
Dowlas/Dowla:
▪ Dowlas are small embankments by the side of service roads
▪ Generally height is 0.3 m and width at the top is 0.3 to 0.6 m
▪ For safety in driving on service roads
Spoil bank
▪Constructed when Volume of cutting is more than filling required.
▪Can be provided at left or right side of canal
Borrow pits
▪Forms when volume of cutting is less than filling required.
▪Borrow pit is preferably provided at center of canal but can be provided at left or right
side of canal
▪Width is half canal width and maximum depth is 1
Bed Bars
▪ Concrete or masonry structure constructed at canal bed that shows general behaviour
of canal
▪ It shows whether canal is silting or scouring
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Canal Lining
The Process applying an impervious layer on the surface of an unlined canal to make canal
impervious and reduce seepage loss is called as canal lining
Advantages of canal lining:
▪ It helps in seepage control.
▪ It helps in preventing water logging.
▪ Increases discharge capacity of canal.
▪ Increases duty of irrigation water.
▪ Reduction in general maintenance and repair cost.
Type of Lining Permissible velocity (m/s) Thickness (cm)
Cement Concrete Lining 2 to 2.5 m/s 10-15 cm
Lime concrete Lining upto 2 m/s 10-15 cm
Stone Masonry Lining 1 m/s About 15 cm
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Brick Masonry Lining 1.5 m/s About 15 cm
Suitable Lined Canal Section
1)Triangular section (for small discharge Q less than 85 cumecs)
𝐴 = 𝑦2(𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃)
P = 2𝑦(𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃)
2) Trapezoidal section(for large discharge more than 85 cumecs)
𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦 + 𝑦2(𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃)
P = 𝐵 + 2𝑦(𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃)
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Mec hanism of sediment transport in c ha nnels
> The value of average shear stress (r0) on bed of alluvial channel at which particle just
tend to move is called critical shear stress (rc)
> If the average shear stress is less than critical shear stress, sediments don’ t move
> When the average shear stress just exceeds critical shear, the partic les in the bed
start to roll
> With further increase in shear stress, the particle goes in suspension and
moves downward with the water
Inc ipient motion c ondition:
The condition at which the shear force exerted by the flowing water on bed
particles just exceeds the force opposing their movement.
4.3 Tra c tive forc e approa c h of c a nal design
Soil is a ssumed to be cohesion less.
The force exerted by water in the direction of flow on the c hannel bed and side is c a lled
drag forc e or trac tive forc e or shear force
Average tractive force r 0 = γwRS
Lane established the variation of shear stress as given below:
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Hence, for designing non-scouring channels in coarse alluvium
τc = 0.056 * γwd ( Sc − 1)
For stability
τ0 ≤ τc
γwRS ≤ 0.056 * γwd ( Sc − 1)
(For, Sc = 2.65)
d ≥ 11RS
(This equation gives the minimum size of the bed material which will remain in rest for
given R and S)
Tractive force ratio K
The equation shows that the shear stress required to move a particle on the side
slope is less than on canal bed.
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Canal Design using Manning’s Formula
This is most commonly used formula for canal design.
The discharge is given by:
𝐴 1
Q= × R2/3× S1/2 , V = × R2/3× S1/2
𝑛 𝑛
Where, Q = discharge, A = flow area, R = Area/Wetted Perimeter =
Hydraulic Mean Radius, S = Longitudinal slope or bed slope, n = manning’
roughness constant = manning’s rugosity coefficient
Also, velocity can be calculated by:
Materials Manning's n
Fine sand 0.02
Fine Gravel 0.02
Coarse Gravel 0.025
Clay 0.025
Silty Clay 0.025
Loam 0.02
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Design of Unlined alluvial canal
Kennedy’s Theory
Kennedy carried out research on Upper Bari Doab Canal system in Punjab (Pakistan) having 1:2
(H:V) trapezoidal section.
Following are the conslucions drawn from the Kennedy’s theory:
i) Eddies formed due to friction between soil surface and water.
ii) Eddies formed from bed only.
iii) Silt carried by water flowing in a canal is kept in suspension by the vertical component of
eddies generated over the full width of the canal.
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By practical observations, he gave an empirical relation for critical velocity
critical velocity (𝑣c)= 0.55m𝐷0.64
Where, D= flow depth in meter
m = critical velocity ratio (CVR) which depends on size of silt, grade of silt, silt carrying
capacity
CVR (m) = 𝑣a /𝑣c
𝑣a is mean velocity which is calculated using kutter’s formula
𝑣 = 𝑐 𝑅𝑆
1 0.00155 R= hydraulic mean depth
𝑛 + (23 + )
𝑐= 𝑆 S= bed slope of canal
1 + (23 + 0.00155) 𝑛 N=rugosity coefficient of
𝑆 𝑅 canal bed.
Cases:
1. If CVR = 1, 𝑣a =𝑣c ,No silting and No scouring
2. If CVR > 1, 𝑣a >𝑣c , Scouring occurs
3. If CVR < 1, 𝑣a <𝑣c , Silting occurs
Drawbacks of Kennedy’s theory
• Eddies formed from bed only.
• Design procedure involves trial and error method
• Kennedy uses kutter’s formula. So, all the defects of Kutter’s formula are associated with
Kennedy’s formula.
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Lacey’s Regime theory:
• Based on the concept of regime theory.
• Eddies generate from whole wetted perimeter i.e. bed and sides.
• Kennedy stated that a channel showing no silting and no scouring is regime channel but
lacey came out with the conclusion that even a channel showing no silting and no
scouring may not be in regime.
He differentiated 3 regime conditions:
a) True regime
For the channel to be in true regime following conditions must be satisfied.
• Discharge is constant
• Flow is uniform
• Silt charge is constant
• Silt grade is constant
• Flow takes place in incoherent alluvium.
Although lacey theory is applicable in true regime but canal can’t practically be in true
regime. It means the canal will either be in initial regime or final regime. 22
• b) Initial regime
• When only bed slope and depth varies due to silting and its slope, wetted perimeter
remains unaffected then a canal may show no silting and no scouring condition called as
Initial Regime.
• This regime is temporary and lacey theory is not applicable.
c) Final regime
• When all parameters such as wetted perimeter, side slope, bed slope vary and finally get
adjusted to achieve permanent stability then this condition is called as final regime
condition.
• Lacey theory is applicable to final regime condition.
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Design of canal by Lacey’s theory
Relations derived from Lacey’s fundamental formulas
1. Hydraulic Radius:
5 𝑣2
𝑅= ( ) f = 1.76 d50
2 𝑓
2. Flow velocity, discharge and silt factor relation: d50 = Average particle size in mm
𝑄𝑓 2/ 1/6
𝑣=( 140)
3. Perimeter discharge relation:
𝑃 = 4.75 𝑄
4. Regime slope equation:
𝑓 5/3 𝑓 3/2
𝑆= 𝑆=
3340𝑄1/6 4980𝑅1/6
5. Lacey’s regime scour depth relation:
𝑄 1
𝑅 = 0.473( )3 (𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑛𝑜𝑡 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠)
𝑓
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This equation is applicable only when river width is equal to regime width of 4.75 𝑄
For any other river width the normal scour depth is given by equation,
𝑅 = 1.35(q2/ 𝑓)1/3
Lacey has also given general flow equation as:
V = 10.8R2/3S1/3
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Most Economical Canal Section
• A canal is said to be most economical when its cost of construction is low.
• An economic canal section is one which has minimum wetted perimeter.
• For a given discharge, canal has minimum cross sectional area.
• For a given cross sectional area, canal has maximum discharge.
1. Economic Rectangular section
B = 2*y ( B= canal bed width, y = canal flow depth)
2. Econimical triangular section
Side slope 1:1 or slope angle 450
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3. Economical Trapezoidal section
• Side slope 1:1/ 3 or slope angle 600
• Top width = 2 * side slope length
• Hydraulic mean radius = y / 2
4. Economical Circular section
• For maximum flow : d = 0.95*D
• For maximum velocity : d = 0.81*D
D = Diameter of circular canal , d = flow depth
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