IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES, MODULE – 2

Module – 4: Canals
Reservoirs
CANALS
4.1. INTRODUCTION

A canal is an artificial channel, generally trapezoidal in shape, constructed on the ground to

carry water to the fields either from a river or tank or reservoir. They can be lined with concrete,
brick, stone or a flexible membrane to prevent seepage and erosion.

If the full supply level (FSL) of a canal is below the natural ground surface, an open cut or
excavation is necessary to construct a canal. If the FSL of the canal is above the existing ground
level, the canal is constructed by providing earthen banks on both sides. In the first case the
channel is called a canal in cutting and in the second case it is called a canal in filling. Some-
times a canal can be of the intermediate type and the channel is called a canal in partia cutting
and Partial filling.

4.2. TYPES OF CANALS

The irrigation canals can be classified in different ways based on the following consideration:

 Classification based on the nature of source of supply

 Classification based on the function of the canal

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 Classification based on discharge and its relative importance in a given network of ca-
nals
 Classification based on Canal Alignment
 Classification based on the financial output
 Classification based on the soil through which canals are constructed
 Classification based on lining being provided or not

4.2.1. Classification based on the nature of source of supply

Permanent canals: A permanent canal is one which draws water from a permanent source of
supply. The canal in such cases is made as a regular graded canal (fixed slope). It is provided
with permanent regulation and distribution works. A permanent canal may also be perennial
canal or non-perennial canal depending on whether the source supplying water is a perennial
one or a non-perennial.

Inundation canals: An inundation canal is one which draws water from a river when the water
level in the river is high or the river is in floods. These canals are not provided with any regu-
latory works, but an open cut is made in the banks of the canal to divert water.

4.2.2. Classification based on the function of the canal

Feeder canals: A feeder canal is constructed for the purpose of supplying water to two or more
canals only but not directly irrigating the fields.

Carrier canals: A carrier canal carries water for irrigating the fields and also feeds other canals
for their needs.

Navigation canals: A canal serving the purpose of in-land navigation is called a navigation
canal.

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Power canals: A power canal supplies water to a hydro-electric power generation plant for
generation of electrical power.

4.2.3. Classification based on discharge and its relative importance in a given network of
canals

Main canal: A main canal is the principal canal in a network of irrigation canals. It directly
takes off from a river, reservoir or a feeder canal. It has large capacity and supplies water to
branch canals and even to major distributaries.

Branch canal: Branch canals take off from a main canal on either side at regular intervals.
They carry a discharge of about 5 cumec and are not usually used to directly irrigate the fields.

Major distributary: A major distributory takes off a branch canal or a main canal. It has a
discharge capacity of 0.25 to 5 cumec. They are used for direct irrigation and also to feed minor
distributaries.

Minor distributary: Minor distributaries are canals taking off from the branch canals and
major distributaries. They carry a discharge less than 0.25 cumec. These canals supply water
to field channels.

Water course or Field channel: A water course or field channel takes off from either a major
or minor distributory or a branch canal also. These are constructed and maintained by the cul-
tivators / farmers. The other canals are constructed and maintained by the government or the
Command Area Development Authority.

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4.2.4. Classification based on Canal Alignment

Ridge canal or watershed canal: A Ridge canal or watershed canal is one which runs along
the ridge or watershed line. It can irrigate the fields on both sides. In case of ridge canals the
necessity of cross drainage work does not arise as the canal is not intercepted by natural streams
or drains.

Contour canal: A contour canal is one which is aligned nearly parallel to the contours of the
country/area. These canals can irrigate the lands on only one side. The ground level on one side
is higher and hence bank on the higher side may not be necessary. A contour canal may be
intercepted by natural streams/drains and hence cross drainage works may be essential.

Side slope canal: A Side slope canal is one which is aligned at right angles to the contour of
the country/area. It is a canal running between a ridge and a valley. This canal is not intercepted
by streams and hence no cross drainage works may be essential. This canal has steep bed slope
since the ground has steep slope in a direction perpendicular to the contours of the country/area.

4.2.5. Classification based on the financial output

Productive canals: A productive canal is one which is fully developed and earns enough rev-
enue for its running and maintenance and also recovers the cost of its initial investment. It is
essential the cost of its initial investment is recovered within 16 years of construction.

Protective canals: Protective canals are those constructed at times of famine to provide relief
and employment to the people of the area. The revenue from such a canal may not be sufficient
for its maintenance. The investment may also not be recovered within the stipulated time.

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4.2.6. Classification based on the soil through which canals are constructed

Alluvial canals: Canals constructed in alluvial soils are known as alluvial canals. Alluvial soils
are found in the Indo-Gangetic plains of North India. The alluvial soils can be easily scoured
and deposited by water.

Non-alluvial canals: Canals constructed through hard soils or disintegrated rocks are called
non-alluvial canals. Such soils are usually found in Central and South India.

4.2.7. Classification based on lining being provided or not

Unlined canals: An unlined canal is one which the bed and banks of the canal are made up of
natural soil through which it is constructed. A protective lining of impervious material is not
provided. The velocity of flow is kept low such that bed and banks are not scoured.

Lined canals: A lined canal is one which is provide with a lining of impervious material on its
banks and beds, to prevent the seepage of water and also scouring of banks and bed. Higher
velocity for water can be permitted in lined canals and hence cross sectional area can be re-
duced.

4.3. CANAL ALIGNMENT

In aligning an irrigation canal, the following points must be considered.

1. An irrigation canal should be aligned in such a way that maximum area is irrigated with least
length of canal.

2. Cross drainage works should be avoided as far as possible, such that the cost is reduced.

3. The off taking point of the canal from the source should be on a ridge, such that the canal
must run as a ridge canal and irrigate lands on both sides.

4. Sharp curves in canals must be avoided.

5. In hilly areas, when it is not possible to construct ridge canals, the canal must be made to
run as a contour canal.

6. The canal should be aligned such that the idle length of the canal is minimum.

7. The alignment should be such that heavy cutting or heavy filling are avoided. If possible
balanced depth of cutting and filling is achieved.

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8. It should not be aligned in rocky and cracked strata.

9. The alignment should avoid villages, roads, places of worship and other obligatory points.

4.4. DESIGN OF CANALS

Design of unlined canals in alluvial soils when water from the catchment or drainage basin
enters the river it carries huge amounts of silt or sediments along with it. The sediment is carried
either in suspension or dragged along the rivers bed. A portion of this silt or sediment also
entire the canals. These sediments can cause a problem in the design of unlined canals in allu-
vial soils.

If the velocity of flowing water in the canal is less, the sediments get deposited on the bed of
the canal, thereby reducing the cross sectional area of flow and in turn the irrigating capacity
of the canal reduces. On the other hand, if the velocity is increased too much, erosion of the
bed and sides of the canal takes place. Thus the area of the channel increases, full supply depth
in canals decreases and also causing other damages. Hence, in case of unlined canals, the ve-
locity of flow should be such that it is neither silting nor scouring. Such a velocity is called
non-silting and non scouring velocity or also called as critical velocity.

To carry the required design discharge (Q), knowing the surface and soil properties such as (N)
and silt factor (f), the design of an irrigation channel includes determining

1. Cross sectional area of flow (A)

2. Hydraulic mean radius (R)
3. Velocity of flow (V)
4. Bed slope (S)

R G Kennedy, former Executive Engineer, Punjab Irrigation Department and Gerald Lacey,
former Chief Engineer, U P Irrigation Department made a lot of investigations in this area and
put forward theories named after them such as, Kennedy’s theory and Lacey’s Regime theory
respectively.

4.4.1. Kennedy’s Theory

Kennedy selected a number of canal sections in the upper Bari-Doab region which did not
required any silt clearance for more than 35 years and were supposed to be flowing with non-
silting and non-scouring velocity. Kennedy put forward the following facts out of his study.

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 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES, MODULE – 2

The bed of the canal offers frictional resistance to the flow of water, as a result critical eddies
(Turbulences) arise from the bottom of the bed. These eddies keep the sediments carried by
water in suspension. Some eddies also arise from the sides of the canal, but do not support the
sediments. Hence, the sediment supporting capacity is proportional to the bed width of the
canal.

The critical velocity or non-silting and non scouring velocity (Vo) is a function of the depth of
the flowing water (D). It is given by the relationship Vo = c m Dn, where ‘c’ and ‘n’ are coef-
ficients suggested by Kennedy for canals of Bari-Doad region. The value of ‘c’ differs for
different materials, as Light Sandy silt - c = 0.53, Coarse light sandy silt - c = 0.59, Sandy loan
- c = 0.65, Coarse silt - c = 0.70

Note: Unless otherwise specified, values of c and n can be taken as c = 0.55 and n = 0.64

Thus, the equation for critical velocity becomes Vo = 0.55 m D0.64 represents critical velocity
ratio which is given as = Where, V represents mean velocity of flow.

The mean velocity of flow is given by V=C√RS

1 0.0015
23+ +
N S
where C represents Chezy’s constant and is given by C= 0.0015 N
1+ (23+ )
S √R

where N represents Kutter’s Rugosity coefficient

S represents Bed slope of the canal
R represents Hydraulic mean radius and is given by R= A/P
where A is cross sectional area of canal and P is wetted perimeter

When a canal is designed by Kennedy’s method it is required that Vo is equal to V, i.e., Critical
velocity ratio m = 1

Note: The cross section for an irrigation canal is assumed as a trapezoidal channel as follows.

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 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES, MODULE – 2

Kennedy’s procedure for designing unlined canals

Following equations are required in designing canal section

Q=AVo
Vo =0.55mD0.64
1 0.0015
23+ +
N S
V=C√RS , where C= 0.0015 N
1+ (23+ )
S √R

Knowing different quantities such as Discharge, Rugosity coefficient (N), Critical Velocity
ratio (m), Bed slope (S) or B/D ratio, the properties of canal section can be designed

Case I – when bed slope S is given

• For given discharge assume a trial value of the depth of flow (D)

• Calculate Vo from Vo =0.55mD0.64

• Determine A from Q=AVo
• Knowing D and A, calculate the bed width B
• Knowing B and D, calculate the wetted perimeter P
• Knowing A and P, calculate hydraulic mean radius R
• Calculate mean velocity of flow from the equation V=C√RS
• If critical velocity ratio (m) is equal to given value, then assumed value of D is correct
• If not revise the depth D

Case II – when B/D ratio is given

• Let B/D = x, then B = Dx

• Calculate A in terms of D, using A=(B+nD)D
• Calculate Vo in terms of D from Vo =0.55mD0.64
• Calculate D by substituting A and Vo in Q=AVo
• Knowing B, D and A, calculate P and R
• Assume trial value of S and calculate mean velocity of flow from the equation V=C√RS
• If critical velocity ratio (m) is equal to given value, then the bed slope provided is ade-
quate
• If not revise the bed slope S

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 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES, MODULE – 2

Note: The trial values of bed slope S are assumed depending upon the discharge (Q) as follows

Drawbacks of Kennedy’s Theory

 Kutters equation is used for determining the mean velocity of flow and hence the limi-
tations.
 The significance of B/D ratio is not considered in the theory.
 No equation for the bed slope has been given which may lead to varied designs of the
channel with slight variation in the bed slope.
 Silt charge and silt grade are not considered. The complex phenomenon of silt trans-
portation is incorporated in a single factor are called critical velocity ratio.
 The value of m is decided arbitrarily since there is no method given for determining its
value.
 This theory is aimed to design only an average regime channel.
 The design of channel by the method based on this theory involves trial and error which
is quite cumbersome.

4.4.2. Lacey’s Regime theory

Lacey carried out a detailed study in designing suitable channels in alluvial soils. He developed
the regime theory and formulated a number of expressions based on his observations. The sa-
lient features of Lacey’s theory are stated as follows:

In a channel constructed in alluvial soil to carry a certain discharge, the bottom width,
depth and bed slope of the channel will undergo modifications by silting and scouring
till equilibrium is attained. The channel is now said to be a regime channel. (A regime
channel is defined as a stable channel whose bed width, depth and side slopes have
undergone modifications by silting and scouring and are so adjusted that equilibrium is
attained).
A channel is said to be in regime when the following conditions are satisfied.
o The Channel is flowing in unlimited incoherent alluvium of the same character
as that of the transported sediment. (Incoherent alluvium is a soil composed of
loose granular material which can be scoured and deposited with the same ease.)

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o Silt grade (silt size) and silt charge (silt concentration) is the same throughout
the channel.
o Discharge in the canal is constant.
 The silt carried by the flowing water in the canal is kept in suspension by vertical eddies
generated from the bed as well as from the sides of the canal.
 The silt grade also plays an important role in controlling the regime conditions of the
channel. The silt factor is given by the relationship f = 1.76√d where d represents di-
ameter of silt particle in mm.

Lacey’s procedure for designing unlined canal

1⁄
Qf2 6
• Calculate mean velocity V= [140] m/s

• Calculate cross section area of flow, A = Q/V

• Knowing side slope, express A in terms of B and D, A=(B+nD)D
• Determine wetted perimeter, P=4.75√Q

• Express P in terms of B and D, P=B+2D√1+n2

• Calculate B and D
5 V2
• Calculate Hydraulic mean radius, R= 2 [ f ]

• Calculate Hydraulic mean radius, R = A/P

• If the values of Hydraulic mean radius ‘R’ are same, then the design is OK
𝑓 5/3 𝑓 3/2
• Calculate bed slope 𝑆 = [3340𝑄1/6 ] and 𝑆 = [4980𝑅1/2 ]

Drawbacks of Kacey’s Theory

 The theory does not give a clear description of physical aspects of the problem.
 It does not define what actually governs the characteristics of an alluvial channel.
 The derivation of various formulae depends upon a single factor f and dependence on
single factor f is not adequate.
 There are different phases of flow on bed and sides and hence different values of silt
factor for bed and side should have been used.
 Lacey’s equation do not include a concentration of silt as variable.

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 Lacey did not take into account the silt left in channel by water that is lost in absorption
which is as much as 12 to 15% of the total discharge of channel.
 The effect of silt accumulation was also ignored. The silt size does actually go on de-
creasing by the process attrition among the rolling silt particles dragged along the bed.
 Lacey did not properly define the silt grade and silt charge.
 Lacey introduced semiellipse as ideal shape of a regime channel which is not correct.

RESERVOIRS

An open-air storage area (usually formed by masonry or earthwork) where water is collected
and kept in quantity so that it may be drawn off for use.

4.5. INVESTIGATIONS FOR RESERVOIR

Following are the investigations that are usually conducted for reservoir planning.

1. Engineering Investigations / Surveys

2. Geological Investigations
3. Hydrologic Investigations

4.5.1. Engineering Investigations / Surveys

Generally Engineering Surveys are conducted for the dam, the reservoir and their associated
works. During this investigation topographic survey of the area is carried out and the contour
plan is prepared. The horizontal control is usually provided by triangulation survey and vertical
control by precise leveling.

At the dam site, very accurate triangulation survey is conducted and a contour plan to a scale
of 1:250 or 1:500 is generally prepared with contour intervals in the range of 1 to 2 m. Such a
survey should cover an area at hart upto 200 m upstream 400 m downstream and for adequate
width beyond the two abutments.

For the reservoir, the contour plan is generally prepared to a scale of 1:15,000 with contour
interval between 2 to 3 m. The area elevation and storage elevation curves are prepared for
different elevations upto an elevation of 3 to 5 m higher than the anticipated maximum water
level.

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4.5.2. Geological Investigations

Following are the reasons for carrying out the Geological investigations at a reservoir site:

 Suitability of foundation for the dam.

 Water tightness of the reservoir basis.
 Location of quarry sites for the construction.

4.5.3. Hydrologic Investigations

Following purposes demand the hydrological investigations:

 To study the runoff pattern and to estimate yield.

 To determine the maximum discharge at the site.

4.6. SELECTION OF SITE FOR A RESERVOIR

A good site for a reservoir should have the following characteristics:

Large storage capacity: The topography of the proposed site should be such that the reservoir
has a large capacity for storing the water.

Suitable site for the dam: A suitable site for the proposed dam should be available on the
downstream side of the reservoir, with very good foundation; narrow opening in the valley to
provide minimum length of the dam and also the cost of construction should be minimum.

Water tightness of the reservoir: Geology at the proposed reservoir site should be such that
the entire reservoir basin is water tight. They should have Granite, Gneiss, Schists, Slates, or
Shales etc.

Good hydrological conditions: The hydrological conditions of the river at the reservoir should
give high yield. Evaporation, transpiration, and percolation losses should be minimum.

Deep reservoir: The proposed site should be such that a deep reservoir is formed after the dam
construction. The reason being evaporation losses would be minimum; in addition to low cost
of land acquisition and less weed growth.

Small submerged area: At the proposed site, the submerged area should be minimum and
should not affect the ecology of the area. Important places, monuments, roads, railway lines
should not submerge.

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Minimum silt inflow: The life of reservoir is defined by the quantity of silt inflow, which
means that, if the silt inflow is large, the life would be less. Hence, it is necessary to select the
reservoir site at such a place, where the silt inflow is minimum.

No objectionable minerals: The proposed site should be free from soluble and objectionable
salts, which may pollute the reservoir.

Minimum acquisition and construction cost: The overall cost of the project should be mini-
mum in terms of dam construction, land acquisition for reservoir, buildings, roads, railways
etc.

4.7. STORAGE ZONES OF A RESERVOIR

Live Storage or useful storage: Is that amount of water available or stored between the Min-
imum Pool Level (LWL) and the Full Reservoir Level (FRL). Minimum pool level or low
water level is fixed after considering the minimum working head required for the efficient
working of turbines.

Surcharge storage: Is the volume of water stored above the Full Reservoir Level (FRL) up to
the Maximum Water Level (MWL). In case of a multipurpose reservoir, useful storage or live
storage is divided into (i) Conservation storage and (ii) Flood control storage.

Dead storage: Is the volume of water held below the Minimum Pool Level (LWL). This stor-
age is not useful and hence cannot be used for any purpose under ordinary operating conditions.

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Bank storage: Water stored in the banks of a river is known as bank storage. In most of the
reservoirs the bank storage is small since the banks are generally impervious.

Valley storage: Is the volume of water held by the natural river channel in its valley upto the
top of its banks before the construction of the reservoir. The valley storage depends upon the
cross section of the river, the length of the river and its water level.

4.8. DETERMINATION OF STORAGE CAPACITY USING MASS CURVES

Mass Curve is a graphical representation of cumulative volume of water in the reservoir against
cumulative time. It will be a continuously raising curve. Fixing Capacity of a reservoir Capacity
of a reservoir depends on the inflow and demand. It is a fact that if the available inflow is more
than the demand, there is no necessity of anystorage. On the other hand, if the inflow is less
and demand is high a large reservoir capacity is required. Capacity for a reservoir can be de-
termined by the following methods

(i) Mass curve or graphical method

(ii) Analytical method
(iii) Flow duration curve method

Mass curve method or Graphical method

Storage required for uniform demand: In the case of uniform demand, the mass curve will
be a straight line.

The procedure adopted will be as follows:

1. Prepare the mass inflow curve for the flow hydrograph of the site for a number of consecutive
years including the most critical years (or the driest years) when the discharge is low, Fig shows
the mass inflow curve.

2. Prepare the mass demand curve corresponding to the given rate of demand. If the rate of
demand is constant, the mass demand curve is a straight line as shown in fig. 1.3. The scale
selected for plotting of the mass inflow and mass demand curve should be the same.

3. Draw the lines AB, FG etc. such that they are parallel to the mass demand curve, and they
are tangential to the peak points or crests at A, F etc. of the mass inflow curve points A, F, etc.
indicate the beginning of dry periods marked by the depressions.

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4. Determine the vertical intercepts CD, HJ etc. between the tangential lines and the mass in-
flow curve. These intercepts indicate the volumes by which the inflow volumes fall short of
demand, which can be explained as follows:

 Assuming that the reservoir is full at point A, the inflow volume during the period AE
is equal to ordinate DE and the demand is equal to ordinate CE. Thus the storage re-
quired is equal to the volume intercepted by the intercept CD.

5. Determine the largest of the vertical intercept determined in step (4). The largest vertical
intercept represents the storage capacity required. Following import points have to be noted:

 The capacity obtained in the net storage capacity which must be available to meet the
demand. The gross capacity of the reservoir will be more than the net storage capacity.
It is obtained by adding the evaporation and seepage losses to the net storage capacity.
 The tangential lines AB, FG etc. when extended forward must interest the inflow curve.
This is necessary for the reservoir to get filled again. If these lines do not intersect the
mass curve, the reservoir would not fill again. Many times very large reservoirs may
not get refilled every year.
 The vertical distance such as FL between the successive tangents represents the volume
of water flowing over the spillway.

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4.9. ECONOMICAL HEIGHT OF A DAM

Economical height of a dam refers to the height at which the cost per unit storage is minimum.
The cost per unit storage is calculated by dividing the total cost of constructing the dam by the
total storage capacity it provides. This is the most important factor for determining the eco-
nomical height of a dam because it directly impacts the cost-effectiveness of the project.

Factors affecting the economical height of a dam:

Cost of construction: The cost of constructing a dam includes various expenses such as exca-
vation, concrete work, reinforcement, transportation, and labor. The higher the height of the
dam, the higher will be the cost of construction.

Storage capacity: The storage capacity of a dam is directly proportional to its height. The
higher the height, the greater will be the storage capacity.

Benefit-cost ratio: Although the benefit-cost ratio is an important factor, it is not the most
important factor for determining the economical height of a dam. It is used to determine the
economic viability of the project as a whole.

Net benefit: Net benefit is the difference between the benefits and costs of the project. How-
ever, it does not provide information about the cost-effectiveness of the project.

Determining the economical height of a dam is important for the following reasons:

 It helps in reducing the cost of construction by optimizing the height of the dam.
 It ensures that the project is cost-effective and provides maximum storage capacity at
minimum cost.
 It helps in minimizing the environmental impact of the project by optimizing the height
of the dam.

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