Atom

Atoms are the basic particles of the chemical

elements. An atom consists of a nucleus of protons Atom
and generally neutrons, surrounded by an
electromagnetically bound swarm of electrons. The
chemical elements are distinguished from each other
by the number of protons that are in their atoms. For
example, any atom that contains 11 protons is sodium,
and any atom that contains 29 protons is copper.
Atoms with the same number of protons but a
different number of neutrons are called isotopes of the
same element.

Atoms are extremely small, typically around

100 picometers across. A human hair is about a
million carbon atoms wide. Atoms are smaller than
the shortest wavelength of visible light, which means
humans cannot see atoms with conventional An illustration of the helium atom, depicting the
microscopes. They are so small that accurately nucleus (pink) and the electron cloud
predicting their behavior using classical physics is not distribution (black). The nucleus (upper right) in
possible due to quantum effects. helium-4 is in reality spherically symmetric and
closely resembles the electron cloud, although
More than 99.9994%[1] of an atom's mass is in the
for more complicated nuclei this is not always
nucleus. Protons have a positive electric charge and
the case. The black bar is one angstrom
neutrons have no charge, so the nucleus is positively (10−10 m or 100 pm).
charged. The electrons are negatively charged, and
Classification
this opposing charge is what binds them to the
nucleus. If the numbers of protons and electrons are Smallest recognized division of a chemical
equal, as they normally are, then the atom is element
electrically neutral as a whole. If an atom has more Properties
electrons than protons, then it has an overall negative Mass range 1.67 × 10−27 to 4.52 × 10−25 kg
charge, and is called a negative ion (or anion).
Electric zero (neutral), or ion charge
Conversely, if it has more protons than electrons, it
charge
has a positive charge, and is called a positive ion (or
cation). Diameter 62 pm (He) to 520 pm (Cs)
range (data page)
The electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons Components Electrons and a compact
in an atomic nucleus by the electromagnetic force. nucleus of protons and neutrons
The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted
to each other by the nuclear force. This force is usually stronger than the electromagnetic force that repels
the positively charged protons from one another. Under certain circumstances, the repelling
electromagnetic force becomes stronger than the nuclear force. In this case, the nucleus splits and leaves
behind different elements. This is a form of nuclear decay.

Atoms can attach to one or more other atoms by chemical bonds to form chemical compounds such as
molecules or crystals. The ability of atoms to attach and detach from each other is responsible for most of
the physical changes observed in nature. Chemistry is the science that studies these changes.

History of atomic theory

In philosophy
The basic idea that matter is made up of tiny indivisible particles is an old idea that appeared in many
ancient cultures. The word atom is derived from the ancient Greek word atomos,[a] which means
"uncuttable". But this ancient idea was based in philosophical reasoning rather than scientific reasoning.
Modern atomic theory is not based on these old concepts.[2][3] In the early 19th century, the scientist John
Dalton found evidence that matter really is composed of discrete units, and so applied the word atom to
those units.[4]

Dalton's law of multiple proportions

In the early 1800s, John Dalton compiled experimental data
gathered by him and other scientists and discovered a pattern now
known as the "law of multiple proportions". He noticed that in any
group of chemical compounds which all contain two particular
chemical elements, the amount of Element A per measure of
Element B will differ across these compounds by ratios of small
whole numbers. This pattern suggested that each element
combines with other elements in multiples of a basic unit of
weight, with each element having a unit of unique weight. Dalton
decided to call these units "atoms".[5] Various atoms and molecules from
A New System of Chemical
For example, there are two types of tin oxide: one is a grey Philosophy (John Dalton 1808).
powder that is 88.1% tin and 11.9% oxygen, and the other is a
white powder that is 78.7% tin and 21.3% oxygen. Adjusting these
figures, in the grey powder there is about 13.5 g of oxygen for every 100 g of tin, and in the white powder
there is about 27 g of oxygen for every 100 g of tin. 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2. Dalton concluded
that in the grey oxide there is one atom of oxygen for every atom of tin, and in the white oxide there are
two atoms of oxygen for every atom of tin (SnO and SnO2).[6][7]

Dalton also analyzed iron oxides. There is one type of iron oxide that is a black powder which is 78.1%
iron and 21.9% oxygen; and there is another iron oxide that is a red powder which is 70.4% iron and
29.6% oxygen. Adjusting these figures, in the black powder there is about 28 g of oxygen for every 100 g
of iron, and in the red powder there is about 42 g of oxygen for every 100 g of iron. 28 and 42 form a
ratio of 2:3. Dalton concluded that in these oxides, for every two atoms of iron, there are two or three
atoms of oxygen respectively (Fe2O2 and Fe2O3).[b][8][9]
As a final example: nitrous oxide is 63.3% nitrogen and 36.7% oxygen, nitric oxide is 44.05% nitrogen
and 55.95% oxygen, and nitrogen dioxide is 29.5% nitrogen and 70.5% oxygen. Adjusting these figures,
in nitrous oxide there is 80 g of oxygen for every 140 g of nitrogen, in nitric oxide there is about 160 g of
oxygen for every 140 g of nitrogen, and in nitrogen dioxide there is 320 g of oxygen for every 140 g of
nitrogen. 80, 160, and 320 form a ratio of 1:2:4. The respective formulas for these oxides are N2O, NO,
and NO2.[10][11]

Discovery of the electron

In 1897, J. J. Thomson discovered that cathode rays are not a form of light but made of negatively
charged particles because they can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields.[12] He measured these
particles to be at least a thousand times lighter than hydrogen (the lightest atom).[13] He called these new
particles corpuscles but they were later renamed electrons since these are the particles that carry
electricity.[14] Thomson also showed that electrons were identical to particles given off by photoelectric
and radioactive materials.[15] Thomson explained that an electric current is the passing of electrons from
one atom to the next, and when there was no current the electrons embedded themselves in the atoms.
This in turn meant that atoms were not indivisible as scientists thought. The atom was composed of
electrons whose negative charge was balanced out by some source of positive charge to create an
electrically neutral atom. Ions, Thomson explained, must be atoms which have an excess or shortage of
electrons.[16]

Discovery of the nucleus

The electrons in the atom logically had to be balanced out by a
commensurate amount of positive charge, but Thomson had no
idea where this positive charge came from, so he tentatively
proposed that it was everywhere in the atom, the atom being in the
shape of a sphere. This was the mathematically simplest
hypothesis to fit the available evidence, or lack thereof. Following
from this, Thomson imagined that the balance of electrostatic
forces would distribute the electrons throughout the sphere in a
more or less even manner.[17] Thomson's model is popularly
known as the plum pudding model, though neither Thomson nor The Rutherford scattering
his colleagues used this analogy.[18] Thomson's model was experiments: The extreme
incomplete, it was unable to predict any other properties of the scattering of some alpha particles
elements such as emission spectra and valencies. It was soon suggested the existence of a
rendered obsolete by the discovery of the atomic nucleus. nucleus of concentrated charge.

Between 1908 and 1913, Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues

Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden performed a series of experiments in which they bombarded thin foils
of metal with a beam of alpha particles. They did this to measure the scattering patterns of the alpha
particles. They spotted a small number of alpha particles being deflected by angles greater than 90°. This
shouldn't have been possible according to the Thomson model of the atom, whose charges were too
diffuse to produce a sufficiently strong electric field. The deflections should have all been negligible.
Rutherford proposed that the positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a tiny volume at the center of
the atom and that the electrons surround this nucleus in a diffuse cloud. This nucleus carried almost all of
the atom's mass, the electrons being so very light. Only such an intense concentration of charge, anchored
by its high mass, could produce an electric field that could deflect the alpha particles so strongly.[19]

Bohr model
A problem in classical mechanics is that an accelerating charged
particle radiates electromagnetic radiation, causing the particle to
lose kinetic energy. Circular motion counts as acceleration, which
means that an electron orbiting a central charge should spiral
down into that nucleus as it loses speed. In 1913, the physicist
Niels Bohr proposed a new model in which the electrons of an
atom were assumed to orbit the nucleus but could only do so in a
finite set of orbits, and could jump between these orbits only in
discrete changes of energy corresponding to absorption or The Bohr model of the atom, with an
radiation of a photon.[20] This quantization was used to explain electron making instantaneous
"quantum leaps" from one orbit to
why the electrons' orbits are stable and why elements absorb and
another with gain or loss of energy.
emit electromagnetic radiation in discrete spectra.[21] Bohr's This model of electrons in orbits is
model could only predict the emission spectra of hydrogen, not obsolete.
atoms with more than one electron.

Discovery of protons and neutrons

Back in 1815, William Prout observed that the atomic weights of many elements were multiples of
hydrogen's atomic weight, which is in fact true for all of them if one takes isotopes into account. In 1898,
J. J. Thomson found that the positive charge of a hydrogen ion is equal to the negative charge of an
electron, and these were then the smallest known charged particles.[22] Thomson later found that the
positive charge in an atom is a positive multiple of an electron's negative charge.[23] In 1913, Henry
Moseley discovered that the frequencies of X-ray emissions from an excited atom were a mathematical
function of its atomic number and hydrogen's nuclear charge. In 1919 Rutherford bombarded nitrogen gas
with alpha particles and detected hydrogen ions being emitted from the gas, and concluded that they were
produced by alpha particles hitting and splitting the nuclei of the nitrogen atoms.[24]

These observations led Rutherford to conclude that the hydrogen nucleus is a singular particle with a
positive charge equal to the electron's negative charge.[25] He named this particle "proton" in 1920.[26]
The number of protons in an atom (which Rutherford called the "atomic number"[27][28]) was found to be
equal to the element's ordinal number on the periodic table and therefore provided a simple and clear-cut
way of distinguishing the elements from each other. The atomic weight of each element is higher than its
proton number, so Rutherford hypothesized that the surplus weight was carried by unknown particles
with no electric charge and a mass equal to that of the proton.

In 1928, Walter Bothe observed that beryllium emitted a highly penetrating, electrically neutral radiation
when bombarded with alpha particles. It was later discovered that this radiation could knock hydrogen
atoms out of paraffin wax. Initially it was thought to be high-energy gamma radiation, since gamma
radiation had a similar effect on electrons in metals, but James Chadwick found that the ionization effect
was too strong for it to be due to electromagnetic radiation, so long as energy and momentum were
conserved in the interaction. In 1932, Chadwick exposed various elements, such as hydrogen and
nitrogen, to the mysterious "beryllium radiation", and by measuring the energies of the recoiling charged
particles, he deduced that the radiation was actually composed of electrically neutral particles which
could not be massless like the gamma ray, but instead were required to have a mass similar to that of a
proton. Chadwick now claimed these particles as Rutherford's neutrons.[29]

The current consensus model

In 1925, Werner Heisenberg published the first consistent
mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics (matrix
mechanics).[30] One year earlier, Louis de Broglie had proposed
that all particles behave like waves to some extent,[31] and in 1926
Erwin Schroedinger used this idea to develop the Schroedinger The modern model of atomic
orbitals draws zones where an
equation, which describes electrons as three-dimensional
electron is most likely to be found at
waveforms rather than points in space.[32] A consequence of using any moment.
waveforms to describe particles is that it is mathematically
impossible to obtain precise values for both the position and
momentum of a particle at a given point in time. This became known as the uncertainty principle,
formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927.[30] In this concept, for a given accuracy in measuring a
position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum, and vice versa.[33] Thus, the
planetary model of the atom was discarded in favor of one that described atomic orbital zones around the
nucleus where a given electron is most likely to be found.[34][35] This model was able to explain
observations of atomic behavior that previous models could not, such as certain structural and spectral
patterns of atoms larger than hydrogen.

Structure

Subatomic particles
Though the word atom originally denoted a particle that cannot be cut into smaller particles, in modern
scientific usage the atom is composed of various subatomic particles. The constituent particles of an atom
are the electron, the proton and the neutron.

The electron is the least massive of these particles by four orders of magnitude at 9.11 × 10−31 kg, with a
negative electrical charge and a size that is too small to be measured using available techniques.[36] It was
the lightest particle with a positive rest mass measured, until the discovery of neutrino mass. Under
ordinary conditions, electrons are bound to the positively charged nucleus by the attraction created from
opposite electric charges. If an atom has more or fewer electrons than its atomic number, then it becomes
respectively negatively or positively charged as a whole; a charged atom is called an ion. Electrons have
been known since the late 19th century, mostly thanks to J.J. Thomson; see history of subatomic physics
for details.

Protons have a positive charge and a mass of 1.6726 × 10−27 kg. The number of protons in an atom is
called its atomic number. Ernest Rutherford (1919) observed that nitrogen under alpha-particle
bombardment ejects what appeared to be hydrogen nuclei. By 1920 he had accepted that the hydrogen
nucleus is a distinct particle within the atom and named it proton.
Neutrons have no electrical charge and have a mass of 1.6749 × 10−27 kg.[37][38] Neutrons are the
heaviest of the three constituent particles, but their mass can be reduced by the nuclear binding energy.
Neutrons and protons (collectively known as nucleons) have comparable dimensions—on the order of
2.5 × 10−15 m—although the 'surface' of these particles is not sharply defined.[39] The neutron was
discovered in 1932 by the English physicist James Chadwick.

In the Standard Model of physics, electrons are truly elementary particles with no internal structure,
whereas protons and neutrons are composite particles composed of elementary particles called quarks.
There are two types of quarks in atoms, each having a fractional electric charge. Protons are composed of
2 1
two up quarks (each with charge +⁠3 ⁠) and one down quark (with a charge of −⁠3 ⁠). Neutrons consist of one
up quark and two down quarks. This distinction accounts for the difference in mass and charge between
the two particles.[40][41]

The quarks are held together by the strong interaction (or strong force), which is mediated by gluons. The
protons and neutrons, in turn, are held to each other in the nucleus by the nuclear force, which is a
residuum of the strong force that has somewhat different range-properties (see the article on the nuclear
force for more). The gluon is a member of the family of gauge bosons, which are elementary particles
that mediate physical forces.[40][41]

Nucleus
All the bound protons and neutrons in an atom make up a tiny
atomic nucleus, and are collectively called nucleons. The radius of
a nucleus is approximately equal to femtometres, where
is the total number of nucleons. [42] This is much smaller than
the radius of the atom, which is on the order of 105 fm. The
nucleons are bound together by a short-ranged attractive potential
called the residual strong force. At distances smaller than 2.5 fm
this force is much more powerful than the electrostatic force that The binding energy needed for a
causes positively charged protons to repel each other.[43] nucleon to escape the nucleus, for
various isotopes
Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons,
called the atomic number. Within a single element, the number of
neutrons may vary, determining the isotope of that element. The total number of protons and neutrons
determine the nuclide. The number of neutrons relative to the protons determines the stability of the
nucleus, with certain isotopes undergoing radioactive decay.[44]

The proton, the electron, and the neutron are classified as fermions. Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion
principle which prohibits identical fermions, such as multiple protons, from occupying the same quantum
state at the same time. Thus, every proton in the nucleus must occupy a quantum state different from all
other protons, and the same applies to all neutrons of the nucleus and to all electrons of the electron
cloud.[45]

A nucleus that has a different number of protons than neutrons can potentially drop to a lower energy
state through a radioactive decay that causes the number of protons and neutrons to more closely match.
As a result, atoms with matching numbers of protons and neutrons are more stable against decay, but with
increasing atomic number, the mutual repulsion of the protons requires an increasing proportion of
neutrons to maintain the stability of the nucleus.[45]

The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be

modified, although this can require very high energies because of the
strong force. Nuclear fusion occurs when multiple atomic particles join to
form a heavier nucleus, such as through the energetic collision of two
nuclei. For example, at the core of the Sun protons require energies of 3 to
10 keV to overcome their mutual repulsion—the coulomb barrier—and
fuse together into a single nucleus.[46] Nuclear fission is the opposite
process, causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei—usually
through radioactive decay. The nucleus can also be modified through
bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons. If this
modifies the number of protons in a nucleus, the atom changes to a Illustration of a nuclear
different chemical element.[47][48] fusion process that forms a
deuterium nucleus,
If the mass of the nucleus following a fusion reaction is less than the sum consisting of a proton and a
neutron, from two protons.
of the masses of the separate particles, then the difference between these
A positron (e+)—an
two values can be emitted as a type of usable energy (such as a gamma
antimatter electron—is
ray, or the kinetic energy of a beta particle), as described by Albert emitted along with an
Einstein's mass–energy equivalence formula, E=mc2, where m is the mass electron neutrino.
loss and c is the speed of light. This deficit is part of the binding energy of
the new nucleus, and it is the non-recoverable loss of the energy that
causes the fused particles to remain together in a state that requires this energy to separate.[49]

The fusion of two nuclei that create larger nuclei with lower atomic numbers than iron and nickel—a total
nucleon number of about 60—is usually an exothermic process that releases more energy than is required
to bring them together.[50] It is this energy-releasing process that makes nuclear fusion in stars a self-
sustaining reaction. For heavier nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon begins to decrease. That means
that a fusion process producing a nucleus that has an atomic number higher than about 26, and a mass
number higher than about 60, is an endothermic process. Thus, more massive nuclei cannot undergo an
energy-producing fusion reaction that can sustain the hydrostatic equilibrium of a star.[45]

Electron cloud
The electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. This
force binds the electrons inside an electrostatic potential well surrounding the smaller nucleus, which
means that an external source of energy is needed for the electron to escape. The closer an electron is to
the nucleus, the greater the attractive force. Hence electrons bound near the center of the potential well
require more energy to escape than those at greater separations.

Electrons, like other particles, have properties of both a particle and a wave. The electron cloud is a
region inside the potential well where each electron forms a type of three-dimensional standing wave—a
wave form that does not move relative to the nucleus. This behavior is defined by an atomic orbital, a
mathematical function that characterises the probability that an electron appears to be at a particular
location when its position is measured.[51] Only a discrete (or quantized) set of these orbitals exist around
the nucleus, as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form.[52] Orbitals can have
one or more ring or node structures, and differ from each other in size, shape and orientation.[53]
Each atomic orbital corresponds to a particular energy level of the
electron. The electron can change its state to a higher energy level
by absorbing a photon with sufficient energy to boost it into the
new quantum state. Likewise, through spontaneous emission, an
electron in a higher energy state can drop to a lower energy state
while radiating the excess energy as a photon. These characteristic
energy values, defined by the differences in the energies of the
quantum states, are responsible for atomic spectral lines.[52] A potential well, showing, according
to classical mechanics, the
The amount of energy needed to remove or add an electron—the minimum energy V(x) needed to
electron binding energy—is far less than the binding energy of reach each position x. Classically, a
nucleons. For example, it requires only 13.6 eV to strip a ground- particle with energy E is constrained
state electron from a hydrogen atom,[54] compared to 2.23 million to a range of positions between x1
eV for splitting a deuterium nucleus.[55] Atoms are electrically and x2.
neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons.
Atoms that have either a deficit or a surplus of
electrons are called ions. Electrons that are
farthest from the nucleus may be transferred to
other nearby atoms or shared between atoms. By
this mechanism, atoms are able to bond into
molecules and other types of chemical
compounds like ionic and covalent network
crystals.[56]

Properties

Nuclear properties
By definition, any two atoms with an identical
number of protons in their nuclei belong to the
3D views of some hydrogen-like atomic orbitals
same chemical element. Atoms with equal
showing probability density and phase (g orbitals and
numbers of protons but a different number of higher are not shown)
neutrons are different isotopes of the same
element. For example, all hydrogen atoms admit
exactly one proton, but isotopes exist with no neutrons (hydrogen-1, by far the most common form,[57]
also called protium), one neutron (deuterium), two neutrons (tritium) and more than two neutrons. The
known elements form a set of atomic numbers, from the single-proton element hydrogen up to the 118-
proton element oganesson.[58] All known isotopes of elements with atomic numbers greater than 82 are
radioactive, although the radioactivity of element 83 (bismuth) is so slight as to be practically
negligible.[59][60]

About 339 nuclides occur naturally on Earth,[61] of which 251 (about 74%) have not been observed to
decay, and are referred to as "stable isotopes". Only 90 nuclides are stable theoretically, while another 161
(bringing the total to 251) have not been observed to decay, even though in theory it is energetically
possible. These are also formally classified as "stable". An additional 35 radioactive nuclides have half-
lives longer than 100 million years, and are long-lived enough to have been present since the birth of the
Solar System. This collection of 286 nuclides are known as primordial nuclides. Finally, an additional 53
short-lived nuclides are known to occur naturally, as daughter products of primordial nuclide decay (such
as radium from uranium), or as products of natural energetic processes on Earth, such as cosmic ray
bombardment (for example, carbon-14).[62][note 1]

For 80 of the chemical elements, at least one stable isotope exists. As a rule, there is only a handful of
stable isotopes for each of these elements, the average being 3.1 stable isotopes per element. Twenty-six
"monoisotopic elements" have only a single stable isotope, while the largest number of stable isotopes
observed for any element is ten, for the element tin. Elements 43, 61, and all elements numbered 83 or
higher have no stable isotopes.[63]: 1–12

Stability of isotopes is affected by the ratio of protons to neutrons, and also by the presence of certain
"magic numbers" of neutrons or protons that represent closed and filled quantum shells. These quantum
shells correspond to a set of energy levels within the shell model of the nucleus; filled shells, such as the
filled shell of 50 protons for tin, confers unusual stability on the nuclide. Of the 251 known stable
nuclides, only four have both an odd number of protons and odd number of neutrons: hydrogen-2
(deuterium), lithium-6, boron-10, and nitrogen-14. (Tantalum-180m is odd-odd and observationally
stable, but is predicted to decay with a very long half-life.) Also, only four naturally occurring,
radioactive odd-odd nuclides have a half-life over a billion years: potassium-40, vanadium-50,
lanthanum-138, and lutetium-176. Most odd-odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to beta decay,
because the decay products are even-even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to nuclear pairing
effects.[64]

Mass
The large majority of an atom's mass comes from the protons and neutrons that make it up. The total
number of these particles (called "nucleons") in a given atom is called the mass number. It is a positive
integer and dimensionless (instead of having dimension of mass), because it expresses a count. An
example of use of a mass number is "carbon-12," which has 12 nucleons (six protons and six neutrons).

The actual mass of an atom at rest is often expressed in daltons (Da), also called the unified atomic mass
unit (u). This unit is defined as a twelfth of the mass of a free neutral atom of carbon-12, which is
approximately 1.66 × 10−27 kg.[65] Hydrogen-1 (the lightest isotope of hydrogen which is also the nuclide
with the lowest mass) has an atomic weight of 1.007825 Da.[66] The value of this number is called the
atomic mass. A given atom has an atomic mass approximately equal (within 1%) to its mass number
times the atomic mass unit (for example the mass of a nitrogen-14 is roughly 14 Da), but this number will
not be exactly an integer except (by definition) in the case of carbon-12.[67] The heaviest stable atom is
lead-208,[59] with a mass of 207.976 6521 Da.[68]

As even the most massive atoms are far too light to work with directly, chemists instead use the unit of
moles. One mole of atoms of any element always has the same number of atoms (about 6.022 × 1023).
This number was chosen so that if an element has an atomic mass of 1 u, a mole of atoms of that element
has a mass close to one gram. Because of the definition of the unified atomic mass unit, each carbon-12
atom has an atomic mass of exactly 12 Da, and so a mole of carbon-12 atoms weighs exactly
0.012 kg.[65]

Shape and size

Atoms lack a well-defined outer boundary, so their dimensions are usually described in terms of an
atomic radius. This is a measure of the distance out to which the electron cloud extends from the
nucleus.[69] This assumes the atom to exhibit a spherical shape, which is only obeyed for atoms in
vacuum or free space. Atomic radii may be derived from the distances between two nuclei when the two
atoms are joined in a chemical bond. The radius varies with the location of an atom on the atomic chart,
the type of chemical bond, the number of neighboring atoms (coordination number) and a quantum
mechanical property known as spin.[70] On the periodic table of the elements, atom size tends to increase
when moving down columns, but decrease when moving across rows (left to right).[71] Consequently, the
smallest atom is helium with a radius of 32 pm, while one of the largest is caesium at 225 pm.[72]

When subjected to external forces, like electrical fields, the shape of an atom may deviate from spherical
symmetry. The deformation depends on the field magnitude and the orbital type of outer shell electrons,
as shown by group-theoretical considerations. Aspherical deviations might be elicited for instance in
crystals, where large crystal-electrical fields may occur at low-symmetry lattice sites.[73][74] Significant
ellipsoidal deformations have been shown to occur for sulfur ions[75] and chalcogen ions[76] in pyrite-
type compounds.

Atomic dimensions are thousands of times smaller than the wavelengths of light (400–700 nm) so they
cannot be viewed using an optical microscope, although individual atoms can be observed using a
scanning tunneling microscope. To visualize the minuteness of the atom, consider that a typical human
hair is about 1 million carbon atoms in width.[77] A single drop of water contains about 2 sextillion
(2 × 1021) atoms of oxygen, and twice the number of hydrogen atoms.[78] A single carat diamond with a
mass of 2 × 10−4 kg contains about 10 sextillion (1022) atoms of carbon.[note 2] If an apple were magnified
to the size of the Earth, then the atoms in the apple would be approximately the size of the original
apple.[79]

Radioactive decay
Every element has one or more isotopes that have unstable nuclei that are subject to radioactive decay,
causing the nucleus to emit particles or electromagnetic radiation. Radioactivity can occur when the
radius of a nucleus is large compared with the radius of the strong force, which only acts over distances
on the order of 1 fm.[80]

The most common forms of radioactive decay are:[81][82]

Alpha decay: this process is caused when the nucleus emits an alpha particle, which is a
helium nucleus consisting of two protons and two neutrons. The result of the emission is a
new element with a lower atomic number.
Beta decay (and electron capture): these processes are regulated by the weak force, and
result from a transformation of a neutron into a proton, or a proton into a neutron. The
neutron to proton transition is accompanied by the emission of an electron and an
antineutrino, while proton to neutron transition (except in electron capture) causes the
emission of a positron and a neutrino. The electron or positron emissions are called beta
 particles. Beta decay either increases or decreases the
atomic number of the nucleus by one. Electron capture
is more common than positron emission, because it
requires less energy. In this type of decay, an electron is
absorbed by the nucleus, rather than a positron emitted
from the nucleus. A neutrino is still emitted in this
process, and a proton changes to a neutron.
Gamma decay: this process results from a change in the
energy level of the nucleus to a lower state, resulting in
the emission of electromagnetic radiation. The excited
state of a nucleus which results in gamma emission
usually occurs following the emission of an alpha or a
beta particle. Thus, gamma decay usually follows alpha
or beta decay.
Other more rare types of radioactive decay include ejection of
This diagram shows the half-life
neutrons or protons or clusters of nucleons from a nucleus, or
(T1⁄2) of various isotopes with Z
more than one beta particle. An analog of gamma emission which protons and N neutrons.
allows excited nuclei to lose energy in a different way, is internal
conversion—a process that produces high-speed electrons that are
not beta rays, followed by production of high-energy photons that are not gamma rays. A few large nuclei
explode into two or more charged fragments of varying masses plus several neutrons, in a decay called
spontaneous nuclear fission.

Each radioactive isotope has a characteristic decay time period—the half-life—that is determined by the
amount of time needed for half of a sample to decay. This is an exponential decay process that steadily
decreases the proportion of the remaining isotope by 50% every half-life. Hence after two half-lives have
passed only 25% of the isotope is present, and so forth.[80]

Magnetic moment
Elementary particles possess an intrinsic quantum mechanical property known as spin. This is analogous
to the angular momentum of an object that is spinning around its center of mass, although strictly
speaking these particles are believed to be point-like and cannot be said to be rotating. Spin is measured
in units of the reduced Planck constant (ħ), with electrons, protons and neutrons all having spin 1⁄2 ħ, or
"spin-1⁄2". In an atom, electrons in motion around the nucleus possess orbital angular momentum in
addition to their spin, while the nucleus itself possesses angular momentum due to its nuclear spin.[83]

The magnetic field produced by an atom—its magnetic moment—is determined by these various forms of
angular momentum, just as a rotating charged object classically produces a magnetic field, but the most
dominant contribution comes from electron spin. Due to the nature of electrons to obey the Pauli
exclusion principle, in which no two electrons may be found in the same quantum state, bound electrons
pair up with each other, with one member of each pair in a spin up state and the other in the opposite, spin
down state. Thus these spins cancel each other out, reducing the total magnetic dipole moment to zero in
some atoms with even number of electrons.[84]

In ferromagnetic elements such as iron, cobalt and nickel, an odd number of electrons leads to an
unpaired electron and a net overall magnetic moment. The orbitals of neighboring atoms overlap and a
lower energy state is achieved when the spins of unpaired electrons are aligned with each other, a
spontaneous process known as an exchange interaction. When the magnetic moments of ferromagnetic
atoms are lined up, the material can produce a measurable macroscopic field. Paramagnetic materials
have atoms with magnetic moments that line up in random directions when no magnetic field is present,
but the magnetic moments of the individual atoms line up in the presence of a field.[84][85]

The nucleus of an atom will have no spin when it has even numbers of both neutrons and protons, but for
other cases of odd numbers, the nucleus may have a spin. Normally nuclei with spin are aligned in
random directions because of thermal equilibrium, but for certain elements (such as xenon-129) it is
possible to polarize a significant proportion of the nuclear spin states so that they are aligned in the same
direction—a condition called hyperpolarization. This has important applications in magnetic resonance
imaging.[86][87]

Energy levels
The potential energy of an electron in an atom is negative relative
to when the distance from the nucleus goes to infinity; its
dependence on the electron's position reaches the minimum inside
the nucleus, roughly in inverse proportion to the distance. In the
quantum-mechanical model, a bound electron can occupy only a
set of states centered on the nucleus, and each state corresponds to
a specific energy level; see time-independent Schrödinger
These electron's energy levels (not
equation for a theoretical explanation. An energy level can be
to scale) are sufficient for ground
measured by the amount of energy needed to unbind the electron
states of atoms up to cadmium (5s2
from the atom, and is usually given in units of electronvolts (eV).
4d10) inclusively. Do not forget that
The lowest energy state of a bound electron is called the ground even the top of the diagram is lower
state, i.e. stationary state, while an electron transition to a higher than an unbound electron state.
level results in an excited state.[88] The electron's energy increases
along with n because the (average) distance to the nucleus
increases. Dependence of the energy on ℓ is caused not by the electrostatic potential of the nucleus, but
by interaction between electrons.

For an electron to transition between two different states, e.g. ground state to first excited state, it must
absorb or emit a photon at an energy matching the difference in the potential energy of those levels,
according to the Niels Bohr model, what can be precisely calculated by the Schrödinger equation.
Electrons jump between orbitals in a particle-like fashion. For example, if a single photon strikes the
electrons, only a single electron changes states in response to the photon; see Electron properties.

The energy of an emitted photon is proportional to its frequency, so these specific energy levels appear as
distinct bands in the electromagnetic spectrum.[89] Each element has a characteristic spectrum that can
depend on the nuclear charge, subshells filled by electrons, the electromagnetic interactions between the
electrons and other factors.[90]

When a continuous spectrum of energy is passed through a gas or plasma, some of the photons are
absorbed by atoms, causing electrons to change their energy level. Those excited electrons that remain
bound to their atom spontaneously emit this energy as a photon, traveling in a random direction, and so
drop back to lower energy levels. Thus the atoms behave like a filter that forms a series of dark
absorption bands in the energy output. (An observer viewing the atoms from a view that does not include
the continuous spectrum in the background,
instead sees a series of emission lines from the
photons emitted by the atoms.) Spectroscopic
measurements of the strength and width of
atomic spectral lines allow the composition and
physical properties of a substance to be An example of absorption lines in a spectrum
determined.[91]

Close examination of the spectral lines reveals that some display a fine structure splitting. This occurs
because of spin–orbit coupling, which is an interaction between the spin and motion of the outermost
electron.[92] When an atom is in an external magnetic field, spectral lines become split into three or more
components; a phenomenon called the Zeeman effect. This is caused by the interaction of the magnetic
field with the magnetic moment of the atom and its electrons. Some atoms can have multiple electron
configurations with the same energy level, which thus appear as a single spectral line. The interaction of
the magnetic field with the atom shifts these electron configurations to slightly different energy levels,
resulting in multiple spectral lines.[93] The presence of an external electric field can cause a comparable
splitting and shifting of spectral lines by modifying the electron energy levels, a phenomenon called the
Stark effect.[94]

If a bound electron is in an excited state, an interacting photon with the proper energy can cause
stimulated emission of a photon with a matching energy level. For this to occur, the electron must drop to
a lower energy state that has an energy difference matching the energy of the interacting photon. The
emitted photon and the interacting photon then move off in parallel and with matching phases. That is, the
wave patterns of the two photons are synchronized. This physical property is used to make lasers, which
can emit a coherent beam of light energy in a narrow frequency band.[95]

Valence and bonding behavior

Valency is the combining power of an element. It is determined by the number of bonds it can form to
other atoms or groups.[96] The outermost electron shell of an atom in its uncombined state is known as
the valence shell, and the electrons in that shell are called valence electrons. The number of valence
electrons determines the bonding behavior with other atoms. Atoms tend to chemically react with each
other in a manner that fills (or empties) their outer valence shells.[97] For example, a transfer of a single
electron between atoms is a useful approximation for bonds that form between atoms with one-electron
more than a filled shell, and others that are one-electron short of a full shell, such as occurs in the
compound sodium chloride and other chemical ionic salts. Many elements display multiple valences, or
tendencies to share differing numbers of electrons in different compounds. Thus, chemical bonding
between these elements takes many forms of electron-sharing that are more than simple electron
transfers. Examples include the element carbon and the organic compounds.[98]
The chemical elements are often displayed in a periodic table that is laid out to display recurring chemical
properties, and elements with the same number of valence electrons form a group that is aligned in the
same column of the table. (The horizontal rows correspond to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons.)
The elements at the far right of the table have their outer shell completely filled with electrons, which
results in chemically inert elements known as the noble gases.[99][100]

States
Quantities of atoms are found in different states of matter that
depend on the physical conditions, such as temperature and
pressure. By varying the conditions, materials can transition
between solids, liquids, gases and plasmas.[101] Within a state, a
material can also exist in different allotropes. An example of this
is solid carbon, which can exist as graphite or diamond.[102]
Gaseous allotropes exist as well, such as dioxygen and ozone.
Graphic illustrating the formation of
At temperatures close to absolute zero, atoms can form a Bose– a Bose–Einstein condensate
Einstein condensate, at which point quantum mechanical effects,
which are normally only observed at the atomic scale, become
apparent on a macroscopic scale.[103][104] This super-cooled collection of atoms then behaves as a single
super atom, which may allow fundamental checks of quantum mechanical behavior.[105]

Identification
While atoms are too small to be seen, devices such as the scanning
tunneling microscope (STM) enable their visualization at the
surfaces of solids. The microscope uses the quantum tunneling
phenomenon, which allows particles to pass through a barrier that
would be insurmountable in the classical perspective. Electrons
tunnel through the vacuum between two biased electrodes,
providing a tunneling current that is exponentially dependent on
their separation. One electrode is a sharp tip ideally ending with a
single atom. At each point of the scan of the surface the tip's
height is adjusted so as to keep the tunneling current at a set value.
How much the tip moves to and away from the surface is
Scanning tunneling microscope
interpreted as the height profile. For low bias, the microscope image showing the individual atoms
images the averaged electron orbitals across closely packed energy making up this gold (100) surface.
levels—the local density of the electronic states near the Fermi The surface atoms deviate from the
level.[106][107] Because of the distances involved, both electrodes bulk crystal structure and arrange in
need to be extremely stable; only then periodicities can be columns several atoms wide with
observed that correspond to individual atoms. The method alone is pits between them (See surface
reconstruction).
not chemically specific, and cannot identify the atomic species
present at the surface.
Atoms can be easily identified by their mass. If an atom is ionized by removing one of its electrons, its
trajectory when it passes through a magnetic field will bend. The radius by which the trajectory of a
moving ion is turned by the magnetic field is determined by the mass of the atom. The mass spectrometer
uses this principle to measure the mass-to-charge ratio of ions. If a sample contains multiple isotopes, the
mass spectrometer can determine the proportion of each isotope in the sample by measuring the intensity
of the different beams of ions. Techniques to vaporize atoms include inductively coupled plasma atomic
emission spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, both of which use a plasma to
vaporize samples for analysis.[108]

The atom-probe tomograph has sub-nanometer resolution in 3-D and can chemically identify individual
atoms using time-of-flight mass spectrometry.[109]

Electron emission techniques such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Auger electron
spectroscopy (AES), which measure the binding energies of the core electrons, are used to identify the
atomic species present in a sample in a non-destructive way. With proper focusing both can be made area-
specific. Another such method is electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), which measures the energy
loss of an electron beam within a transmission electron microscope when it interacts with a portion of a
sample.

Spectra of excited states can be used to analyze the atomic composition of distant stars. Specific light
wavelengths contained in the observed light from stars can be separated out and related to the quantized
transitions in free gas atoms. These colors can be replicated using a gas-discharge lamp containing the
same element.[110] Helium was discovered in this way in the spectrum of the Sun 23 years before it was
found on Earth.[111]

Origin and current state

Baryonic matter forms about 4% of the total energy density of the observable universe, with an average
density of about 0.25 particles/m3 (mostly protons and electrons).[112] Within a galaxy such as the Milky
Way, particles have a much higher concentration, with the density of matter in the interstellar medium
(ISM) ranging from 105 to 109 atoms/m3.[113] The Sun is believed to be inside the Local Bubble, so the
density in the solar neighborhood is only about 103 atoms/m3.[114] Stars form from dense clouds in the
ISM, and the evolutionary processes of stars result in the steady enrichment of the ISM with elements
more massive than hydrogen and helium.

Up to 95% of the Milky Way's baryonic matter are concentrated inside stars, where conditions are
unfavorable for atomic matter. The total baryonic mass is about 10% of the mass of the galaxy;[115] the
remainder of the mass is an unknown dark matter.[116] High temperature inside stars makes most "atoms"
fully ionized, that is, separates all electrons from the nuclei. In stellar remnants—with exception of their
surface layers—an immense pressure make electron shells impossible.

Formation
Electrons are thought to exist in the Universe since early stages of the Big Bang. Atomic nuclei forms in
nucleosynthesis reactions. In about three minutes Big Bang nucleosynthesis produced most of the helium,
lithium, and deuterium in the Universe, and perhaps some of the beryllium and boron.[117][118][119]
 Periodic table showing the origin of each element. Elements from carbon up to sulfur may be made
in small stars by the alpha process. Elements beyond iron are made in large stars with slow neutron
capture (s-process). Elements heavier than iron may be made in neutron star mergers or supernovae
after the r-process.

Ubiquitousness and stability of atoms relies on their binding energy, which means that an atom has a
lower energy than an unbound system of the nucleus and electrons. Where the temperature is much higher
than ionization potential, the matter exists in the form of plasma—a gas of positively charged ions
(possibly, bare nuclei) and electrons. When the temperature drops below the ionization potential, atoms
become statistically favorable. Atoms (complete with bound electrons) became to dominate over charged
particles 380,000 years after the Big Bang—an epoch called recombination, when the expanding
Universe cooled enough to allow electrons to become attached to nuclei.[120]

Since the Big Bang, which produced no carbon or heavier elements, atomic nuclei have been combined in
stars through the process of nuclear fusion to produce more of the element helium, and (via the triple-
alpha process) the sequence of elements from carbon up to iron;[121] see stellar nucleosynthesis for
details.

Isotopes such as lithium-6, as well as some beryllium and boron are generated in space through cosmic
ray spallation.[122] This occurs when a high-energy proton strikes an atomic nucleus, causing large
numbers of nucleons to be ejected.

Elements heavier than iron were produced in supernovae and colliding neutron stars through the r-
process, and in AGB stars through the s-process, both of which involve the capture of neutrons by atomic
nuclei.[123] Elements such as lead formed largely through the radioactive decay of heavier elements.[124]

Earth
Most of the atoms that make up the Earth and its inhabitants were present in their current form in the
nebula that collapsed out of a molecular cloud to form the Solar System. The rest are the result of
radioactive decay, and their relative proportion can be used to determine the age of the Earth through
radiometric dating.[125][126] Most of the helium in the crust of the Earth (about 99% of the helium from
gas wells, as shown by its lower abundance of helium-3) is a product of alpha decay.[127]
There are a few trace atoms on Earth that were not present at the beginning (i.e., not "primordial"), nor
are results of radioactive decay. Carbon-14 is continuously generated by cosmic rays in the
atmosphere.[128] Some atoms on Earth have been artificially generated either deliberately or as by-
products of nuclear reactors or explosions.[129][130] Of the transuranic elements—those with atomic
numbers greater than 92—only plutonium and neptunium occur naturally on Earth.[131][132] Transuranic
elements have radioactive lifetimes shorter than the current age of the Earth[133] and thus identifiable
quantities of these elements have long since decayed, with the exception of traces of plutonium-244
possibly deposited by cosmic dust.[125] Natural deposits of plutonium and neptunium are produced by
neutron capture in uranium ore.[134]

The Earth contains approximately 1.33 × 1050 atoms.[135] Although small numbers of independent atoms
of noble gases exist, such as argon, neon, and helium, 99% of the atmosphere is bound in the form of
molecules, including carbon dioxide and diatomic oxygen and nitrogen. At the surface of the Earth, an
overwhelming majority of atoms combine to form various compounds, including water, salt, silicates and
oxides. Atoms can also combine to create materials that do not consist of discrete molecules, including
crystals and liquid or solid metals.[136][137] This atomic matter forms networked arrangements that lack
the particular type of small-scale interrupted order associated with molecular matter.[138]

Rare and theoretical forms

Superheavy elements
All nuclides with atomic numbers higher than 82 (lead) are known to be radioactive. No nuclide with an
atomic number exceeding 92 (uranium) exists on Earth as a primordial nuclide, and heavier elements
generally have shorter half-lives. Nevertheless, an "island of stability" encompassing relatively long-lived
isotopes of superheavy elements[139] with atomic numbers 110 to 114 might exist.[140] Predictions for the
half-life of the most stable nuclide on the island range from a few minutes to millions of years.[141] In any
case, superheavy elements (with Z > 104) would not exist due to increasing Coulomb repulsion (which
results in spontaneous fission with increasingly short half-lives) in the absence of any stabilizing
effects.[142]

Exotic matter
Each particle of matter has a corresponding antimatter particle with the opposite electrical charge. Thus,
the positron is a positively charged antielectron and the antiproton is a negatively charged equivalent of a
proton. When a matter and corresponding antimatter particle meet, they annihilate each other. Because of
this, along with an imbalance between the number of matter and antimatter particles, the latter are rare in
the universe. The first causes of this imbalance are not yet fully understood, although theories of
baryogenesis may offer an explanation. As a result, no antimatter atoms have been discovered in
nature.[143][144] In 1996, the antimatter counterpart of the hydrogen atom (antihydrogen) was synthesized
at the CERN laboratory in Geneva.[145][146]
Other exotic atoms have been created by replacing one of the protons, neutrons or electrons with other
particles that have the same charge. For example, an electron can be replaced by a more massive muon,
forming a muonic atom. These types of atoms can be used to test fundamental predictions of
physics.[147][148][149]

See also
Physics portal

Chemistry portal

History of quantum mechanics

Infinite divisibility
Outline of chemistry
Motion
Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics
Nuclear model
Radionuclide

Notes
1. For more recent updates see Brookhaven National Laboratory's Interactive Chart of
Nuclides (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart) ] Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202007251
82342/https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/) 25 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
2. A carat is 200 milligrams. By definition, carbon-12 has 0.012 kg per mole. The Avogadro
constant defines 6 × 1023 atoms per mole.

a. a combination of the negative term "a-" and "τομή," the term for "cut"
b. Iron(II) oxide's formula is written here as "Fe2O2" rather than the more conventional "FeO"
because this better illustrates the explanation.

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Further reading
Gangopadhyaya, Mrinalkanti (1981). Indian Atomism: History and Sources. Atlantic
Highlands, New Jersey: Humanities Press. ISBN 978-0-391-02177-8. OCLC 10916778 (http
s://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10916778).
Iannone, A. Pablo (2001). Dictionary of World Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-
17995-9. OCLC 44541769 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44541769).
King, Richard (1999). Indian philosophy: an introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought.
Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-0954-3.
McEvilley, Thomas (2002). The shape of ancient thought: comparative studies in Greek and
Indian philosophies. Allworth Press. ISBN 978-1-58115-203-6.
Siegfried, Robert (2002). From Elements to Atoms: A History of Chemical Composition.
Diane. ISBN 978-0-87169-924-4. OCLC 186607849 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/18660
7849).
Teresi, Dick (2003). Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=pheL_ubbXD0C). Simon & Schuster. pp. 213–214. ISBN 978-0-7432-
4379-7. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200804145606/https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=pheL_ubbXD0C) from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 25 October 2020.
Wurtz, Charles Adolphe (1881). The Atomic Theory. New York: D. Appleton and company.
ISBN 978-0-559-43636-9.

External links
Atoms in Motion – The Feynman Lectures on Physics (https://www.feynmanlectures.caltech.
edu/I_01.html)
Sharp, Tim (8 August 2017). "What is an Atom?" (https://www.livescience.com/37206-atom-
definition.html). Live Science.

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