UNIT 3 (ATOMIC STRUCTURE)

Dalton's Atomic Theory

In 1803, the British chemist John Dalton presented a scientific theory on the existence and nature of matter. This
theory is called Dalton's atomic theory. Main postulates of his theory are as follows:
1. All elements are composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms.
2. Atoms of a particular element are identical. They have same mass and same volume.
3. During chemical reaction atoms combine or separate or re-arrange. They combine in simple ratios.
4. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.
Dalton was able to explain quantitative results that scientists of his time had obtained in their experiments. He nicely
explained the laws of chemical combinations. His brilliant work became the main stimulus for the rapid progress of
the chemistry during nineteenth century.

Rutherford's Experiment
In 1911 Rutherford performed an experiment in order to know the
arrangement of electrons and protons in atoms. Rutherford bombarded a very
thin gold foil about 0.00004 cm thickness with α - particles. He used α -
particles obtained from the disintegration of polonium. α - particles are
helium nuclei that are doubly positively charged (He+2). He observed that:
1. Most of these particles passed straight through the foil.
2. Only few particles were slightly deflected.
3. But one in 1 million was deflected through an angle greater than 90
degree from their straight paths.
Rutherford performed a series of experiments using thin foils of other
elements. He observed similar results from these experiments.
Conclusions
Rutherford made the following conclusions:
1. Since majority of the α - particles passed through the foil undeflected, most of the space occupied by an atom
must be empty.
2. The deflection of a few α - particles through angles greater than 90° shows that these particles are deflected by
electrostatic repulsion between the positively charged α - particles and the positively charged part of atom.
3. Massive α - particles are not deflected by electrons.

Atomic Model
On the basis of conclusions, Rutherford proposed a new model for an
atom. He proposed a planetary model (similar to the solar system) for an
atom.
1. An atom is a neutral particle.
2. The mass of an atom is concentrated in a very small dense
positively charged region. He named this region as nucleus.
3. The electrons are revolving around the nucleus in circles. These
circles are called orbits.
4. The centrifugal force due to the revolution of electrons balances
the electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and the
electrons.

Defects
Rutherford's model has following defects:
1. Classical physics suggests that electron being charged particle will emit energy continuously while revolving
around the nucleus. Thus the orbit of the revolving electron becomes smaller and smaller until it would fall
into the nucleus. This would collapse the atomic structure.
2. If revolving electron emits energy continuously it should form a continuous spectrum.

Bohr's Atomic Theory

In1913 Neil Bohr, proposed a model for an atom that was consistent with Rutherford's model. Main postulates of
Bohr's atomic theory are as follows:
1. The electron in an atom revolves around the nucleus in one of
the circular orbits. Each orbit has a fixed energy. So each orbit
is also called energy level.
2. The energy of the electron in an orbit is proportional to its
distance from the nucleus. The farther the electron is from the
nucleus, the more energy it has.
3. The electron revolves only in those orbits for which the
angular momentum of the electron is an integral multiple of
h/2π, where h is Plank's constant (its value is 6.626 x 10 -34
J.s).
4. Light is absorbed when an electron jumps to a higher energy
orbit and emitted when an electron falls into a lower energy
orbit. Electron present in a particular orbit does not radiate
energy.
5. The energy of the light emitted is exactly equal to the difference between the energies of the orbits.
∆E = E2 - E1
Where ∆E is the energy difference between any two orbits with energies E 1 and E2.

Limitations of Bohr's atomic model

Only for Hydrogen: Bohr's model worked well for the hydrogen atom. However, when it came to more complex
atoms with many electrons, the model struggled. It couldn't fully explain the behaviour of these bigger atoms.
Pathway of Electrons: In Bohr's idea, electrons move in perfect circles around the nucleus, like planets around the
sun. But in reality, things are a bit trickier.
Quantum Nature of Electrons: Electrons are super tiny. They behave in ways that are strange and different from the
bigger things we see in our everyday lives.

Quantum Mechanical Model:

This is the current model used by modern science to describe the structure of the atom. It incorporates the principles of
quantum mechanics and treats electrons as wave-particle entities. Instead of exact orbits, it defines probability regions,
called orbitals, where electrons are likely to be found.

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:

A German physicist Werner Heisenberg, formulated one of the fundamental concepts of quantum mechanics in 1927.
This principle states that “It is impossible to simultaneously determine the exact location and future trajectory of
an electron. As a result, plotting the electron orbit around the nucleus becomes an irresistible challenge.”
Imagine that you have a single hydrogen atom and you decide to observe the position of that single electron at a given
moment. Shortly after you repeated this process, the electron moved to another position. This means that from the
original location the next one is completely unknown to you. Continuous repetition of this process allows the gradual
construction of a three dimensional map representing the likely locations where the electron is expected to exist. An
orbital is the region of space where the electron lives.

The Louis de Broglie’s Model:

Louis de Broglie, a French physicist, in 1924 proposed duel nature of electrons. He suggested that “Sub-atomic
particles like electrons, can exhibit both particle-like and wave-like behaviour”. In 1927, Davisson and Germer,
experimentally confirmed the de Broglie hypothesis that electron has wave like behaviour. This discovery made a
significant contribution to the development of atomic model, and laid the foundation for the Modern Quantum
Mechanics.
A simple view of the Atomic Structure
An atomic model is not a physical model, but gives a conceptual imagination. This helps to explain experimental
observations of atomic behavior. The atomic model gives us a simplified representation of complex reality.
The nucleus is the central region of an atom. It contains protons and neutrons, which are collectively called nucleons.
The nucleus is surrounded by electrons in shells. Protons and neutrons are massive particles. So, in practice, the mass
of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus. Atoms are electrically neutral because the number of protons (positively
charged) in the nucleus is equal to the number of electrons (negatively charged) in the electron cloud.

Nuclear Force
The nucleus contains protons and neutrons. Protons are positively charged and neutrons are neutral. A strong attractive
force that binds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus is called Nuclear Force. This force is stronger than
electrostatic or magnetic forces. This force exists between neutrons and neutrons, protons and protons, and neutrons
and protons

Subatomic Particles
Subatomic particles are the fundamental particles that make up atoms. The three main subatomic particles are:

Sub-atomic Particles Proton Neutron Electron

Relative charge +1 0 (Neutral) -1

Real charge + 1.602 x 10 -19 C 0 (Neutral) – 1.602 x 10 -19 C

Relative mass (in amu) 1 amu 1 amu 1/1836 amu

Relative mass (in kg) 1.6726 x 10 -27 kg 1.6749 x 10 -27 kg 9.11 x 10 -31 kg

Behavior in electric Bend toward the negative Go straight ahead Bend toward the positive plate
field plate

Behavior in an electric field

When a beam of sub-atomic particles passes between two
electrically charged plates, since neutrons have no charge, go
straight ahead. Protons are positively charged and are bend
toward the negative plate. Electrons are negatively charged
and are bend toward the positive plate. Electrons being lighter
are deflected far more strongly than the heavier protons.

Proton Number or Atomic Number

Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom refers to the
Proton number or the atomic number and is indicated by the symbol "Z". Proton number also indicates the number of
electrons in the atom. For example, Hydrogen atom has only one proton in its nucleus; therefore its atomic number is
1.
Each element has a unique proton number or atomic number that distinguishes it from other elements. All the atoms of
a given element have the same proton number (atomic number). In the periodic table, elements are arranged based on
their atomic or proton number.

Nucleon Number or Mass Number

The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is known as its mass number or nucleon number. Some atoms of
an element have different number of neutrons, and thus have different mass numbers, such atoms are called isotopes.
Mass Number or Nucleon number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
No. of neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number
Example 3.1: Determining the number of protons and neutrons in an atom
Atomic number of an element is 17 and mass number is 35. How many protons and neutrons are in the nucleus
of an atom of this element?
Solution:
Number of protons = Atomic number = 17
Number of neutrons = Mass number - Atomic number
= 35 - 17 = 18

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS AND ATOMIC MASS UNIT

An atom is extremely small particle, therefore, we cannot determine the mass of a single atom. However, it is possible
to determine the mass of one atom of an element relative to another experimentally. This can be done by assigning a
value to the mass of one atom of a given element, so that it can be used as standard.
By international agreement in 1961, light isotope of carbon C-12 has been chosen as a standard. This isotope of
carbon (C-12) has been assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass unit. This value has been determined accurately
using mass spectrometer. The mass of atoms of all other elements are compared to the mass C-12. Thus "The mass of
an atom of an element relative to the mass of an atom of C-12 is called its relative atomic mass".
One atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as a mass exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of one C-12 atom.

Mass of one C-12 atom = 12 amu

Mass of one C−12 atom

1 amu=
12

Mass percent of element x 12 amu

Relative atomic mass of an element=
100

A hydrogen atom is 8.40% as massive as the standard C-12 atom. Therefore, relative atomic mass of hydrogen.

Mass percent of hydrogen x 12 amu

Relative atomic mass of Hydrogen=
100

8.4 x 12 amu
Relative atomic mass of Hydrogen=
100

= 1.008 amu
Element Relative atomic mass Element Relative atomic mass
H 1.008 amu Al 26.9815 amu
N 14.0067amu S 32.06 amu
O 15.9994amu Cl 35.453 amu
Na 22.9898 amu Fe 55.847 amu
Isotopes
Atoms of an element which have same atomic number but different mass numbers are called Isotopes. OR
Atoms of an element which have same number of protons but different number of neutrons in their nuclei are
called Isotopes. The word isotope was first used by Soddy. It is a Greek word "isos" means same and "tope" means
place.

Similarities in isotopes of an element

Isotopes of an element have same:
a. Number of protons.
b. Number of electrons.
c. Atomic number.
d. Electronic configuration
e. Chemical properties
Differences in isotopes of an element
Isotopes of an element have different:

a. Number of neutrons.
b. Mass numbers.
c. Atomic masses
d. Physical properties.

Isotopes of Hydrogen
Hydrogen has three isotopes.

1
Hydrogen -1 (Protium) has no neutron. Its symbol is H .
1

Hydrogen - 2 (deuterium) has one neutron. Its symbol is

2H
1

3
Hydrogen -3 (Tritium) has two neutrons. Its symbol is H .
1

Properties Hydrogen -1 (Protium) Hydrogen - 2 (deuterium) Hydrogen -3 (Tritium)

Atomic Number 1 1 1
Mass Number 1 2 3
No. of Protons 1 1 1
No. of Electrons 1 1 1
No. of Neutrons 0 1 2
Symbol 1H 2H 3H
1 1 1
% Abundance 99.99% 0.0015% Rare

Properties of Hydrogen
i. Hydrogen/ Protium is a colourless, odourless, and tasteless gas.
ii. It is insoluble in water
iii. It is highly inflammable gas.

Heavy Water
Water that contain hydrogen-2 atoms in place of hydrogen-1 is called heavy water.
Comparison of properties of ordinary water and heavy water.
Property Ordinary water Heavy water
o
Melting Point 0 C 3.81 o C
Boiling point 100 o C 101.2 o C
Density at 25 o C 0.99701g / cm3 1.1044g / cm3

Isotopes of Carbon
Carbon has three isotopes.

12 C
Carbon-12 has 6 neutron. Its symbol is .
6
 13 C
Carbon-13 has 7 neutron. Its symbol is
6

14 C
Carbon-14 has 8 neutrons. Its symbol is .
6

Properties Carbon-12 Carbon-13 Carbon-14

Atomic Number 6 6 6
Mass Number 12 13 14
No. of Protons 6 6 6
No. of Electrons 6 6 6
No. of Neutrons 6 7 8
Symbol 12 C 13 C 14 C
6 6 6
% Abundance 98.8% 1.1% 0.009%

Properties of Carbon
i. Carbon is an odourless, and tasteless solid.
ii. It is insoluble in water
iii. They have high melting and boiling points.
iv. Different forms of carbon are black or greyish black solids except diamond.

Isotopes of Chlorine
Chlorine has two natural isotopes.

Chlorine – 35 has 18 neutron. Its symbol is 35 Cl .

17

Chlorine – 37 has 20 neutron. Its symbol is 37 Cl

17

Properties Chlorine – 35 Chlorine – 37

Atomic Number 17 17
Mass Number 35 37
No. of Protons 17 17
No. of Electrons 17 17
No. of Neutrons 18 20
Symbol 35 Cl 37 Cl
17 17
% Abundance 75.77% 24.23%

Properties of Chlorine
i. Chlorine is a greyish yellow gas.
ii. It is fairly soluble in water.
iii. It has an irritating pungent odour.
Isotopes of Uranium
Uranium has three isotopes.
234 U
Uranium -234 has 6 neutron. Its symbol is .
92
235 U
Uranium -235 has 7 neutron. Its symbol is
92
238 U
Uranium -238 has 8 neutrons. Its symbol is .
92

Properties Uranium -234 Uranium -235 Uranium -238

Atomic Number 92 92 92

Mass Number 234 235 238

No. of Protons 92 92 92

No. of Electrons 92 92 92

No. of Neutrons 142 143 146

Symbol 234 U 235 U 238 U

92 92 92

% Abundance 0.006% 0.72% 99.27%

Properties of Uranium
i. U – 235 is used in nuclear reactors and atomic bombs.
ii. The fission of uranium-235 yields smaller nuclei, neutron and energy. The nuclear energy released by the
fission of one kilogram of uranium-235 is equivalent to chemical energy produced by burning more than
17000 kg of coal.
iii. When uranium-238 decays into thorium-234, it emits alpha particle.

238 U 234 Th 4 He
+
92 90 2

Radioactivity
In some elements, the nuclear forces are not naturally balanced. The nucleus of these atoms decays and becomes
another atom. This phenomenon is called radioactive decay or radioactivity. This process continues until the forces in
the nuclear core are balanced. In radioactive decay, when an atom emits a neutron, it changes to another isotope of
that atom. But when it emits a proton, it becomes another atom. For example;
1. Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon. It is naturally present in the atmosphere. The radioactive C-14
undergoes radioactive decay, transforms into nitrogen-14.
2. Uranium-238 is a radioactive isotope of uranium. It decays over time and finally transforms into stable lead-
206 atom.

Radioisotopes
Different atoms of the same element have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons in their
atomic nuclei. These atoms are called Isotopes. Some isotopes of an element, contain an unstable combination of
neutrons and protons, or excess energy in their nucleus, are unstable and show radioactive decay. These isotopes are
called radioactive isotopes. For example, hydrogen-3 (Tritium), carbon-14, uranium-238 etc.

Determination of Relative Atomic Mass

The relative atomic mass of an element can be calculated from the relative masses of its isotopes and their relative
abundance.

Q: Natural abundance of isotopes of carbon is as follows:

12 C=98.8 % 13 C=1.1 % 14 C=0.009 %
.
6 6 6
Calculate relative atomic mass of carbon.

Solution:

The relative atomic mass is a weighed average of all the naturally occurring isotopes of an element, taking into
consideration of their natural abundance.

RA of C−12 x at . mass of C−12+ RA of C−13 x at . mass of C−13+ RA of C−14 x at . ma

Relative atomic mass of C=
100

( 98.8 x 12 )+(1.1 x 13)+(0.009 x 14)

Relative atomic mass of C=
100
Relative atomic mass of C = 12.00026 amu

CONCEPT ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3.1

An element has two isotopes A and B. The relative atomic mass of the element is 35.5 amu. Relative abundance
of isotope A is 75.77% and its isotopic mass is 35. Find the isotopic mass of B if its relative abundance is
24.23%.

RA of Isotope A x At . mass of Isotope A + RA of Isotope B x At . mass of Isotope B

Relative atomic mass of element=
100
( 75.77 x 35 ) +(24.23 x At . mass of Isotope B)
35.5=
100
35.5 x 100 = 2651.95 + (24.23 x At. Mass of Isotope B)
3550 – 2651.95 = 24.23 x At. Mass of Isotope B
898.05 / 24.23 = At. Mass of Isotope B
At. Mass of Isotope B = 37 amu

Uses of Isotopes
Stable and radioactive isotopes have many applications in science and medicines. Some of these are as follows:
1. Radioactive Iodine – 131 is used as a tracer in diagnosing thyroid problem.
2. Na – 24 is used to trace the flow of blood and detect possible constrictions or obstructions in the circulatory
system.
3. Iodine – 123 is used to image the brain.
4. Cobalt – 60 is commonly used to irradiate cancer cells in the hope of killing or shrinking the tumors.
5. Carbon – 14 is used to trace the path of carbon in photosynthesis. Radioactive
6. Isotopes are used to determine the molecular structure e.g. Sulphur – 35 has been used in the structure
determination of thiosulphate, S2O3 –2 ion.
7. Radioactive isotopes are also used to study the mechanism of chemical reactions.
8. Radioactive isotopes are used to date rocks, soils, archaeological objects, and mummies.
9. Carbon-14 is used to estimate the age of carbon-containing substances.

Carbon Dating
Carbon-14 is used to estimate the age of carbon-containing substances. Carbon atoms circulate between the oceans,
and living organism at a rate very much faster than they decay. As a result the concentration of C-14 in all living
things, keep on increasing. After death organisms no longer pick up C-14. By comparing the activity of a sample of
skull or jaw bones, with the activity of living tissues, we can estimate how long it has been since the organism died.
This process is called dating.

CATIONS AND ANIONS:

Cations:
Cations are positively charged ions that form when an atom loses one or more electrons. Cations are usually formed
from metal atoms that tend to lose electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration similar to a noble gas. When an
atom loses one or more electrons, it forms a cation. The resulting cation has the electronic configuration of a noble
gas.
Example 3.2: Describing the formation of cations
Describe the formation of Na+ and Mg +2 cations.

1. Sodium belongs to Group IA of the periodic table. It has only one electron in the valence shell. Sodium atom loses
its valence electron and is left with an octet.

2. Magnesium belongs to Group IIA in the periodic table. It has two valence electrons. Magnesium atom loses these
electrons to achieve noble gas configuration.

CONCEPT ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3.2

Describe the formation of cations for the following metal atoms:
(a) Li (atomic no 3) (b) Al (atomic no.13)

(a) Lithium belongs to Group IA of the periodic table. It has only one electron in the valence shell. Lithium atom loses
its valence electron and is left with an octet.

(b) Aluminum belongs to Group IIIA in the periodic table. It has three valence electrons. Aluminum atom loses these
electrons to achieve noble gas configuration.

Anions:
Anions are negatively charged ions that form when an atom gains one or more electrons. This process usually occurs
when an atom has a relatively high electron affinity, meaning that it can easily attract and capture more electrons to
achieve a stable electron configuration similar to a noble gas.
Example 3.3: Describing the formation of anions.
Describe the formation of anions for the following non-metal atoms:
(a) Oxygen (atomic no.8) (b) Fluorine (atomic no. 9)
(a) Oxygen belongs to Group VIA on the periodic table. So it has six electrons in its valence shell. It needs two
electrons to achieve noble gas configuration.

(b) Fluorine belongs to Group VIIA on the periodic table. So it has seven electrons in the valence shell. A fluorine
atom therefore, requires only one electron to complete octet.

CONCEPT ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3.3

Describe the formation of anions by the following non-metals.
(a) Sulphur (atomic No. 16) (b) Chlorine (atomic No. 17)
(a) Sulphur belongs to Group VIA on the periodic table. So it has six electrons in its valence shell. It needs two
electrons to achieve noble gas configuration.

(b) Chlorine belongs to Group VIIA on the periodic table. So it has seven electrons in the valence shell. A Chlorine
atom therefore, requires only one electron to complete octet.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Shells
According to Bohr's atomic theory, shells or orbits are the circular paths around the nucleus in which electrons
revolve. Each shell has a fixed energy. So each shell is also called energy level. Each shell is described by a value of
n. n can have values 1, 2, 3.... When,
n = 1 it is K shell
n = 2 it is L shell
n = 3 it is M shell etc.
As the value of n increases the distance of electron from the nucleus and energy of the shell increases.
Sub-Shells
A shell or energy level is sub divided into sub-shells or sub-energy levels. n value of a shell is placed before the
symbol for a sub-shell. For instance,

For K shell n = 1. It has only one sub-shell which as represented by 1s.

For L shell n = 2. It has two sub-shells, these are designated as 2s and 2p.
For M shell n = 3 So M shell has 3 sub-shells called 3s, 3p and 3d.
For N shell n = 4 So N shell has 4 sub-shells called 4 s, 4p, 4d and 4f.
s sub-shell can accommodate maximum 2 electrons, p sub-shell can accommodate maximum 6 electrons, d sub-shell
can accommodate maximum 10 electrons, and f sub-shell can accommodate maximum 14 electrons.
The increasing order of energy of the sub-shells is 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s ……..

Electronic Configuration
The arrangement or distribution of electrons in shells and sub-shells is called electronic configuration. Electronic
Configuration of an element can be written by using Aufbau Principle.
Aufbau Principle
According to this principle, electrons fill the lowest energy sub-shell that is available first. The increasing order of
energy of the sub-shells belonging to different shells is 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s…….
Therefore electrons fill sub-shells in the above order.
Symbols for atoms and ions
The shorthand natation that represent an atom of the element is called Symbol. It consists of one or two-letters, the
mass number as a left superscript, the atomic number as a left subscript, and the charge as a right superscript. For
example;
24 Mg +2
12
This example shows symbol for magnesium "Mg". The number to the upper left of the symbol is the mass number,
which is 24. The number to the upper right of the symbol is the charge which is positive 2. The number to the lower
left of the symbol is the atomic number which is 12.

Electronic Configuration of first 20 elements

• 1H = 1s1
• 2He = 1s2
• 3Li = 1s2 2s1
• 4Be = 1s2 2s2
• 5B = 1s2 2s2 2p1
• 6C = 1s2 2s2 2p2
• 7N = 1s2 2s2 2p3
• 8O = 1s2 2s2 2p4
• 9F = 1s2 2s2 2p5
• 10Ne = 1s2 2s2 2p6
• 11Na = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
• 12Mg = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
• 13Al = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
• 14Si = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
• 15P = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
• 16S = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
• 17Cl = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
• 18Ar = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
• 19K = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
 • Ca
20 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 4s2
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Encircle the correct answer.
1. Chlorine has two isotopes, both of which have:
a. same mass number. b. same number of neutrons.
c. different number of protons. d. same number of electrons.

27 M
2. Number of neutrons in are:
13
a. 13 b. 14 c. 27 d. 15

3. Which isotope is commonly used to irradiate cancer cells?

a. Iodine – 123 b. Carbon – 14 c. Cobalt – 60 d. Iodine – 131

4. M shell has sub-shells:

a. 1s, 2s b. 2s, 2p c. 3s, 3p, 3d d. 1s, 2s, 3s

5. A sub-shell that can accommodate 6 electrons is:

a. s b. d c. p d. f

6. 11Na has electronic configuration:

a. 1s2 2s2 3s1 b. 1s2 2s2 2p7 c. 1s2 2s2 2p5 3s2 d. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

7. Which of the following statement is not correct about isotopes?

a. they have same atomic number b. they have same number of protons
c. they have same chemical properties d. they have same physical properties

8. Which isotope is used in nuclear reactors?

a. U-234 b. U-238 c. U-235 d. All of these

2. Give short answer.

i. Distinguish between shell and sub-shell.
Answer:
Shell Sub – shell

According to Bohr’s model, shells are the circular path According to Quantum mechanic's model, Sub-
on which electrons revolve around the nucleus. Shells are shells are regions in which probability of
main energy levels. Each shell has a fixed value of “n”. finding electrons is maximum. Sub-shells are
Shells are denoted by letters K for 1 st shell, L for 2nd sub energy levels. Sub-shells are denoted by
shell, M for 3rd shell, N for 4th shell etc. letters s, p ,d and f.

ii. Why an atom is electrically neutral?

Answer: A proton and an electron have an equal amount of charge but opposite in nature. Thus, if an atom
contains equal numbers of protons and electrons, the atom remain electrically neutral.

iii. How many sub-shells are there in N shell?

Answer: N - shell is the fourth shell in an atom. There are four sub-shells in N shell, which are 4s, 4p, 4d and 4f

iv. Give notation for sub-shells of M shell.

Answer: M - shell is the third shell in an atom. There are three sub-shells in M shell. Notation for sub-shells are
3s, 3p and 3d

v. List the sub-shells of M Shell in order of increasing energy.

Answer: M - shell is the third shell in an atom. There are three sub-shells in M shell. Order of increasing energy
of sub-shells is 3s < 3p < 3d
 vi. Can you identify an atom without knowing number of neutrons in it?
Answer: Isotopes of an element have different number of neutrons but they have same number of protons. Thus
number of protons in an atom is its identity and we can identify an atom without knowing number of
neutrons in it.

3. The electronic configurations listed are incorrect. Explain what mistake have been made in each and write
correct electronic configurations.
x = 1s2 2s2 2p4 3p2 y = 1s2 2s1 2p1 z = 1s2 2s2 2p5 3s1

Answer: x = 1s2 2s2 2p4 3p2

p subshell can accommodate maximum 6 electrons while here 2p is filled with 4 electrons. Hence correct
electronic configuration will be x = 1s2 2s2 2p6
y = 1s2 2s1 2p1
s subshell can accommodate maximum 2 electrons while here 2s is filled with 1 electron. Hence correct
electronic configuration will be y = 1s2 2s2
z = 1s2 2s2 2p5 3s1
p subshell can accommodate maximum 6 electrons while here 2p is filled with 5 electrons. Hence correct
electronic configuration will be z = 1s2 2s2 2p6

4. Which orbital in each of the following pairs is lower in energy?

(a) 2s, 2p (b) 3p, 2p (c) 3s, 4s

Answer: (a) 2s has lower energy than 2p

(b) 2p has lower energy than 3p
(c) 3s has lower energy than 4s

5. Draw Bohr's Model for the following atoms indicating the location for electron, protons and neutrons:
(a) Potassium (Atomic No 19, Mass No. 39)
(b) Silicon (Atomic No. 14 Mass No. 28)
(c) Argon (Atomic No. 18 Mass No. 39)
Answer:
a) Potassium (Atomic No. 19, Mass No. 39)
No. of Protons = Atomic No.
= 19 Protons
No. of Electrons = No. of Protons
= 19 Electrons
No. of Neutrons = Mass No. – Atomic No.
= 39 – 19 = 20 Neutrons

b) Silicon (Atomic No. 14, Mass No. 28)

No. of Protons = Atomic No.
= 14 Protons
No. of Electrons = No. of Protons
= 14 Electrons
No. of Neutrons = Mass No. – Atomic No.
= 28 – 14
= 14 Neutrons

c) Argon (Atomic No. 18, Mass No. 40)

No. of Protons = Atomic No.
= 18 Protons
No. of Electrons = No. of Protons
= 18 Electrons
No. of Neutrons = Mass No. – Atomic No.
 = 40 – 18
= 22 Neutrons

6. Write electronic configuration for the following elements:

28 Si 24 Mg 27 Al 40 Ar
(a) (b) (c) (d)
14 12 13 18

28 Si
(a) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
14

24 Mg
(b) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
12

27 Al
(c) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
13

40 Ar
(d) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
18

7. State the importance and uses of isotopes in various fields of life.

Stable and radioactive isotopes have many applications in science and medicines. Some of these are as follows:
1. Radioactive Iodine – 131 is used as a tracer in diagnosing thyroid problem.
2. Na – 24 is used to trace the flow of blood and detect possible constrictions or obstructions in the circulatory
system.
3. Iodine – 123 is used to image the brain.
4. Cobalt – 60 is commonly used to irradiate cancer cells in the hope of killing or shrinking the tumors.
5. Carbon – 14 is used to trace the path of carbon in photosynthesis. Radioactive
6. Isotopes are used to determine the molecular structure e.g. Sulphur – 35 has been used in the structure
determination of thiosulphate, S2O3 –2 ion.
7. Radioactive isotopes are also used to study the mechanism of chemical reactions.
8. Radioactive isotopes are used to date rocks, soils, archaeological objects, and mummies.
9. Carbon-14 is used to estimate the age of carbon-containing substances.

8. The atomic number of an element is 23 and its mass number is 56.

a. How many protons and electrons does an atom of this element have?
No. of Protons = Atomic No. = 23 Protons
No. of Electrons = No. of Protons = 23 Electrons
b. How many neutrons does this atom have?
No. of Neutrons = Mass No. – Atomic No.
= 56 – 23 = 33 Neutrons
27 Al
9. The atomic symbol of aluminum is written as . What information do you get from it?
13
From atomic symbol of Aluminum, we get the following information:
Atomic No. = 13
Mass No. = 27
No. of Protons = Atomic No. = 13 Protons
No. of Electrons = No. of Protons = 13 Electrons
No. of Neutrons = Mass No. – Atomic No.
= 27 – 13 = 14 Neutrons