Chapter 7: Atomic Structure and Periodicity

7.1: Electromagnetc Radiation

* Electromagnetic radiation: a way in which energy travel through space (mean of energy
transfer)
e.g.: sun light, microwave, X-ray ……..
-All of these radiations exhibit the same type of wavelike behavior and travel with the
speed of light in a vacuum.
* Waves have three primary characteristics:
1) Wavelength (λ): the distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs in a wave (or
any identical points in two successive waves). See figure 7.1 page 297
2) Frequency (ν): number of waves (cycles) per second that pass a given point in a space.
Since all electromagnetic radiation travel with the speed of light then the short-wavelength
radiation must have high frequency. See figure 7.1 page 297
3) Speed (c): The distance traveled by the wave in unit time which imply that:

Where: λ = wavelength (m/cycle or m), ν = frequency (cycle/s or 1/s or s-1 or Hertz), c =speed of
light (2.9979 × 105 m/s)
-Since the product of wavelength and frequency is constant (speed of light) then they
inversely proportional.

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* Electromagnetic radiation is classified as shown in figure 7.2 page 297

Example 7.1 page 298

Exercise 39, 40
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7.2: The nature of matter
* Particle: things that had mass and whose position in space could be specified
* Wave: duslurbance that travel through matter or space. Massless and delocalized (their position
in space could not be specified)
* Max Plank (1858-1947): by studying the radiation profiles emitted by solid bodies heated to
incandescence:

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 -Physics in his days says that matter could absorb or emit any quantity of energy (energy
of matter is continuous).
-But Plank explained his observations only by postulating that energy van be gained or
lost only in whole-number multiples of the quantity hν:

Where: ΔE: the change in the energy for the system

n: integer (1, 2, 3, 4, ……..)
h: Plank’s constant (6.626 × 10-34 J·s)
ν: Frequency of the electromagnetic radiation absorbed or emitted.
-This result show that the transfer of energy is quantized and can occur only in discrete
units of the size hν each one called quantum

Example 7.2 page 299

Exercise 41, 42

* Albert Einstein (1879-1955):

-Proposed that electromagnetic radiation is itself quantized
-he suggested that electromagnetic radiation can be viewed as stream of particles called
photons
-The energy of each photon is given by the expression:

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* The photoelectric effect:
* Einstein arrived for his conclusion through analysis of the photoelectric effect
* Photoelectric effect: electron emitted from the metal surface when tight strikes and
characterized by:
1) no electron are emitted by given metal below a specific threshold frequency ν0
2) For light with frequency lower than threshold frequency, no electrons emitted
regardless of the intensity of the light
3) For light with frequency greater than threshold frequency, the number of electrons
emitted increases with the intensity of the light
4) For light with frequency greater than threshold frequency, the kinetic energy of the
emitted electrons increases linearly with frequency of the light
# These observation can be explained by assuming the electromagnetic radiations is
quantized (consist of photon)

# photon with energy less than E0 cannot remove an electron (light with frequency less
than threshold frequency produce no electron) see figure 7.4 page302

# light with ν > ν0 the excess energy is given to electron as kinetic energy (KE)

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 # Because the intensity of the light is a measure of the number of photons present in a
given part of the beam, a greater intensity means the more photon available to release electrons
(ν > ν0)

-From special theory of relativity:

-This equation means energy has a mass (equivalent mass)

-but

-So the apparent mass (not mass in classical sense) of a photon is

* Electromagnetic radiation have the properties of both waves (e.g.: λ) and particles (e.g.:
momentum): dual nature of light See figure 7.5 page 302

* Light is a wave have properties of particles, the opposite is also true

-de Broglie (1892-1987): assumed the matter (particle) have wave properties
# If the mass of photon given by equation:

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 # The equation for mass of particle is obtain by replacing the speed of light with velocity
of the particle:

# By rearrangement we get:

# This called de Broglie equation: allow us to calculate the wavelength of particle

Example 7.3 page 303

Note: The wave of the electron is the range of spacing between atoms so it has an effect on
electron motion
Exercise 53, 54, 55, 56

* Diffraction: occurs when light is scattered from regular array of points or lines (the distances
between lines is comparable to the wave length of radiation) (wave property)
e.g.: When X-ray is directed onto crystal of a particular nickel/titanium alloy, the scattered
radiation produces diffraction pattern. See figure7.6 page 304

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* When a beam of electrons directed at nickel crystal, a diffraction pattern is observed. This
result verified de Broglie’s relationship.
* In summary matter (e.g.: electron) have dual nature
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7.3: The atomic Spectrum of Hydrogen

* When H2 molecules receives high energy spark, the H2 molecules absorb energy and some of
H―H bonds are broken. The resulting H atoms are excited (contain excess energy)

* The excited atom release energy by emitted light of various wavelengths and produce emission
spectrum of hydrogen

* Continuous spectrum: result when white light is passed through prism (figure 7.7a page 305)

* When the hydrogen emission spectrum in the visible region passed through prism (figure 7.7b)
we see few lines each line correspond to certain wavelength. This spectrum called line spectrum
-This spectrum indicate that only certain energies are allowed for the electron in
hydrogen atom (the electron energy in hydrogen atom is quantized)
-Changes in energy between discrete energy levels in hydrogen will produce only certain
wavelength of emitted light. See figure 7.8 page 306

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 -This change can be calculate by the following equation:

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7.4: The Bohr Model
* Niels Bohr (1885-1962) proposed that electron in a hydrogen atom moves in certain allowd
circular orbits
-he assumed that angular momentum of the electron (mass x velocity x orbital radius)
could occur in certain increments.
-with this assumption Bohr model gave hydrogen energy levels consistent with the
hydrogen emission spectrum.
See figure 7.9 page 307

-Based on Bohr model the energy level available to the electron is hydrogen atom is:

Where: n: integer (larger n value, larger orbital radius)

Z: nuclear charge
The negative sign mean that the energy of electron bound to the nucleus is
lower than it would if the electron at infinite distance (n = ∞) from nucleus

The energy of electron in any orbit is negative relative this reference

e.g.: If electron in excited atom (n = 6) fall to n = 1 as the hydrogen return to its lowest
possible energy state (ground state). Z =1

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For n = 1 the electron has more negative energy than n = 6 (more tightly bound)

The negative sign mean that the energy is lost (photon emitted)

Example 7.4 page 308

Exercise 57, 58

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Example 7.5 page 309

Exercise 65, 66

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* Defects in Bohr Model:
-can not be applied to atoms other than hydrogen
-do not explain why electrons do not fall in nucleus as expected by classical physics
-electrons do not move in circular orbits

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7.5: The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

* Anew approach introduced by (Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976), Louis de Broglie (1892-1987)

and Erwin Schrodinger (1887-1961)) known as wave mechanics or quantum mechanics

* To Schrodinger and de Broglie, the electron bound to the nucleus seemed similar to a standing
wave
e.g.: Waves through string of quitar
-Standing waves is stationary waves do not travel along the string.
See figure 7.10 page 310

-The dots in this figure indicate the nodes or points of zero sideway displacement.

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 -This put limitation on the allowed wavelength of the standing wave: each end of the
string is fixed so there is always a node at each end which means that there must be a whole
number of half wavelength in any of the allowed motion of the string

* Similar situation result when the electron in the hydrogen atom is imagined to be a standing
wave: See figure 7.11 page 311
-only certain circular orbits have a circumference into which a whole number of waves of
the standing electron wave will fit:
2πr = nλ =nh/mv
Rearangment we gat mvr =nh/2π (Bohr assumption)

Quantum (wave) mechanical model

* Schrodinger decided to treat the electron as standing wave with the following equation

-This equation called Schrodinger equation

Where:
Ψ called wave function: is a function in the coordinate (x, y, z) of the electron’s
position in three-dimensional space

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 Ĥ called Hamiltonian operator: represent a set of mathematical instructions
E is total energy of the electron (potential due to attraction of the nucleus and
kinetic energy moving electrons

* When this equation analyzed. Many solutions were found:

-Each solution consists of a wave function (Ψ) that characterized by a particular value of E
-A specific wave function called orbital
e.g.: For hydrogen the wave function with the lowest energy called 1s orbital

* Heisenberg uncertainty principle: There is a fundamental limitation to just how precisely we

can know both the position and momentum of particle at given time

Where:
Δx is the uncertainty in particle’s position
Δ(mv) is the uncertainty in the particle momentum
-The more accurately we know particle’s position, the less accurate we know its
momentum and vice versa
-So we can know the exact motion of the electron

* The physical meaning of the wave function

-Wave function have no clear physical meaning
-The square of the function indicate the probability of finding electron near a particular
point in space
-Probability distribution: intensity of color is used to indicate the probability value near a
given point in space see figure 7.12a page 312 for 1s wave function
-This diagram is also known as an electron density map
-Electron density an electron probability means the same thing
-Another way is to calculate the probability at points along a line drawn outward in any
direction from the nucleolus. See figure 7.12b for 1s wave

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* We need to know the total probability of finding the electron in the hydrogen atom at particular
distance from the nucleus.
-imagine that the space around the hydrogen nucleus is made up of series of thin
spherical shells (See figure 7.13a page 312)
-when the total probability of finding the electron in each spherical shell is plotted versus
the distance from the nucleus, the plot in figure 7.13b is obtained (for 1s wave).
-This graph called radial probability distribution
-For the hydrogen 1s orbital, the maximum radial probability occurs at distance 0.529 Å
from the nucleus (it exactly the Bohr radius)
What is the size of 1s orbital?
The radius of sphere that enclose 90% of the total electron probability

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7.6: Quantum Numbers

* By solving Schrodinger equation we find many wave functions (orbitals) each have of them
characterized by series of number called quantum number:
1) Principal quantum number (n): 1, 2, 3, ……………….
Determine:
-The size of orbital
-The energy of orbital
2) Angular momentum quantum number (l): 0, ……., n-1
Determine
-The shape of atomic orbital. See table 7.1 page 313

3) Magnetic quantum number (ml): +l,…, 0, …., –l

Determine
-Orientation of the orbital in space

* The 1st four level of orbitals in hydrogen atom are listed in table 7.2 page 314

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* Subshell: the set orbitals with the same value of l
Important relations:
Number of orbitals in each shell = n2
Number of subshells in each shell = n
Number of orbital in each subshell = 2l + 1

Example 7.6 page 314

Exercise 71, 73

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7.7: Orbital Shape and Energies
Figure 7.14 page 315 shows the representations of 1s, 2s, 3s orbitals

* Notes:
-1s, 2s, 3s have spherical shape the size increases with n
-2s, 3s contain areas of zero probability called nodal surfaces or nodes
-For any orbital the total number of nodes = n-1

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* Two types of representation for 2p orbitals are shown in figure 7.15 page 315

* Notes:
-P orbitals consists of two lobes separated by one node at nucleus (angular node)
-Number of angular nodes in any orbital = l
-Number of radial nodes = total nodes – angular nodes
= n –1 –l
-The three p orbitals named according the axis they contain
e.g.: 2p orbitals named 2px, 2py, 2pz
-p orbital lobes have positive and negative sign (sign for the wave function)

* The five 3d orbitals have the shapes shown in figure 7.17 page 316

* Notes:
-d orbitals have two angular nodes (l = 2)
-Four orbitals each have four lobes
a) Three between the axis: dxy, dxz, dyz
b) One on the axis dx2-y2
-dz2 have unique shape

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* Figure 7.18 shows page 317 representation of the seven 4f orbitals (l = 3)

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* For hydrogen atom, all orbitals with the same value of n have the same energy (degenerate)
* Degenerate orbital: orbital having the same energy.
See figure 7.19 page 317
-hydrogen ground state: The electron in 1s
-hydrogen excited state: electron in any other orbital

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7.8: Electron Spin and Pauli Principle
* The spectral data indicate that the electron has magnetic moment with two possible orientations
when atom placed in an external magnetic field
-classical physics say that spinning charge produces a magnetic moment
-the electron has two spin states, producing two opposite magnetic moment see figure
7.20 page 318

* electron spin quantum number (ms): +1/2, –1/2

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* A total of four quantum numbers required to correctly describe electron in an atom
a) The quantum numbers n, l, ml determine the position of electron in atom (the orbital)
b) -The quantum number ms determine the orientation of electron spin in orbital

* Pauli exclusion principle: In given atom no two electrons can have the same set of four
quantum numbers (n, l, ml, ms)
This imply that each orbital (with given value of n, l, ml) can hold only two electrons and
they must have opposite spin
e.g.:
-For 4s orbitals, the quantum numbers (n, l, ml, ms) have only two sets:
(4, 0, 0, +1/2)
(4, 0, 0, –1/2)
According to Pauli Exclusion Principle 4s orbital can only have two electrons
Question: how many electrons are needed to fill 3p subshell and show the quantum numbers (n,
l, ml, ms) set for each electron?
Answer:
3p subshell has three orbital so it required 6 electrons to filled each with one of the
following quantum numbers (n, l, ml, ms) sets: (3, 1, +1, +1/2); (3, 1, +1, –1/2); (3, 1, 0, +1/2); (3,
1, 0, –1/2); (3, 1, –1, +1/2), (3, 1, –1, –1/2)

Note: The total number of electron each shell = 2 × The number orbitals in the shell
= 2n2
=================================================================
7.9: Polyelectronic Atoms
* The above discussion apply the hydrogen: one proton one electron:
We need to consider the kinetic energy of electron and the potential energy of the
attraction of nucleus to one electron
* For other atom the situation become more complicated:
e.g.: Helium atom

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We need to consider three contributions to the total energy:
1) The kinetic energy of the electrons as they moves around the nucleus
2) The potential energy of the attraction between the nucleus and electrons
3) The potential energy of the repulsion between the two electrons

* The Schrodinger equation for Helium can be written but cannot be solved

* The repulsion between the electrons cannot be calculated exactly because the pathways of
electrons are unknown: This called electron correlation problem.

* Approximation: each electron is moving in a field of charge that is the net result of nuclear
attraction and the average of repulsion of all other electrons
e.g.: Consider Sodium atom (Na) which has 11 electron

-Consider the outer most electron. The forces this electron feels is:
1) attraction to the highly charged nucleus
2) the repulsion caused by the other 10 electrons
-The electron is screened or shielded from nuclear charge by the repulsion of the other
electrons

* For polyelctronic atoms, we use hydrogen-like orbitals:

1) have the same general shapes as the orbital for hydrogen
2) their size and energy are different
-For hydrogen orbital with the same (n) have the same energy (degenerate)
-For polyelectronic atoms the orbitals vary in energy as follows:

Why? To explain this see figure 7.21 page 319

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 -As you can see 2s has one radial node and 2p has no radial node
-2p has the maximum probability closer to the nucleus (2p orbital smaller than 2s orbital)
but 2s small hump of electron density inside 2p
This mean that 2s electron spend most of its time a little further from nucleus than 2p
electron but significant amount of time near the nucleus (inside the 2p)
-we say that 2s electron penetrate to the nucleus more than 2p electron
-The penetration effect causes 2s electron to be attracted to the nucleus more strongly
than an electron in a 2p orbital (2s orbital is lower in energy than 2p).
-The same occurs for other subshells. Figure 7.22 320 shows radial probability
distribution profiles for 3s, 3p, and 3d.

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In general: electron in an orbital with stronger penetration to the shielding electrons has lower
energy

* The order of the orbital energy for polyelectronic atoms is shown in figure 7.23 page320

=================================================================
7.11: The Aufbau Principle and Periodic Table
* Aufbau principle (build up principle): as protons are added one by one to the nucleus to build
up the elements, electrons are similarly added to hydrogen-like orbitals (from lower energy to
higher energy)

-The arrow represents the spin direction: clockwise spin (↑) or counterclockwise spin (↓)
-For helium (Z = 2) the two electrons in s have two opposite spin (Pauli Exclusion
Principle)

-For Lithium (Z = 3) the third electron will go the 2nd shell (the 1st is filled: in the 1st shell
only one orbital which can have only two electrons). In the 2nd shell 2s has lower energy than 2p
so

-Beryllium (Z = 4)

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 Born (Z = 5): Now 2s is filled so the 5th electron will go to one of the three degenerate 2p
orbitals (not important which)

-Carbon (Z = 6): The 6th electron will occupy one of the three 2p orbitals but which one?
Hund’s Rule: The lowest energy configuration is the one having the maximum number of
unpaired electrons allowed by Pauli Principle in a particular set of degenerate orbitals (unpaired
electrons have parallel spin)

-Nitrogen (Z = 7)

-Oxygen (Z = 8)

-Fluorine (Z = 9)

-Neon (Z = 10)

-Sodium (Z = 11): 1s22s22p63s1 OR it can be written as [Ne]3s1

Where [Ne] summarize the structure of inner electrons 1s22s22p6
-Mg (Z = 12): 1s22s22p63s2 OR [Ne]3s2
See Figure 7.26 page 325 Shows the orbital occupied last

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* Valence electrons: The electrons in the outer most principal quantum level of an atom
e.g.: -Carbon has 4 valence electrons
-Nitrogen has 5 valence electrons

* Core electrons: inner electrons (all have closed shells)

* The elements in the same group have the same valence electron configuration. See figure 7.26
-Potassium (Z = 19): 19th will occupy 4s not 3d

-Calcium (Z = 20)

Note: For Z < 21 energy of 4s < 3d but for Z > or = 21 energy 4s > 3d
-Scandium (Z = 21) with this element start the transition elements (d orbitals is filled)

-Titanium (Z = 22)

-Vanadium (Z = 23)

-Chromium (Z = 24): The expected configuration is [Ar] 4s23d4 but the observed is:

Half-filled and filled d orbital are more stable.

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And so on

-Copper (Z = 29): The expected is [Ar] 4s23d9 but the observed is:

Filled d orbital more stable

The next six elements Gallium to Krypton 4p is filled

See figure 7.27 page 326

* The entire periodic table is represented in figure 7.28 page 326 in term of which orbital being
filled and the valence electron configuration in figure 7.29 page 327

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Notes:
1) The period number correspond to n
2) (n)s filled before (n-1)d orbitals
3) After lanthanum ([Xe]6s25d1) a group of 14 element called the lanthanides series (or
lanthanides) occurs. These elements correspond to filling 4f orbitals with the valence
electron configuration of (6s24fx5d0). Sometimes an electron occupies 5d (both 4f and 5d
have similar energy). e.g.: Ce: [Xe]6s24f15d1; Pr: [Xe]6s24f35d0
4) After actinium ([Rn]7s26d1) a group of 14 element called the actinide series (or actinides)
occurs. These elements correspond to filling 5f orbitals with the valence electron
configuration of (7s25fx6d0). Sometimes an electron occupies 6d (both 5f and 6d have
similar energy). e.g.: Th: [Rn]7s25f06d2; Pa: [Rn]7s25f26d1; Pu: [Rn]7s25f66d0
5) In the groups 1A to 8A, The group number indicate the total number of valence electrons
with the configuration ns np (When d orbitals filled they do not count in valence
electrons) e.g.: Group 5A has the configuration ns2np3
6) The groups 1A to 8A called main-group or representative elements

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Note
In IUPAC numbering the group numbered 1-18
1-The periodic table is divided to blocks based on the subshell being filled
2-main-group element present in blocks s and p (valence electron configuration: ns or ns np)
3-transition elements block d (valence electron configuration: ns (n-1)d)
4-inner transition elements block f (valence electron configuration: ns (n-2)f (n-1)d)
5-number of valence electrons based on the IUPAC numbering:
-For groups 1-12 (s- and d- blok) the number of valence electrons = the group number
-For groups 13-18 (p- block) the number of valence electrons = the group number – 10

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Example 7.7 page 328

Read the electron configuration directly from the position of element in periodic table.
Sulfur (Z =16) in period 3 and block p

Cadmium (Z = 48) in 5th period and the tenth element in the d block (10 electrons in 4d)

Hafnium (Z =72) 6th period and occurs after lanthanides (4f is filled). 2nd element in 5d transition
series (two electrons in 5d)

Radium (Z = 88)

Exercise 85, 86, 87, 88

================================================================

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7.12: Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
* Ionization Energy
-Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from gaseous atom or ion
(atom or ion is in ground state)

-e.g.: Aluminum

-I1: first ionization energy (the energy required to remove the highest-energy electron of
an atom
Al: [Ne]3s23p1 the 1st electron removed from 3p
-I2: second ionization energy
Al+: [Ne]3s2 the 2nd electron removed from 3s
Note that: I1 << I2 Why?
1- Charge: the increase of positive charge will bind the electro more strongly
Al (0 charge)
Al+ (+1 cahrge)
I1 < I2 < I3 < I4
2- The of orbital from which electron is removed
I1 electron removed from 3p
I2 electron removed from 3s
I3 electron removed from 3s
I4 electron removed from 2p
The largest jump occurred from I3 to I4: Because the 4th electron is removed from core
electrons which bound much more tightly than valence electrons

* For ionization energy of period 3 elements see table 7.5 page 330
You can recognize the following observation:
1) The largest jump in energy occurs in going from removing valence electron to
removing core electron

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 e.g.: Silicon: [Ne]3s23p2 the largest jump occurs between I4 and I5
2) The first ionization energy (I1) increases from right to left in the period.
Why? Answer: The increased charged by additional proton when moving from right
to left is not effectively shielded by the electron in the same shell (same n)
See figure 7.31 page 331

-Exception: See the figure above

a) I1 (group 2A. e.g.: Be) > I1 (group3A. e.g.: B) Why?
In B the electron removed from 2p but in Be the electron removed from
lower energy orbital 2s
b) I1 (group 5A. e.g.: N) > I1 (Qroup 6A. e.g.: O) Why?

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 N: [He]3s23p3 have half filled 3p orbital which make more stable (lower in
energy) than the 3p in O ([He]3s23p4) which have doubly occupied 2p orbital
3) I1 decreases in going down the group: See table 7.6 page 330.
Why?
In going down the group, the electrons being removed are further from nucleus (As n
increases the size of the orbital increases) and the electron is easier to remove

Example 7.9 page 332

Largest I1 for 1s22s22p6

Smallest I2 for 1s22s22p63s2
Exercise 115, 116

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* Electron Affinity:
-Electron affinity is the energy change associated with the addition of an electron to a
gaseous atom

See figure 7.33 page 333

Generally electron affinity become more negative from left to right (more stable anion)

Exception:
e.g.:
# nitrogen do not form N–(g) ion but carbon forms C–(g) ion. Why?
N: 1s22s22p3 the added electron would occupies 2p orbital that already have one electron
to form 1s22s22p4 (the repulsion of the electrons in the doubly occupied orbital causes N– ion to
be unstable)
C: 1s22s22p2 the added electron would occupies empty 2p to form 1s22s22p4 (no extra
repulsion occurs)
# O forms stable O–(g)
The greater nuclear charge (effective) compared with that of N is sufficient to overcome the
repulsion associated with putting 2nd electron into 2p orbital
A 2nd electron cannot be added to O–(g) to form isolated oxide ion in the gas phase

O2–: stable in ionic compounds by strong attraction with positive ions

* When we go down the group, electron affinity become more positive (less negative) but with
small changes (with exceptions): See table 7.7 page 333
F: smaller than expected due to small size of 2p which produce large electron-electron repulsion
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* Atomic Radius
-Atomic radius: obtained by measuring the distances between the atoms in chemical compounds
Atomic radius is a two types:
1-Covalent atomic radii (for nonmetals): half the distance between the nuclei of two atoms
connected by covalent bond (in molecules)
e.g.: bromine. See figure 7.34 page 333

The bond distance in Br2 molecule is 228 pm so bromine atomic radius is 114 pm

2-Metallic radii (for metal atom): half the distance between metal atoms in solid metal crystal

-For main group elements, atomic radii decreases across the period from left to right (due to
increasing effective nuclear charge (decreasing shielding) which draw valence electrons closer to
the nucleus) and increases down the group (due to increasing orbital size with principle quantum
number (n)). See figure 7.35 page 334

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Example 7.10 page 334

Exercise 105, 106, 109

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Question: Arrange the following elements in order on increasing atomic radius:
Al, Na, F, S, Si,
Answer:
(smallest radius) F < S < Si < Al < Na (largest radius)
====================================================================
7.13: The Properties of a Group: The Alkali Metals

* Information contained in the periodic table:

1-The number and type of valence electrons which determine an atom’s chemistry (e.g.:
elements of each group have similar properties)
2-you can read electron configuration from periodic table
3-For Name of groups see figure 7.36 page 336
-Group 1A: Alkali metal
-Group 2A: Alkaline earth metal
-Group 7A: Halogens
-Group 8A: Noble gases
-d-block: Transition elements
-4f series: Lanthanides
-5f series: Actinides
4-Elements divided to:
1-metal
-Form positive ions (cations)
-Low ionization energy
-Most reactive: lower left corner
2-nonmtals
-Gain electrons to form negative ions (anions)
-Large ionization energy
-Most reactive: higher right corner except for noble gases
3-metalloids (or semimetals)
-Have both metallic and nonmetallic properties

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* The Alkali Metals
-Group 1A:
Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Rubidium (Rb), Cesium (Cs), Francium (Fr)
- Francium: The most reactive metal
- Hydrogen: not from this group. Hydrogen is nonmetal due to its very small size so that its
electron is highly bound
See Table 7.8 page 336

Notes:
-Density increases down the group: atomic masses increases more rapidly than atomic
size
-Chemical properties
-lose valence electrons to form +1 ions
-very reactive (low I1)
-form ionic solid with nonmetal
e.g.:

NaCl(s): contains Na+, Cl– So this reaction is oxidation-reduction reaction

-The expected trend in reduction ability is

This correct for solid metal

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 -For H2O:

The order of reduction ability is

-Why?
Because M+ ion is hydrated by water molecules
Hydration: energy change occurs when water molecules attaches to the M+
See table 7.9 page 338: This process is an exothermic process

Note that hydration energy of lithium is almost twice that of potassium

This is due to small size of lithium ion (high charge/volume density) which it to bind more
strongly with water molecules

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