Atom - Wikipedia

7/21/24, 1:18 PM Atom - Wikipedia
Atom
Atoms are the basic particles of the chemical
Atom
elements. An atom consists of a nucleus of protons
and generally neutrons, surrounded by an
electromagnetically bound swarm of electrons. The
chemical elements are distinguished from each other
by the number of protons that are in their atoms.
For example, any atom that contains 11 protons is
sodium, and any atom that contains 29 protons is
copper. Atoms with the same number of protons but
a different number of neutrons are called isotopes of
the same element.
Atoms are extremely small, typically around

100 picometers across. A human hair is about a
million carbon atoms wide. Atoms are smaller than
the shortest wavelength of visible light, which means
humans cannot see atoms with conventional An illustration of the helium atom, depicting the
microscopes. They are so small that accurately nucleus (pink) and the electron cloud
predicting their behavior using classical physics is distribution (black). The nucleus (upper right) in
not possible due to quantum effects. helium-4 is in reality spherically symmetric and
closely resembles the electron cloud, although
More than 99.94% of an atom's mass is in the for more complicated nuclei this is not always
nucleus. Protons have a positive electric charge and the case. The black bar is one angstrom
neutrons have no charge, so the nucleus is positively (10−10 m or 100 pm).
charged. The electrons are negatively charged, and Classification
this opposing charge is what binds them to the
Smallest recognized division of a chemical
nucleus. If the numbers of protons and electrons are
element
equal, as they normally are, then the atom is
electrically neutral as a whole. If an atom has more Properties
electrons than protons, then it has an overall Mass range 1.67 × 10−27 to 4.52 × 10−25 kg
negative charge, and is called a negative ion (or Electric zero (neutral), or ion charge
anion). Conversely, if it has more protons than charge
electrons, it has a positive charge, and is called a
Diameter 62 pm (He) to 520 pm (Cs)
positive ion (or cation).
range (data page)
The electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons Components Electrons and a compact
in an atomic nucleus by the electromagnetic force. nucleus of protons and
The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are neutrons
attracted to each other by the nuclear force. This
force is usually stronger than the electromagnetic force that repels the positively charged protons
from one another. Under certain circumstances, the repelling electromagnetic force becomes
stronger than the nuclear force. In this case, the nucleus splits and leaves behind different
elements. This is a form of nuclear decay.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom 1/30
Atoms can attach to one or more other atoms by chemical bonds to form chemical compounds
such as molecules or crystals. The ability of atoms to attach and detach from each other is
responsible for most of the physical changes observed in nature. Chemistry is the science that
studies these changes.
History of atomic theory
In philosophy
The basic idea that matter is made up of tiny indivisible particles is an old idea that appeared in
many ancient cultures. The word atom is derived from the ancient Greek word atomos,[a] which
means "uncuttable". This ancient idea was based in philosophical reasoning rather than scientific
reasoning. Modern atomic theory is not based on these old concepts.[1][2] In the early 19th century,
the scientist John Dalton found evidence that matter really is composed of discrete units, and so
applied the word atom to those units.[3]
Dalton's law of multiple proportions

In the early 1800s, John Dalton compiled experimental data
gathered by him and other scientists and discovered a pattern
now known as the "law of multiple proportions". He noticed
that in any group of chemical compounds which all contain two
particular chemical elements, the amount of Element A per
measure of Element B will differ across these compounds by
ratios of small whole numbers. This pattern suggested that
each element combines with other elements in multiples of a
basic unit of weight, with each element having a unit of unique
weight. Dalton decided to call these units "atoms".[4] Various atoms and molecules from
A New System of Chemical
For example, there are two types of tin oxide: one is a grey Philosophy (John Dalton 1808).
powder that is 88.1% tin and 11.9% oxygen, and the other is a
white powder that is 78.7% tin and 21.3% oxygen. Adjusting
these figures, in the grey powder there is about 13.5 g of oxygen for every 100 g of tin, and in the
white powder there is about 27 g of oxygen for every 100 g of tin. 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2.
Dalton concluded that in the grey oxide there is one atom of oxygen for every atom of tin, and in
the white oxide there are two atoms of oxygen for every atom of tin (SnO and SnO2).[5][6]
Dalton also analyzed iron oxides. There is one type of iron oxide that is a black powder which is
78.1% iron and 21.9% oxygen; and there is another iron oxide that is a red powder which is 70.4%
iron and 29.6% oxygen. Adjusting these figures, in the black powder there is about 28 g of oxygen
for every 100 g of iron, and in the red powder there is about 42 g of oxygen for every 100 g of iron.
28 and 42 form a ratio of 2:3. Dalton concluded that in these oxides, for every two atoms of iron,
there are two or three atoms of oxygen respectively (Fe2O2 and Fe2O3).[b][7][8]
As a final example: nitrous oxide is 63.3% nitrogen and 36.7% oxygen, nitric oxide is 44.05%
nitrogen and 55.95% oxygen, and nitrogen dioxide is 29.5% nitrogen and 70.5% oxygen. Adjusting
these figures, in nitrous oxide there is 80 g of oxygen for every 140 g of nitrogen, in nitric oxide
there is about 160 g of oxygen for every 140 g of nitrogen, and in nitrogen dioxide there is 320 g of
oxygen for every 140 g of nitrogen. 80, 160, and 320 form a ratio of 1:2:4. The respective formulas
for these oxides are N2O, NO, and NO2.[9][10]
Discovery of the electron

In 1897, J. J. Thomson discovered that cathode rays are not a form of light but made of negatively-
charged particles because they can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields.[11] He measured
these particles to be at least a thousand times lighter than hydrogen (the lightest atom).[12] He
called these new particles corpuscles but they were later renamed electrons since these are the
particles that carry electricity.[13] Thomson also showed that electrons were identical to particles
given off by photoelectric and radioactive materials.[14] Thomson explained that an electric current
is the passing of electrons from one atom to the next, and when there was no current the electrons
embedded themselves in the atoms. This in turn meant that atoms were not indivisible as scientists
thought. The atom was composed of electrons whose negative charge was balanced out by some
source of positive charge to create an electrically neutral atom. Ions, Thomson explained, must be
atoms which have an excess or shortage of electrons.[15]
Discovery of the nucleus

The electrons in the atom logically had to be balanced out by a
commensurate amount of positive charge, but Thomson had no
idea where this positive charge came from, so he tentatively
proposed that this positive charge was everywhere in the atom,
the atom being in the shape of a sphere. Following from this, he
imagined the balance of electrostatic forces would distribute
the electrons throughout the sphere in a more or less even
manner.[16] Thomson's model is popularly known as the plum
pudding model, though neither Thomson nor his colleagues
used this analogy.[17] Thomson's model was incomplete, it was The Rutherford scattering
unable to predict any other properties of the elements such as experiments:
emission spectra and valencies. It was soon rendered obsolete Left: All the alpha particles should
by the discovery of the atomic nucleus. have passed the atom with
negligible deflection.
Between 1908 and 1913, Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues Right: A small portion of the particles
Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden performed a series of were heavily deflected by the
concentrated charge of the nucleus.
experiments in which they bombarded thin foils of metal with a
beam of alpha particles. They did this to measure the scattering
patterns of the alpha particles. They spotted a small number of alpha particles being deflected by
angles greater than 90°. This shouldn't have been possible according to the Thomson model of the
atom, whose charges were too diffuse to produce a sufficiently strong electric field. The deflections
should have all been negligible. Rutherford proposed that the positive charge of the atom along
with most of the atom's mass is concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the center of the atom. Only such
an intense concentration of positive charge, anchored by its high mass and separated from the
negative charge, could produce an electric field that could deflect the alpha particles so strongly.[18]
Bohr model
A problem in classical mechanics is that an accelerating

charged particle radiates electromagnetic radiation, causing the
particle to lose kinetic energy. Circular motion counts as
acceleration, which means that an electron orbiting a central
charge should spiral down into the nucleus as it loses speed. In
1913, the physicist Niels Bohr proposed a new model in which
the electrons of an atom were assumed to orbit the nucleus but
could only do so in a finite set of orbits, and could jump
between these orbits only in discrete changes of energy The Bohr model of the atom, with an
corresponding to absorption or radiation of a photon.[19] This electron making instantaneous
quantization was used to explain why the electrons' orbits are "quantum leaps" from one orbit to
stable and why elements absorb and emit electromagnetic another with gain or loss of energy.
This model of electrons in orbits is
radiation in discrete spectra.[20] Bohr's model could only
obsolete.
predict the emission spectra of hydrogen, not atoms with more
than one electron.
Discovery of protons and neutrons

Back in 1815, William Prout observed that the atomic weights of many elements were multiples of
hydrogen's atomic weight, which is true for all of them if one takes isotopes into account. In 1898,
J. J. Thomson found that the positive charge of a hydrogen ion is equal to the negative charge of an
electron.[21] In 1913, Henry Moseley discovered that the frequencies of X-ray emissions from an
excited atom were a mathematical function of its atomic number and hydrogen's nuclear charge. In
1917 Rutherford bombarded nitrogen gas with alpha particles and detected hydrogen ions being
emitted from the gas, and concluded that they were produced by alpha particles hitting and
splitting the nitrogen atoms.[22]
These observations led Rutherford to conclude that the hydrogen nucleus is a singular particle with
a positive charge equal to the electron's negative charge.[23] He named this particle "proton" in
1920.[24] An element's atomic number, which is defined as the element's position on the periodic
table, is also the number of protons it has in its nucleus. The atomic weight of each element is
higher than its proton number, so Rutherford hypothesized that the surplus weight was carried by
unknown particles with no electric charge and a mass equal to that of the proton.
In 1928, Walter Bothe observed that beryllium emitted a highly penetrating, electrically neutral
radiation when bombarded with alpha particles. It was later discovered that this radiation could
knock hydrogen atoms out of paraffin wax. Initially it was thought to be high-energy gamma
radiation, since gamma radiation had a similar effect on electrons in metals, but James Chadwick
found that the ionization effect was too strong for it to be due to electromagnetic radiation, so long
as energy and momentum were conserved in the interaction. In 1932, Chadwick exposed various
elements, such as hydrogen and nitrogen, to the mysterious "beryllium radiation", and by
measuring the energies of the recoiling charged particles, he deduced that the radiation was
actually composed of electrically neutral particles which could not be massless like the gamma ray,
but instead were required to have a mass similar to that of a proton. Chadwick now claimed these
particles as Rutherford's neutrons.[25]
The current consensus model
In 1925, Werner Heisenberg published the first consistent

mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics (matrix
mechanics).[26] One year earlier, Louis de Broglie had
proposed that all particles behave like waves to some extent,[27]
and in 1926 Erwin Schroedinger used this idea to develop the The modern model of atomic
Schroedinger equation, which describes electrons as three- orbitals draws zones where an
dimensional waveforms rather than points in space.[28] A electron is most likely to be found at
any moment.
consequence of using waveforms to describe particles is that it
is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both
the position and momentum of a particle at a given point in time. This became known as the
uncertainty principle, formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927.[26] In this concept, for a given
accuracy in measuring a position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum,
and vice versa.[29] Thus, the planetary model of the atom was discarded in favor of one that
described atomic orbital zones around the nucleus where a given electron is most likely to be
found.[30][31] This model was able to explain observations of atomic behavior that previous models
could not, such as certain structural and spectral patterns of atoms larger than hydrogen.
Structure
Subatomic particles
Though the word atom originally denoted a particle that cannot be cut into smaller particles, in
modern scientific usage the atom is composed of various subatomic particles. The constituent
particles of an atom are the electron, the proton and the neutron.
The electron is the least massive of these particles by four orders of magnitude at 9.11 × 10−31 kg,
with a negative electrical charge and a size that is too small to be measured using available
techniques.[32] It was the lightest particle with a positive rest mass measured, until the discovery of
neutrino mass. Under ordinary conditions, electrons are bound to the positively charged nucleus
by the attraction created from opposite electric charges. If an atom has more or fewer electrons
than its atomic number, then it becomes respectively negatively or positively charged as a whole; a
charged atom is called an ion. Electrons have been known since the late 19th century, mostly
thanks to J.J. Thomson; see history of subatomic physics for details.
Protons have a positive charge and a mass of 1.6726 × 10−27 kg. The number of protons in an atom
is called its atomic number. Ernest Rutherford (1919) observed that nitrogen under alpha-particle
bombardment ejects what appeared to be hydrogen nuclei. By 1920 he had accepted that the
hydrogen nucleus is a distinct particle within the atom and named it proton.
Neutrons have no electrical charge and have a mass of 1.6749 × 10−27 kg.[33][34] Neutrons are the
heaviest of the three constituent particles, but their mass can be reduced by the nuclear binding
energy. Neutrons and protons (collectively known as nucleons) have comparable dimensions—on
the order of 2.5 × 10−15 m—although the 'surface' of these particles is not sharply defined.[35] The
neutron was discovered in 1932 by the English physicist James Chadwick.
In the Standard Model of physics, electrons are truly elementary particles with no internal
structure, whereas protons and neutrons are composite particles composed of elementary particles
called quarks. There are two types of quarks in atoms, each having a fractional electric charge.
2
Protons are composed of two up quarks (each with charge +⁠3 ⁠) and one down quark (with a charge
1
of −⁠3 ⁠). Neutrons consist of one up quark and two down quarks. This distinction accounts for the
difference in mass and charge between the two particles.[36][37]
The quarks are held together by the strong interaction (or strong force), which is mediated by
gluons. The protons and neutrons, in turn, are held to each other in the nucleus by the nuclear
force, which is a residuum of the strong force that has somewhat different range-properties (see
the article on the nuclear force for more). The gluon is a member of the family of gauge bosons,
which are elementary particles that mediate physical forces.[36][37]
Nucleus
All the bound protons and neutrons in an atom make up a tiny
atomic nucleus, and are collectively called nucleons. The radius
of a nucleus is approximately equal to femtometres,
where is the total number of nucleons. [38] This is much
smaller than the radius of the atom, which is on the order of
105 fm. The nucleons are bound together by a short-ranged
attractive potential called the residual strong force. At
distances smaller than 2.5 fm this force is much more powerful The binding energy needed for a
than the electrostatic force that causes positively charged nucleon to escape the nucleus, for
protons to repel each other.[39] various isotopes
Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons,

called the atomic number. Within a single element, the number of neutrons may vary, determining
the isotope of that element. The total number of protons and neutrons determine the nuclide. The
number of neutrons relative to the protons determines the stability of the nucleus, with certain
isotopes undergoing radioactive decay.[40]
The proton, the electron, and the neutron are classified as fermions. Fermions obey the Pauli
exclusion principle which prohibits identical fermions, such as multiple protons, from occupying
the same quantum state at the same time. Thus, every proton in the nucleus must occupy a
quantum state different from all other protons, and the same applies to all neutrons of the nucleus
and to all electrons of the electron cloud.[41]
A nucleus that has a different number of protons than neutrons can potentially drop to a lower
energy state through a radioactive decay that causes the number of protons and neutrons to more
closely match. As a result, atoms with matching numbers of protons and neutrons are more stable
against decay, but with increasing atomic number, the mutual repulsion of the protons requires an
increasing proportion of neutrons to maintain the stability of the nucleus.[41]
The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified, although this can
require very high energies because of the strong force. Nuclear fusion occurs when multiple atomic
particles join to form a heavier nucleus, such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei. For
example, at the core of the Sun protons require energies of 3 to 10 keV to overcome their mutual
repulsion—the coulomb barrier—and fuse together into a single nucleus.[42] Nuclear fission is the
opposite process, causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei—usually through radioactive
decay. The nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by

high energy subatomic particles or photons. If this modifies the
number of protons in a nucleus, the atom changes to a different
chemical element.[43][44]
If the mass of the nucleus following a fusion reaction is less than the
sum of the masses of the separate particles, then the difference
between these two values can be emitted as a type of usable energy
(such as a gamma ray, or the kinetic energy of a beta particle), as
described by Albert Einstein's mass–energy equivalence formula,
e=mc2, where m is the mass loss and c is the speed of light. This deficit Illustration of a nuclear
is part of the binding energy of the new nucleus, and it is the non- fusion process that forms a
recoverable loss of the energy that causes the fused particles to remain deuterium nucleus,
together in a state that requires this energy to separate.[45] consisting of a proton and a
neutron, from two protons.
The fusion of two nuclei that create larger nuclei with lower atomic A positron (e+)—an
antimatter electron—is
numbers than iron and nickel—a total nucleon number of about 60—is
emitted along with an
usually an exothermic process that releases more energy than is
electron neutrino.
required to bring them together.[46] It is this energy-releasing process
that makes nuclear fusion in stars a self-sustaining reaction. For
heavier nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon begins to decrease. That means that a fusion
process producing a nucleus that has an atomic number higher than about 26, and a mass number
higher than about 60, is an endothermic process. Thus, more massive nuclei cannot undergo an
energy-producing fusion reaction that can sustain the hydrostatic equilibrium of a star.[41]
Electron cloud
The electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the
nucleus by the electromagnetic force. This force binds the
electrons inside an electrostatic potential well surrounding the
smaller nucleus, which means that an external source of energy
is needed for the electron to escape. The closer an electron is to
the nucleus, the greater the attractive force. Hence electrons
bound near the center of the potential well require more energy
to escape than those at greater separations. A potential well, showing, according
to classical mechanics, the
Electrons, like other particles, have properties of both a particle minimum energy V(x) needed to
and a wave. The electron cloud is a region inside the potential reach each position x. Classically, a
well where each electron forms a type of three-dimensional particle with energy E is constrained
standing wave—a wave form that does not move relative to the to a range of positions between x1
and x2.
nucleus. This behavior is defined by an atomic orbital, a
mathematical function that characterises the probability that
an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured.[47] Only a discrete
(or quantized) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus, as other possible wave patterns
rapidly decay into a more stable form.[48] Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures,
and differ from each other in size, shape and orientation.[49]
Each atomic orbital corresponds to a particular energy level of the electron. The electron can
change its state to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon with sufficient energy to boost it
into the new quantum state. Likewise, through spontaneous emission, an electron in a higher
energy state can drop to a lower energy state

while radiating the excess energy as a photon.
These characteristic energy values, defined by
the differences in the energies of the quantum
states, are responsible for atomic spectral
lines.[48]
The amount of energy needed to remove or add

an electron—the electron binding energy—is far
less than the binding energy of nucleons. For
example, it requires only 13.6 eV to strip a
ground-state electron from a hydrogen
atom,[50] compared to 2.23 million eV for
splitting a deuterium nucleus.[51] Atoms are
electrically neutral if they have an equal
number of protons and electrons. Atoms that
have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are 3D views of some hydrogen-like atomic orbitals
called ions. Electrons that are farthest from the showing probability density and phase (g orbitals and
nucleus may be transferred to other nearby higher are not shown)
atoms or shared between atoms. By this
mechanism, atoms are able to bond into
molecules and other types of chemical compounds like ionic and covalent network crystals.[52]
Properties
Nuclear properties
By definition, any two atoms with an identical number of protons in their nuclei belong to the
same chemical element. Atoms with equal numbers of protons but a different number of neutrons
are different isotopes of the same element. For example, all hydrogen atoms admit exactly one
proton, but isotopes exist with no neutrons (hydrogen-1, by far the most common form,[53] also
called protium), one neutron (deuterium), two neutrons (tritium) and more than two neutrons.
The known elements form a set of atomic numbers, from the single-proton element hydrogen up to
the 118-proton element oganesson.[54] All known isotopes of elements with atomic numbers
greater than 82 are radioactive, although the radioactivity of element 83 (bismuth) is so slight as to
be practically negligible.[55][56]
About 339 nuclides occur naturally on Earth,[57] of which 251 (about 74%) have not been observed
to decay, and are referred to as "stable isotopes". Only 90 nuclides are stable theoretically, while
another 161 (bringing the total to 251) have not been observed to decay, even though in theory it is
energetically possible. These are also formally classified as "stable". An additional 35 radioactive
nuclides have half-lives longer than 100 million years, and are long-lived enough to have been
present since the birth of the Solar System. This collection of 286 nuclides are known as primordial
nuclides. Finally, an additional 53 short-lived nuclides are known to occur naturally, as daughter
products of primordial nuclide decay (such as radium from uranium), or as products of natural
energetic processes on Earth, such as cosmic ray bombardment (for example, carbon-14).[58][note 1]
For 80 of the chemical elements, at least one stable isotope exists. As a rule, there is only a handful
of stable isotopes for each of these elements, the average being 3.1 stable isotopes per element.
Twenty-six "monoisotopic elements" have only a single stable isotope, while the largest number of
stable isotopes observed for any element is ten, for the element tin. Elements 43, 61, and all
elements numbered 83 or higher have no stable isotopes.[59]: 1–12
Stability of isotopes is affected by the ratio of protons to neutrons, and also by the presence of
certain "magic numbers" of neutrons or protons that represent closed and filled quantum shells.
These quantum shells correspond to a set of energy levels within the shell model of the nucleus;
filled shells, such as the filled shell of 50 protons for tin, confers unusual stability on the nuclide.
Of the 251 known stable nuclides, only four have both an odd number of protons and odd number
of neutrons: hydrogen-2 (deuterium), lithium-6, boron-10, and nitrogen-14. (Tantalum-180m is
odd-odd and observationally stable, but is predicted to decay with a very long half-life.) Also, only
four naturally occurring, radioactive odd-odd nuclides have a half-life over a billion years:
potassium-40, vanadium-50, lanthanum-138, and lutetium-176. Most odd-odd nuclei are highly
unstable with respect to beta decay, because the decay products are even-even, and are therefore
more strongly bound, due to nuclear pairing effects.[60]
Mass
The large majority of an atom's mass comes from the protons and neutrons that make it up. The
total number of these particles (called "nucleons") in a given atom is called the mass number. It is a
positive integer and dimensionless (instead of having dimension of mass), because it expresses a
count. An example of use of a mass number is "carbon-12," which has 12 nucleons (six protons and
six neutrons).
The actual mass of an atom at rest is often expressed in daltons (Da), also called the unified atomic
mass unit (u). This unit is defined as a twelfth of the mass of a free neutral atom of carbon-12,
which is approximately 1.66 × 10−27 kg.[61] Hydrogen-1 (the lightest isotope of hydrogen which is
also the nuclide with the lowest mass) has an atomic weight of 1.007825 Da.[62] The value of this
number is called the atomic mass. A given atom has an atomic mass approximately equal (within
1%) to its mass number times the atomic mass unit (for example the mass of a nitrogen-14 is
roughly 14 Da), but this number will not be exactly an integer except (by definition) in the case of
carbon-12.[63] The heaviest stable atom is lead-208,[55] with a mass of 207.976 6521 Da.[64]
As even the most massive atoms are far too light to work with directly, chemists instead use the
unit of moles. One mole of atoms of any element always has the same number of atoms (about
6.022 × 1023). This number was chosen so that if an element has an atomic mass of 1 u, a mole of
atoms of that element has a mass close to one gram. Because of the definition of the unified atomic
mass unit, each carbon-12 atom has an atomic mass of exactly 12 Da, and so a mole of carbon-12
atoms weighs exactly 0.012 kg.[61]
Shape and size

Atoms lack a well-defined outer boundary, so their dimensions are usually described in terms of an
atomic radius. This is a measure of the distance out to which the electron cloud extends from the
nucleus.[65] This assumes the atom to exhibit a spherical shape, which is only obeyed for atoms in
vacuum or free space. Atomic radii may be derived from the distances between two nuclei when the
two atoms are joined in a chemical bond. The radius varies with the location of an atom on the
atomic chart, the type of chemical bond, the number of neighboring atoms (coordination number)
and a quantum mechanical property known as spin.[66] On the periodic table of the elements, atom
size tends to increase when moving down columns, but decrease when moving across rows (left to
right).[67] Consequently, the smallest atom is helium with a radius of 32 pm, while one of the
largest is caesium at 225 pm.[68]
When subjected to external forces, like electrical fields, the shape of an atom may deviate from
spherical symmetry. The deformation depends on the field magnitude and the orbital type of outer
shell electrons, as shown by group-theoretical considerations. Aspherical deviations might be
elicited for instance in crystals, where large crystal-electrical fields may occur at low-symmetry
lattice sites.[69][70] Significant ellipsoidal deformations have been shown to occur for sulfur ions[71]
and chalcogen ions[72] in pyrite-type compounds.
Atomic dimensions are thousands of times smaller than the wavelengths of light (400–700 nm) so
they cannot be viewed using an optical microscope, although individual atoms can be observed
using a scanning tunneling microscope. To visualize the minuteness of the atom, consider that a
typical human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms in width.[73] A single drop of water contains
about 2 sextillion (2 × 1021) atoms of oxygen, and twice the number of hydrogen atoms.[74] A single
carat diamond with a mass of 2 × 10−4 kg contains about 10 sextillion (1022) atoms of
carbon.[note 2] If an apple were magnified to the size of the Earth, then the atoms in the apple
would be approximately the size of the original apple.[75]
Radioactive decay
Every element has one or more isotopes that have unstable
nuclei that are subject to radioactive decay, causing the nucleus
to emit particles or electromagnetic radiation. Radioactivity
can occur when the radius of a nucleus is large compared with
the radius of the strong force, which only acts over distances on
the order of 1 fm.[76]
The most common forms of radioactive decay are:[77][78]
Alpha decay: this process is caused when the nucleus

emits an alpha particle, which is a helium nucleus
consisting of two protons and two neutrons. The result of
the emission is a new element with a lower atomic number.
Beta decay (and electron capture): these processes are
regulated by the weak force, and result from a This diagram shows the half-life
transformation of a neutron into a proton, or a proton into a (T1⁄2) of various isotopes with Z
neutron. The neutron to proton transition is accompanied protons and N neutrons.
by the emission of an electron and an antineutrino, while
proton to neutron transition (except in electron capture)
causes the emission of a positron and a neutrino. The electron or positron emissions are called
beta particles. Beta decay either increases or decreases the atomic number of the nucleus by
one. Electron capture is more common than positron emission, because it requires less energy.
In this type of decay, an electron is absorbed by the nucleus, rather than a positron emitted
from the nucleus. A neutrino is still emitted in this process, and a proton changes to a neutron.
Gamma decay: this process results from a change in the energy level of the nucleus to a lower
state, resulting in the emission of electromagnetic radiation. The excited state of a nucleus
which results in gamma emission usually occurs following the emission of an alpha or a beta
particle. Thus, gamma decay usually follows alpha or beta decay.
Other more rare types of radioactive decay include ejection of neutrons or protons or clusters of
nucleons from a nucleus, or more than one beta particle. An analog of gamma emission which
allows excited nuclei to lose energy in a different way, is internal conversion—a process that
produces high-speed electrons that are not beta rays, followed by production of high-energy
photons that are not gamma rays. A few large nuclei explode into two or more charged fragments
of varying masses plus several neutrons, in a decay called spontaneous nuclear fission.
Each radioactive isotope has a characteristic decay time period—the half-life—that is determined
by the amount of time needed for half of a sample to decay. This is an exponential decay process
that steadily decreases the proportion of the remaining isotope by 50% every half-life. Hence after
two half-lives have passed only 25% of the isotope is present, and so forth.[76]
Magnetic moment
Elementary particles possess an intrinsic quantum mechanical property known as spin. This is
analogous to the angular momentum of an object that is spinning around its center of mass,
although strictly speaking these particles are believed to be point-like and cannot be said to be
rotating. Spin is measured in units of the reduced Planck constant (ħ), with electrons, protons and
neutrons all having spin 1⁄2 ħ, or "spin-1⁄2". In an atom, electrons in motion around the nucleus
possess orbital angular momentum in addition to their spin, while the nucleus itself possesses
angular momentum due to its nuclear spin.[79]
The magnetic field produced by an atom—its magnetic moment—is determined by these various
forms of angular momentum, just as a rotating charged object classically produces a magnetic
field, but the most dominant contribution comes from electron spin. Due to the nature of electrons
to obey the Pauli exclusion principle, in which no two electrons may be found in the same quantum
state, bound electrons pair up with each other, with one member of each pair in a spin up state and
the other in the opposite, spin down state. Thus these spins cancel each other out, reducing the
total magnetic dipole moment to zero in some atoms with even number of electrons.[80]
In ferromagnetic elements such as iron, cobalt and nickel, an odd number of electrons leads to an
unpaired electron and a net overall magnetic moment. The orbitals of neighboring atoms overlap
and a lower energy state is achieved when the spins of unpaired electrons are aligned with each
other, a spontaneous process known as an exchange interaction. When the magnetic moments of
ferromagnetic atoms are lined up, the material can produce a measurable macroscopic field.
Paramagnetic materials have atoms with magnetic moments that line up in random directions
when no magnetic field is present, but the magnetic moments of the individual atoms line up in the
presence of a field.[80][81]
The nucleus of an atom will have no spin when it has even numbers of both neutrons and protons,
but for other cases of odd numbers, the nucleus may have a spin. Normally nuclei with spin are
aligned in random directions because of thermal equilibrium, but for certain elements (such as
xenon-129) it is possible to polarize a significant proportion of the nuclear spin states so that they
are aligned in the same direction—a condition called hyperpolarization. This has important
applications in magnetic resonance imaging.[82][83]
Energy levels
The potential energy of an electron in an atom is negative

relative to when the distance from the nucleus goes to infinity;
its dependence on the electron's position reaches the minimum
inside the nucleus, roughly in inverse proportion to the
distance. In the quantum-mechanical model, a bound electron
can occupy only a set of states centered on the nucleus, and
each state corresponds to a specific energy level; see time-
independent Schrödinger equation for a theoretical These electron's energy levels (not
explanation. An energy level can be measured by the amount of to scale) are sufficient for ground
states of atoms up to cadmium (5s2
energy needed to unbind the electron from the atom, and is
4d10) inclusively. Do not forget that
usually given in units of electronvolts (eV). The lowest energy
even the top of the diagram is lower
state of a bound electron is called the ground state, i.e. than an unbound electron state.
stationary state, while an electron transition to a higher level
results in an excited state.[84] The electron's energy increases
along with n because the (average) distance to the nucleus increases. Dependence of the energy on
ℓ is caused not by the electrostatic potential of the nucleus, but by interaction between electrons.
For an electron to transition between two different states, e.g. ground state to first excited state, it
must absorb or emit a photon at an energy matching the difference in the potential energy of those
levels, according to the Niels Bohr model, what can be precisely calculated by the Schrödinger
equation. Electrons jump between orbitals in a particle-like fashion. For example, if a single
photon strikes the electrons, only a single electron changes states in response to the photon; see
Electron properties.
The energy of an emitted photon is proportional to its frequency, so these specific energy levels
appear as distinct bands in the electromagnetic spectrum.[85] Each element has a characteristic
spectrum that can depend on the nuclear charge, subshells filled by electrons, the electromagnetic
interactions between the electrons and other factors.[86]
When a continuous spectrum of energy is

passed through a gas or plasma, some of the
photons are absorbed by atoms, causing
electrons to change their energy level. Those
excited electrons that remain bound to their
atom spontaneously emit this energy as a An example of absorption lines in a spectrum
photon, traveling in a random direction, and so
drop back to lower energy levels. Thus the
atoms behave like a filter that forms a series of dark absorption bands in the energy output. (An
observer viewing the atoms from a view that does not include the continuous spectrum in the
background, instead sees a series of emission lines from the photons emitted by the atoms.)
Spectroscopic measurements of the strength and width of atomic spectral lines allow the
composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined.[87]
Close examination of the spectral lines reveals that some display a fine structure splitting. This
occurs because of spin–orbit coupling, which is an interaction between the spin and motion of the
outermost electron.[88] When an atom is in an external magnetic field, spectral lines become split
into three or more components; a phenomenon called the Zeeman effect. This is caused by the
interaction of the magnetic field with the magnetic moment of the atom and its electrons. Some
atoms can have multiple electron configurations with the same energy level, which thus appear as a
single spectral line. The interaction of the magnetic field with the atom shifts these electron
configurations to slightly different energy levels, resulting in multiple spectral lines.[89] The
presence of an external electric field can cause a comparable splitting and shifting of spectral lines
by modifying the electron energy levels, a phenomenon called the Stark effect.[90]
If a bound electron is in an excited state, an interacting photon with the proper energy can cause
stimulated emission of a photon with a matching energy level. For this to occur, the electron must
drop to a lower energy state that has an energy difference matching the energy of the interacting
photon. The emitted photon and the interacting photon then move off in parallel and with
matching phases. That is, the wave patterns of the two photons are synchronized. This physical
property is used to make lasers, which can emit a coherent beam of light energy in a narrow
frequency band.[91]
Valence and bonding behavior

Valency is the combining power of an element. It is determined by the number of bonds it can form
to other atoms or groups.[92] The outermost electron shell of an atom in its uncombined state is
known as the valence shell, and the electrons in that shell are called valence electrons. The number
of valence electrons determines the bonding behavior with other atoms. Atoms tend to chemically
react with each other in a manner that fills (or empties) their outer valence shells.[93] For example,
a transfer of a single electron between atoms is a useful approximation for bonds that form
between atoms with one-electron more than a filled shell, and others that are one-electron short of
a full shell, such as occurs in the compound sodium chloride and other chemical ionic salts. Many
elements display multiple valences, or tendencies to share differing numbers of electrons in
different compounds. Thus, chemical bonding between these elements takes many forms of
electron-sharing that are more than simple electron transfers. Examples include the element
carbon and the organic compounds.[94]
The chemical elements are often displayed in a periodic table that is laid out to display recurring
chemical properties, and elements with the same number of valence electrons form a group that is
aligned in the same column of the table. (The horizontal rows correspond to the filling of a
quantum shell of electrons.) The elements at the far right of the table have their outer shell
completely filled with electrons, which results in chemically inert elements known as the noble
gases.[95][96]
States
Quantities of atoms are found in different states of matter that
depend on the physical conditions, such as temperature and
pressure. By varying the conditions, materials can transition
between solids, liquids, gases and plasmas.[97] Within a state, a
material can also exist in different allotropes. An example of
this is solid carbon, which can exist as graphite or diamond.[98]
Gaseous allotropes exist as well, such as dioxygen and ozone.
Graphic illustrating the formation of
At temperatures close to absolute zero, atoms can form a Bose– a Bose–Einstein condensate
Einstein condensate, at which point quantum mechanical
effects, which are normally only observed at the atomic scale,
become apparent on a macroscopic scale.[99][100]

This super-cooled collection of atoms then
behaves as a single super atom, which may allow fundamental checks of quantum mechanical
behavior.[101]
Identification
While atoms are too small to be seen, devices such as the
scanning tunneling microscope (STM) enable their
visualization at the surfaces of solids. The microscope uses the
quantum tunneling phenomenon, which allows particles to
pass through a barrier that would be insurmountable in the
classical perspective. Electrons tunnel through the vacuum
between two biased electrodes, providing a tunneling current
that is exponentially dependent on their separation. One
electrode is a sharp tip ideally ending with a single atom. At
each point of the scan of the surface the tip's height is adjusted
so as to keep the tunneling current at a set value. How much
Scanning tunneling microscope
the tip moves to and away from the surface is interpreted as the image showing the individual atoms
height profile. For low bias, the microscope images the making up this gold (100) surface.
averaged electron orbitals across closely packed energy levels— The surface atoms deviate from the
the local density of the electronic states near the Fermi bulk crystal structure and arrange in
level.[102][103] Because of the distances involved, both columns several atoms wide with
electrodes need to be extremely stable; only then periodicities pits between them (See surface
reconstruction).
can be observed that correspond to individual atoms. The
method alone is not chemically specific, and cannot identify the
atomic species present at the surface.
Atoms can be easily identified by their mass. If an atom is ionized by removing one of its electrons,
its trajectory when it passes through a magnetic field will bend. The radius by which the trajectory
of a moving ion is turned by the magnetic field is determined by the mass of the atom. The mass
spectrometer uses this principle to measure the mass-to-charge ratio of ions. If a sample contains
multiple isotopes, the mass spectrometer can determine the proportion of each isotope in the
sample by measuring the intensity of the different beams of ions. Techniques to vaporize atoms
include inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma
mass spectrometry, both of which use a plasma to vaporize samples for analysis.[104]
The atom-probe tomograph has sub-nanometer resolution in 3-D and can chemically identify
individual atoms using time-of-flight mass spectrometry.[105]
Electron emission techniques such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Auger electron
spectroscopy (AES), which measure the binding energies of the core electrons, are used to identify
the atomic species present in a sample in a non-destructive way. With proper focusing both can be
made area-specific. Another such method is electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), which
measures the energy loss of an electron beam within a transmission electron microscope when it
interacts with a portion of a sample.
Spectra of excited states can be used to analyze the atomic composition of distant stars. Specific
light wavelengths contained in the observed light from stars can be separated out and related to the
quantized transitions in free gas atoms. These colors can be replicated using a gas-discharge lamp
containing the same element.[106]

Helium was discovered in this way in the spectrum of the Sun
23 years before it was found on Earth.[107]
Origin and current state

Baryonic matter forms about 4% of the total energy density of the observable universe, with an
average density of about 0.25 particles/m3 (mostly protons and electrons).[108] Within a galaxy
such as the Milky Way, particles have a much higher concentration, with the density of matter in
the interstellar medium (ISM) ranging from 105 to 109 atoms/m3.[109] The Sun is believed to be
inside the Local Bubble, so the density in the solar neighborhood is only about 103 atoms/m3.[110]
Stars form from dense clouds in the ISM, and the evolutionary processes of stars result in the
steady enrichment of the ISM with elements more massive than hydrogen and helium.
Up to 95% of the Milky Way's baryonic matter are concentrated inside stars, where conditions are
unfavorable for atomic matter. The total baryonic mass is about 10% of the mass of the galaxy;[111]
the remainder of the mass is an unknown dark matter.[112] High temperature inside stars makes
most "atoms" fully ionized, that is, separates all electrons from the nuclei. In stellar remnants—
with exception of their surface layers—an immense pressure make electron shells impossible.
Formation
Periodic table showing the origin of each element. Elements from carbon up to sulfur may be made
in small stars by the alpha process. Elements beyond iron are made in large stars with slow neutron
capture (s-process). Elements heavier than iron may be made in neutron star mergers or supernovae
after the r-process.
Electrons are thought to exist in the Universe since early stages of the Big Bang. Atomic nuclei
forms in nucleosynthesis reactions. In about three minutes Big Bang nucleosynthesis produced
most of the helium, lithium, and deuterium in the Universe, and perhaps some of the beryllium
and boron.[113][114][115]
Ubiquitousness and stability of atoms relies on their binding energy, which means that an atom
has a lower energy than an unbound system of the nucleus and electrons. Where the temperature
is much higher than ionization potential, the matter exists in the form of plasma—a gas of
positively charged ions (possibly, bare nuclei) and electrons. When the temperature drops below
the ionization potential, atoms become statistically favorable. Atoms (complete with bound
electrons) became to dominate over charged particles 380,000 years after the Big Bang—an epoch
called recombination, when the expanding Universe cooled enough to allow electrons to become
attached to nuclei.[116]
Since the Big Bang, which produced no carbon or heavier elements, atomic nuclei have been
combined in stars through the process of nuclear fusion to produce more of the element helium,
and (via the triple-alpha process) the sequence of elements from carbon up to iron;[117] see stellar
nucleosynthesis for details.
Isotopes such as lithium-6, as well as some beryllium and boron are generated in space through
cosmic ray spallation.[118] This occurs when a high-energy proton strikes an atomic nucleus,
causing large numbers of nucleons to be ejected.
Elements heavier than iron were produced in supernovae and colliding neutron stars through the
r-process, and in AGB stars through the s-process, both of which involve the capture of neutrons by
atomic nuclei.[119] Elements such as lead formed largely through the radioactive decay of heavier
elements.[120]
Earth
Most of the atoms that make up the Earth and its inhabitants were present in their current form in
the nebula that collapsed out of a molecular cloud to form the Solar System. The rest are the result
of radioactive decay, and their relative proportion can be used to determine the age of the Earth
through radiometric dating.[121][122] Most of the helium in the crust of the Earth (about 99% of the
helium from gas wells, as shown by its lower abundance of helium-3) is a product of alpha
decay.[123]
There are a few trace atoms on Earth that were not present at the beginning (i.e., not "primordial"),
nor are results of radioactive decay. Carbon-14 is continuously generated by cosmic rays in the
atmosphere.[124] Some atoms on Earth have been artificially generated either deliberately or as by-
products of nuclear reactors or explosions.[125][126] Of the transuranic elements—those with atomic
numbers greater than 92—only plutonium and neptunium occur naturally on Earth.[127][128]
Transuranic elements have radioactive lifetimes shorter than the current age of the Earth[129] and
thus identifiable quantities of these elements have long since decayed, with the exception of traces
of plutonium-244 possibly deposited by cosmic dust.[121] Natural deposits of plutonium and
neptunium are produced by neutron capture in uranium ore.[130]
The Earth contains approximately 1.33 × 1050 atoms.[131] Although small numbers of independent
atoms of noble gases exist, such as argon, neon, and helium, 99% of the atmosphere is bound in the
form of molecules, including carbon dioxide and diatomic oxygen and nitrogen. At the surface of
the Earth, an overwhelming majority of atoms combine to form various compounds, including
water, salt, silicates and oxides. Atoms can also combine to create materials that do not consist of
discrete molecules, including crystals and liquid or solid metals.[132][133] This atomic matter forms
networked arrangements that lack the particular type of small-scale interrupted order associated
with molecular matter.[134]
Rare and theoretical forms
Superheavy elements
All nuclides with atomic numbers higher than 82 (lead) are known to be radioactive. No nuclide
with an atomic number exceeding 92 (uranium) exists on Earth as a primordial nuclide, and
heavier elements generally have shorter half-lives. Nevertheless, an "island of stability"
encompassing relatively long-lived isotopes of superheavy elements[135] with atomic numbers 110
to 114 might exist.[136] Predictions for the half-life of the most stable nuclide on the island range
from a few minutes to millions of years.[137] In any case, superheavy elements (with Z > 104) would
not exist due to increasing Coulomb repulsion (which results in spontaneous fission with
increasingly short half-lives) in the absence of any stabilizing effects.[138]
Exotic matter
Each particle of matter has a corresponding antimatter particle with the opposite electrical charge.
Thus, the positron is a positively charged antielectron and the antiproton is a negatively charged
equivalent of a proton. When a matter and corresponding antimatter particle meet, they annihilate
each other. Because of this, along with an imbalance between the number of matter and antimatter
particles, the latter are rare in the universe. The first causes of this imbalance are not yet fully
understood, although theories of baryogenesis may offer an explanation. As a result, no antimatter
atoms have been discovered in nature.[139][140] In 1996, the antimatter counterpart of the
hydrogen atom (antihydrogen) was synthesized at the CERN laboratory in Geneva.[141][142]
Other exotic atoms have been created by replacing one of the protons, neutrons or electrons with
other particles that have the same charge. For example, an electron can be replaced by a more
massive muon, forming a muonic atom. These types of atoms can be used to test fundamental
predictions of physics.[143][144][145]
See also
Physics portal
Chemistry portal
History of quantum mechanics Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics

Infinite divisibility Nuclear model
Outline of chemistry Radionuclide
Motion
Notes
1. For more recent updates see Brookhaven National Laboratory's Interactive Chart of Nuclides
(http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart) ] Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200725182342/http
s://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/) 25 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine.

2. A carat is 200 milligrams. By definition, carbon-12 has 0.012 kg per mole. The Avogadro
constant defines 6 × 1023 atoms per mole.
a. a combination of the negative term "a-" and "τομή," the term for "cut"
b. Iron(II) oxide's formula is written here as "Fe2O2" rather than the more conventional "FeO"
because this better illustrates the explanation.
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Indian philosophies. Allworth Press. ISBN 978-1-58115-203-6.
Siegfried, Robert (2002). From Elements to Atoms: A History of Chemical Composition. Diane.
Teresi, Dick (2003). Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=pheL_ubbXD0C). Simon & Schuster. pp. 213–214. ISBN 978-0-7432-4379-
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External links
Atoms in Motion - The Feynman Lectures on Physics (https://www.feynmanlectures.caltech.ed
u/I_01.html)
Sharp, Tim (8 August 2017). "What is an Atom?" (https://www.livescience.com/37206-atom-defi
nition.html). Live Science.
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7/21/24, 1:18 PM Atom - Wikipedia

Atoms are extremely small, typically around

History of atomic theory

Dalton's law of multiple proportions

Discovery of the electron

Discovery of the nucleus

A problem in classical mechanics is that an accelerating

Discovery of protons and neutrons

The current consensus model

In 1925, Werner Heisenberg published the first consistent

Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons,

decay. The nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by

energy state can drop to a lower energy state

The amount of energy needed to remove or add

Shape and size

The most common forms of radioactive decay are:[77][78]

Alpha decay: this process is caused when the nucleus

The potential energy of an electron in an atom is negative

When a continuous spectrum of energy is

Valence and bonding behavior

become apparent on a macroscopic scale.[99][100]

containing the same element.[106]

Origin and current state

Rare and theoretical forms

History of quantum mechanics Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics

s://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/) 25 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine.

77. L'Annunziata, Michael F. (2003). Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis (https://archive.org/detail

91. Watkins, Thayer. "Coherence in Stimulated Emission" (http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/stim

130. "Oklo Fossil Reactors" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071218194159/http://www.oklo.curtin.ed

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