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ADS - Unit 1 and 2 Notes

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vahini
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Unit 1:

The Fundamentals of Object-Oriented Programming: Necessity for OOP, Data Hiding, Data
Abstraction, Encapsulation, Procedural Abstraction, Class and Object, Scope of Class and
Scope Resolution Operator, Member Function of a Class, private, protected, and public Access
Specifier.

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a popular programming paradigm that revolves around the
concept of "objects" which can contain data, in the form of fields (attributes or properties), and code,
in the form of procedures (methods or functions). This paradigm is centered on organizing software
design around data, rather than functions or logic.

Key fundamentals of object-oriented programming include:

1. Class:
- A class is a blueprint or template for creating objects. It defines the attributes and behaviors that the
objects will have.
- Attributes are represented by variables and are often called properties or fields.
- Behaviors are represented by methods or functions.

2. Object:
- An object is an instance of a class. It's a concrete entity created based on the class, possessing the
properties and behaviors defined in the class.

3. Encapsulation:
- Encapsulation is the concept of bundling the data (attributes) and the methods that operate on the
data into a single unit (i.e., class). It restricts access to certain components, preventing the direct
modification of data.

4. Abstraction:
- Abstraction involves highlighting essential features while hiding the irrelevant details. It allows you
to focus on what an object does instead of how it does it, making complex systems more manageable.

5. Inheritance:
- Inheritance allows a new class (derived or child class) to inherit properties and behaviors from an
existing class (base or parent class).
- It promotes code reusability and enables the creation of hierarchical relationships between classes.

6. Polymorphism:
- Polymorphism means the ability to take on many forms. It allows objects of different classes to be
treated as objects of a common superclass through inheritance.
- Polymorphism is often achieved through method overriding and method overloading.

7. Association, Aggregation, and Composition:


- Association represents relationships between two separate classes, indicating how they are related to
each other.
- Aggregation represents a "has-a" relationship that defines a weaker association where one object
contains another object, but the contained object can exist independently.
- Composition represents a stronger form of the "has-a" relationship where one object is composed of
one or more other objects and cannot exist without them.

8. Interfaces and Abstract Classes:


- Interfaces define a contract for the methods that implementing classes must follow.
- Abstract classes are classes that cannot be instantiated on their own and can contain both concrete
and abstract methods. They provide a blueprint for derived classes.
OOP promotes modularity, reusability, and a more intuitive way of modeling real-world systems. It
enhances the maintenance and scalability of software systems by organizing code into self-contained,
reusable objects.
Object-oriented programming (OOP) offers several advantages that make it a preferred choice in
software development. Some of the key reasons for the necessity and advantages of using OOP
include:

1. Modularity and Reusability:


- OOP promotes modular design, breaking down complex systems into smaller, manageable parts
(objects or classes). This modularity enhances reusability, where classes or objects can be reused in
different parts of the program or in different programs altogether.

2. Ease of Maintenance:
- By organizing code into objects and classes, maintenance becomes easier. Modifications or
updates can be localized to specific objects or classes without impacting the entire system, as long as
the interfaces are preserved.

3. Abstraction and Encapsulation:


- Abstraction allows developers to focus on what an object does rather than how it does it,
simplifying the handling of complex systems. Encapsulation hides the internal workings of objects,
allowing changes to be made without affecting the rest of the codebase.

4. Code Reusability and Inheritance:


- Inheritance allows new classes to inherit properties and behaviors from existing classes,
facilitating code reuse and minimizing redundancy.

5. Polymorphism:
- Polymorphism allows objects to be treated as instances of their parent class, enabling flexibility in
implementing methods that are common to different classes.

6. Real-world Modeling:
- OOP mimics real-world entities, making it easier for developers to model and represent real-world
objects in their code, enhancing understanding and design.

7. Encourages Collaboration:
- OOP can support collaborative development as different developers can work on different classes
or objects simultaneously, allowing for better team collaboration.

8. Scalability and Extensibility:


- OOP allows systems to be easily extended by adding new features or objects without modifying
existing code extensively, making it more scalable and adaptable to changing requirements.

9. Support for Design Patterns:


- OOP provides a foundation for implementing design patterns, which are best practices to solve
common design problems in software development.

10. Frameworks and Libraries:


- Many widely used frameworks and libraries across various programming languages are built with
OOP principles. Knowing OOP allows developers to effectively use these tools and resources.

OOP isn't always the best paradigm for every project, and different programming paradigms might be
more suitable depending on the project's nature. However, its flexibility, scalability, and
maintainability have made OOP a cornerstone in modern software development.
Data hiding and data abstraction are two essential concepts in object-oriented programming that
contribute to the overall structure, security, and maintainability of code.
Data Hiding:
Data hiding, also known as information hiding, is the concept of restricting direct access to certain
parts of an object. It's an essential principle in OOP that helps in securing data and preventing
accidental or intentional misuse of data. This is typically achieved by making the data private within a
class, allowing only the class's methods to access and manipulate it. Outside classes or objects cannot
directly access this data.

# Benefits of Data Hiding:


1. Security: It prevents unauthorized access or modification of data, maintaining the integrity of the
object's state.
2. Encapsulation: It's an important aspect of encapsulation, as it allows the object's internal workings
to remain hidden and only exposes necessary information through well-defined interfaces (public
methods).
3. Maintainability: Changes to the internal representation of an object can be made without affecting
the external code that uses it, as long as the public interface remains consistent.

Data Abstraction:
Data abstraction is a broader concept that refers to providing only essential information to the outside
world and hiding the background details or implementations. It involves displaying only the necessary
features of an object and hiding its complex implementation details.

# Benefits of Data Abstraction:


1. Focus on Essentials: It allows programmers to focus on what an object does rather than how it does
it, simplifying the understanding and usage of objects.
2. Complexity Management: By hiding implementation details, it reduces complexity and allows for
the implementation to change without affecting the code using the abstraction.
3. Encapsulation Support: Data abstraction is a vital part of encapsulation, supporting the bundling of
data with the methods that operate on that data.

Relationship between Data Hiding and Data Abstraction:


- Data hiding is often used to achieve data abstraction. By hiding the internal details of an object and
only exposing the necessary functionality through a well-defined interface (abstraction), it enables a
clearer separation between what an object does and how it does it.
In essence, data hiding and data abstraction are integral parts of OOP that facilitate secure,
maintainable, and understandable code by restricting direct access to an object's data and revealing
only the essential details. They play a vital role in encapsulation, where objects contain both data and
methods that manipulate the data, leading to better software design and development.
Encapsulation
Encapsulation is a fundamental concept in object-oriented programming (OOP) that combines data
(attributes) and the methods (functions) that operate on the data into a single unit, known as a class. It
involves bundling the data with the methods that work on that data, and controlling access to that data,
ensuring that the internal state of an object is safe from outside interference and misuse.

Key Aspects of Encapsulation:

1. Data Hiding:
- Encapsulation involves hiding the internal state of an object from the outside world. This is often
achieved by making the internal data private within the class, allowing access and modification of that
data only through specific methods (getters and setters).

2. Access Control:
- By using access control modifiers (such as private, protected, and public in many programming
languages), encapsulation allows the class designer to specify which parts of the data and methods are
accessible to other parts of the program.
3. Information Hiding:
- Encapsulation supports information hiding, which means that the internal implementation details
of an object are hidden and only necessary information is exposed to the outside world through well-
defined interfaces.

Benefits of Encapsulation:

1. Security and Control:


- It ensures that sensitive data is not accessible from outside the class and can only be modified
using controlled methods, enhancing security and preventing unauthorized access.

2. Flexibility and Maintenance:


- Modifications to the internal implementation of a class can be made without affecting the code that
uses the class, as long as the external interfaces remain consistent. This promotes flexibility and eases
maintenance.

3. Reusability and Modularity:


- Encapsulation enables the reuse of classes in other parts of the program without concern for the
internal working of those classes, promoting modularity in software design.

4. Simplicity and Understanding:


- By providing a clear, well-defined interface, encapsulation makes it easier for other parts of the
program to use the object, promoting simplicity and improving understanding of the code.
Encapsulation is a cornerstone of OOP and aids in building robust, maintainable, and secure software
systems by bundling data and methods together while controlling their access and modification.
Encapsulation in C++ is a fundamental concept in object-oriented programming that combines data
(attributes or members) and methods (functions) into a single unit, known as a class. It involves
restricting access to the class members and hiding the internal representation or state of an object from
the outside world. Encapsulation helps in achieving data security, reusability, and maintainability.

Key Aspects of Encapsulation in C++:

1. Data Hiding:
- Using access specifiers (public, private, protected), C++ allows you to control the visibility of
class members. Private members are only accessible within the class.

2. Access Specifiers:
- `private`: Members declared as private are only accessible within the class, and not by code
outside the class.
- `public`: Members declared as public are accessible from outside the class.
- `protected`: Members declared as protected are accessible within the class and its derived classes.

3. Use of Getter and Setter Methods:


- Encapsulation encourages the use of getter and setter methods to access and modify private
member variables, enabling controlled access to the data.

Example of Encapsulation in C++:

```cpp
#include <iostream>

class BankAccount {
private:
// Private member variables
int accountNumber;
double balance;

public:
// Setter methods to set private member variables
void setAccountNumber(int num) {
accountNumber = num;
}

void setBalance(double amount) {


balance = amount;
}

// Getter methods to access private member variables


int getAccountNumber() {
return accountNumber;
}

double getBalance() {
return balance;
}
};

int main() {
BankAccount acc;

// Using setter methods to set private member variables


acc.setAccountNumber(123456);
acc.setBalance(1000.50);

// Using getter methods to access private member variables


std::cout << "Account Number: " << acc.getAccountNumber() << std::endl;
std::cout << "Balance: " << acc.getBalance() << std::endl;

return 0;
}
```
In this example:
- `BankAccount` is a class that encapsulates account information.
- The member variables `accountNumber` and `balance` are private, restricting direct access from
outside the class.
- Setter methods (`setAccountNumber`, `setBalance`) and getter methods (`getAccountNumber`,
`getBalance`) provide controlled access to the private member variables.

Encapsulation in C++ helps in keeping the internal representation of the class hidden, providing
controlled access to the class's data, and maintaining the integrity of the object's state. This principle
contributes to better security, maintainability, and flexibility in software development.
Procedural abstraction
Procedural abstraction is a programming concept that involves hiding the implementation details of a
procedure (a block of code that performs a specific task) while exposing only the essential
information needed to interact with it. This concept is not exclusive to object-oriented programming
and can also be found in procedural or structured programming paradigms.

Key Elements of Procedural Abstraction:


1. Modular Programming:
- Procedural abstraction allows breaking down a program into smaller, manageable modules or
procedures, abstracting away the complexity of the implementation details.

2. Black Box Concept:


- It follows the "black box" principle, where the internal workings of a procedure are hidden from
the user, who is only concerned with its input, output, and how to use it.

3. Encapsulation of Logic:
- The essential logic of a task is encapsulated within a procedure, allowing it to be invoked without
the need to know how the operation is carried out internally.

Benefits of Procedural Abstraction:

1. Abstraction of Complexity:
- It simplifies program design by breaking down complex tasks into smaller, manageable
procedures, abstracting away the intricate implementation details.

2. Code Reusability:
- Procedures that perform specific tasks can be reused in different parts of the program or even in
different programs, promoting code reusability and reducing redundancy.

3. Easy Maintenance:
- Changes or updates to a procedure can be made independently without affecting other parts of the
program, as long as the procedure's interface remains unchanged.

Example of Procedural Abstraction (in Python):

```python
# Example of a procedure (function) to calculate the area of a rectangle
def calculate_rectangle_area(length, width):
area = length * width
return area

# Usage of the procedure


length = 5
width = 10
result = calculate_rectangle_area(length, width)
print("Area of the rectangle:", result)
```

In this example, `calculate_rectangle_area` is a procedure that encapsulates the logic to calculate the
area of a rectangle. The internal working details of the calculation are hidden from the user, who
interacts with the procedure by providing the required inputs and retrieving the result.

Procedural abstraction, as demonstrated in this example, helps to promote a clear separation of


concerns, allowing developers to focus on the high-level functionality of procedures without worrying
about the underlying implementation details. This concept supports maintainability, reusability, and a
more organized structure in program design.
Class and Object
In C++, a class is a blueprint or a user-defined data type that defines a structure to represent objects. It
acts as a template for creating objects. An object is an instance of a class. Objects are tangible entities
that are created based on the structure and behavior defined by the class.

Class in C++:
A class is defined using the `class` keyword and contains a set of data members (attributes) and
member functions (methods). It encapsulates the properties and behaviors that objects will exhibit.

Here is an example of a simple class in C++:

```cpp
// Class declaration
class Car {
public: // Access specifier
// Member variables (attributes)
std::string brand;
int year;

// Member function (method)


void accelerate() {
std::cout << "The " << brand << " is accelerating!" << std::endl;
}
};
```

Object in C++:

An object is an instance of a class. It is created using the class blueprint and represents a specific
entity with its own set of attributes and behaviors.

Here is how you create an object in C++:

```cpp
int main() {
// Object creation
Car myCar; // Creating an object of the Car class

// Accessing attributes and methods using the object


myCar.brand = "Toyota";
myCar.year = 2020;
myCar.accelerate(); // Invoking the accelerate method

return 0;
}
```

In this example:

- The `Car` class defines the blueprint for a car, with attributes `brand` and `year`, and a method
`accelerate`.
- In the `main()` function, an object `myCar` is created from the `Car` class by simply using the class
name followed by the object name.
- The object `myCar` is then used to access the attributes and methods defined in the class.

Objects represent specific instances of the class and have their own unique data associated with them.

C++ class and object concepts form the basis of object-oriented programming, allowing for the
creation of complex structures by combining data and functionality within a single entity. This helps
in modeling real-world scenarios and improving code reusability and maintainability.
Scope of the class and scope resolution operator
The scope of a class in object-oriented programming defines where the members (attributes and
methods) of that class can be accessed and used. Additionally, the scope resolution operator is a tool
in some programming languages that allows you to access specific members or methods of a class
within a particular context or scope.

Scope of a Class:

The scope of a class determines where the attributes and methods defined within the class can be
accessed. In most object-oriented languages, classes have their own scope, meaning the members of a
class are accessible within the class itself, typically via object instances or within the class's methods.

Outside the class, these members might have different levels of accessibility based on their access
modifiers (public, private, protected, etc.). For instance:

- Public members: Can usually be accessed from outside the class.


- Private members: Are only accessible within the class and not from outside.
- Protected members: Have wider access than private members, allowing access to subclasses.

Scope Resolution Operator:

The scope resolution operator (::) is used in certain programming languages to access the members
(methods and attributes) of a class. It's used to specify the context from which a particular member
should be accessed. For example:

- C++: The scope resolution operator (::) is used to access the members of a class, like so:

```cpp
class MyClass {
public:
void myMethod() {
// Method implementation
}
};

int main() {
MyClass obj;
obj.myMethod(); // Accessing method using the object

MyClass::myMethod(); // Accessing method using the scope resolution operator


return 0;
}
```

- PHP: PHP uses the double colon (::) to access static methods and properties:

```php
class MyClass {
public static function myMethod() {
// Method implementation
}
}

MyClass::myMethod(); // Accessing a static method using the scope resolution operator


```
The scope resolution operator is used to differentiate between methods or attributes of a class and
avoid conflicts with similarly named elements from different scopes, especially in cases of inheritance
or when working with static members.

It's important to note that the usage and availability of the scope resolution operator may vary
depending on the programming language and its specific syntax and rules.
Access specifiers in C++
In C++, access specifiers are used to control the visibility of class members. There are three access
specifiers in C++: `public`, `private`, and `protected`.

1. Public Access Specifier:


- `public` members are accessible from anywhere, both within the class and outside it. They can be
accessed by any part of the program using an object of the class.

2. Private Access Specifier:


- `private` members are only accessible within the class they are declared in. They cannot be accessed
directly from outside the class or its derived classes.

3. Protected Access Specifier:


- `protected` members are accessible within the class they are declared in and any derived classes.
They cannot be accessed from outside the class, but they are visible to the derived classes.

Example (C++):

```cpp
class MyClass {
public: // Public section
int publicVar; // Public member

void publicMethod() {
// Public method
std::cout << "This is a public method" << std::endl;
}

private: // Private section


int privateVar; // Private member

void privateMethod() {
// Private method
std::cout << "This is a private method" << std::endl;
}

protected: // Protected section


int protectedVar; // Protected member

void protectedMethod() {
// Protected method
std::cout << "This is a protected method" << std::endl;
}
};

int main() {
MyClass obj;
obj.publicVar = 10; // Accessing public member
obj.publicMethod(); // Accessing public method

// Private and protected members cannot be accessed directly from outside the class
// obj.privateVar = 20; // Error: private member inaccessible
// obj.privateMethod(); // Error: private member inaccessible

// obj.protectedVar = 30; // Error: protected member inaccessible


// obj.protectedMethod(); // Error: protected member inaccessible

return 0;
}
```
In the example:
- `publicVar` and `publicMethod()` are public and can be accessed directly from outside the class.
- `privateVar` and `privateMethod()` are private and cannot be accessed from outside the class.
- `protectedVar` and `protectedMethod()` are protected and cannot be accessed from outside the class,
but they are accessible within derived classes.
Access specifiers in C++ are fundamental for enforcing encapsulation and controlling the visibility of
class members to ensure data integrity and the proper functioning of classes in a program.

Unit II
Priority Queues: Definition, realizing a Priority Queue using Heaps, Insertion, Deletion, Heap
sort, External Sorting. Dictionaries: Linear List Representation, Skip List Representation,
Operations- Insertion, Deletion and Searching.

A priority queue is an abstract data type similar to a regular queue or stack, but with an additional
priority associated with each element. In a regular queue, elements are typically removed in the order
they were added (first-in, first-out, or FIFO), while in a priority queue, elements are removed based
on their priority.

Definition of a Priority Queue:

A priority queue is a data structure that supports operations similar to a queue or a stack, but where
elements have an assigned priority. Elements with higher priority are dequeued (or removed) before
those with lower priority.

Key Features of Priority Queues:

1. Priority-based Ordering: Elements in a priority queue are ordered based on their assigned priority.
Higher-priority elements are dequeued before lower-priority elements.

2. Support for Insertion and Removal: Elements can be inserted into a priority queue with an
associated priority and removed based on their priority.

3. Operations: Common operations supported by a priority queue include insertion (enqueue),


removal of the highest priority element (dequeue), and sometimes peeking at the highest priority
element without removing it.

4. Implementation: Priority queues can be implemented using various data structures, such as heaps,
binary search trees, or arrays combined with sorting algorithms.

Use Cases of Priority Queues:


- Job Scheduling: Priority queues are used to schedule tasks or jobs based on their priority or urgency.
- Network Routing: In computer networks, priority queues help in routing packets based on different
levels of service or priority.
- Event-driven Simulations: Simulations often require processing events based on their priority in
time.
- Operating System Scheduling: In operating systems, scheduling tasks for the CPU or I/O based on
priority is a common use case.

Implementation:

Priority queues can be implemented using various data structures, with heaps being one of the most
commonly used structures due to their efficient implementation of priority queues. Binary heaps, in
particular, are well-suited for priority queues because they allow for efficient addition and removal of
the highest priority element.

Overall, a priority queue is a versatile data structure used when elements need to be processed in an
order based on their respective priorities, enabling the handling of tasks or elements based on their
urgency or importance.

In C++, one common implementation of a priority queue is using the `std::priority_queue` container
provided by the Standard Template Library (STL). This container adapts a heap data structure to
provide efficient retrieval of the highest (or lowest, depending on the comparison function) priority
element.

Here's a basic implementation of a priority queue using `std::priority_queue`:

```cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <queue> // Include the priority_queue header

int main() {
// Define a priority queue of integers (default is a max heap)
std::priority_queue<int> pq;

// Insert elements into the priority queue


pq.push(30);
pq.push(20);
pq.push(50);
pq.push(10);

// Output the elements in the priority queue


std::cout << "Elements in the priority queue: ";
while (!pq.empty()) {
std::cout << pq.top() << " "; // Access the top element without removing it
pq.pop(); // Remove the top element
}
std::cout << std::endl;

return 0;
}
```

This example demonstrates the basic usage of `std::priority_queue`:

- Elements are added to the priority queue using the `push` function.
- The `top()` function retrieves the highest priority element without removing it.
- The `pop()` function removes the highest priority element from the priority queue.

By default, `std::priority_queue` creates a max heap. To create a min heap (where the smallest
element has the highest priority), you can specify a comparison function:

```cpp
std::priority_queue<int, std::vector<int>, std::greater<int>> minHeap;
```

This line declares a priority queue of integers (`int`) that operates as a min heap by using
`std::greater<int>` as the comparison function. The `std::greater<int>` will ensure that the smallest
elements have the highest priority.

`std::priority_queue` is quite flexible and can work with various data types and custom data structures.
It provides a convenient way to work with priority queues without having to implement the
underlying data structure from scratch.

realizing a Priority Queue using Heaps


Certainly! A priority queue can be implemented using heaps, with heaps being particularly efficient
for maintaining priority queues, especially binary heaps. A binary heap is a binary tree data structure
that satisfies the heap property: in a max heap, for any node `i`, the value of `i` is greater than or equal
to the values of its children.

Here's an example of a priority queue implemented using a max heap:

```cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <vector>

class MaxHeapPriorityQueue {
private:
std::vector<int> heap;

// Helper functions for maintaining the heap property


void heapifyUp(int index) {
while (index > 0) {
int parent = (index - 1) / 2;
if (heap[parent] < heap[index]) {
std::swap(heap[parent], heap[index]);
index = parent;
} else {
break;
}
}
}

void heapifyDown(int index) {


int size = heap.size();
while (index < size) {
int left = 2 * index + 1;
int right = 2 * index + 2;
int largest = index;

if (left < size && heap[left] > heap[largest])


largest = left;
if (right < size && heap[right] > heap[largest])
largest = right;

if (largest != index) {
std::swap(heap[index], heap[largest]);
index = largest;
} else {
break;
}
}
}

public:
// Insert an element into the priority queue
void insert(int value) {
heap.push_back(value);
heapifyUp(heap.size() - 1);
}

// Remove the top element (element with highest priority)


void removeTop() {
if (heap.empty())
return;

heap[0] = heap.back();
heap.pop_back();
heapifyDown(0);
}

// Return the top element without removing it


int getTop() {
return heap.empty() ? -1 : heap[0];
}
};

int main() {
MaxHeapPriorityQueue pq;

pq.insert(30);
pq.insert(20);
pq.insert(50);
pq.insert(10);

std::cout << "Elements in the priority queue: ";


while (pq.getTop() != -1) {
std::cout << pq.getTop() << " ";
pq.removeTop();
}
std::cout << std::endl;

return 0;
}
```
In this implementation:

- The `MaxHeapPriorityQueue` class maintains a vector `heap` representing the max heap.
- The `insert` function adds an element to the heap and maintains the heap property using
`heapifyUp`.
- The `removeTop` function removes the top element (root) of the heap and restructures the heap
using `heapifyDown`.
- The `getTop` function returns the top element without removing it.

This implementation showcases the fundamental operations of a priority queue using a max heap.
Adjustments could be made for a min-heap priority queue by modifying the comparison logic within
the helper functions.

Insertion, Deletion operations in Priority Queue using Heaps


Certainly! Priority queues implemented using heaps support two fundamental operations: insertion
(enqueue) and deletion (dequeue) of elements based on their priority. In a priority queue, elements
with higher priority are dequeued first.

Insertion Operation:

The insertion operation in a priority queue using a heap typically involves adding an element to the
heap and adjusting its position to maintain the heap property.

# Steps for Insertion:


1. Add the new element to the end of the heap (the bottom-rightmost position).
2. Restore the heap property by swapping the element with its parent if the new element violates the
heap property.

Deletion Operation:

The deletion operation in a priority queue using a heap typically involves removing the element with
the highest (or lowest) priority and adjusting the heap to maintain the heap property.

# Steps for Deletion:


1. Remove the top element from the heap (the root element, representing the highest priority).
2. Place the last element of the heap at the top to maintain a complete binary tree structure.
3. Restore the heap property by comparing the top element with its children and swapping it with the
larger child (for a max heap) or smaller child (for a min heap).

Example (C++ Implementation using `std::priority_queue`):

```cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <queue> // Include the priority_queue header

int main() {
// Create a priority queue as a max heap
std::priority_queue<int> pq;

// Insertion (enqueue) operation


pq.push(30);
pq.push(20);
pq.push(50);

// Deletion (dequeue) operation


while (!pq.empty()) {
std::cout << "Dequeued: " << pq.top() << std::endl;
pq.pop(); // Removes the top element
}

return 0;
}
```

This C++ example demonstrates the basic operations of insertion (enqueue) and deletion (dequeue) in
a priority queue implemented using `std::priority_queue`. The `push()` function inserts elements, and
the `top()` and `pop()` functions perform the deletion of elements, maintaining the max-heap property
in the background. The `pop()` function removes the top (highest priority) element from the priority
queue.

Heap sort
Heap sort is a comparison-based sorting algorithm that builds a heap from the given array and then
repeatedly extracts the maximum (for max-heap) element from the heap, thus resulting in a sorted
array.

Steps for Heap Sort:

1. Build a Heap: Convert the given array into a heap. This is usually done by reordering the elements
in the array.

2. Extract the Maximum Element: Remove the root (maximum element for a max-heap) of the heap
and place it at the end of the array.

3. Heapify the Remaining Elements: After removing the maximum element, re-heapify the heap and
reduce its size by one.

4. Repeat until the Entire Array is Sorted: Repeat steps 2 and 3 until the heap is empty and the array is
fully sorted.

Heap Sort Algorithm:

Here's a simple implementation of the heap sort algorithm in C++:

```cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <vector>

void maxHeapify(std::vector<int>& arr, int n, int i) {


int largest = i;
int left = 2 * i + 1;
int right = 2 * i + 2;

if (left < n && arr[left] > arr[largest])


largest = left;

if (right < n && arr[right] > arr[largest])


largest = right;

if (largest != i) {
std::swap(arr[i], arr[largest]);
maxHeapify(arr, n, largest);
}
}

void heapSort(std::vector<int>& arr) {


int n = arr.size();

// Build max heap (rearrange array)


for (int i = n / 2 - 1; i >= 0; i--)
maxHeapify(arr, n, i);

// One by one extract an element from the heap


for (int i = n - 1; i > 0; i--) {
// Move current root to end
std::swap(arr[0], arr[i]);

// Call max heapify on the reduced heap


maxHeapify(arr, i, 0);
}
}

int main() {
std::vector<int> arr = {12, 11, 13, 5, 6, 7};
heapSort(arr);

std::cout << "Sorted array is: ";


for (int i = 0; i < arr.size(); i++)
std::cout << arr[i] << " ";
std::cout << std::endl;

return 0;
}
```

This C++ implementation showcases the steps of the heap sort algorithm:

- `maxHeapify` function is used to maintain the heap property.


- `heapSort` function builds a max-heap and sorts the array using heapify operations.
- The `main` function demonstrates the sorting of an array using heap sort.

Heap sort is an in-place, unstable sorting algorithm with a time complexity of O(n log n) for both best
and worst cases. It's efficient and can be used for sorting large sets of data.

External Sorting
External sorting is a technique used to sort large datasets that are too extensive to fit entirely in
memory (RAM). It's an efficient method to handle sorting when the dataset size exceeds the available
memory capacity. External sorting involves using disk storage (secondary storage like hard drives or
SSDs) in addition to the main memory (RAM) for sorting operations.

Key Features of External Sorting:

1. Dividing Data into Chunks: The large dataset is divided into smaller portions or chunks that can fit
into memory.
2. Sort Chunks in Memory: Each chunk is loaded into memory, sorted internally using a sorting
algorithm like quicksort or merge sort.

3. Merge Sorted Chunks: The sorted chunks are merged back, ensuring that elements across chunks
maintain their sorted order.

4. Merging Using Priority Queue or Heap: A priority queue or a heap is commonly used to efficiently
merge the sorted chunks, picking the smallest (or largest) element from each chunk for the final sorted
output.

Steps in External Sorting:

1. Divide the Dataset: Partition the large dataset into chunks that fit into memory.

2. Sort Each Chunk: Load a chunk into memory and sort it using an in-memory sorting algorithm.

3. Merge Sorted Chunks: Merge the sorted chunks back together, ensuring the final merged output is
in sorted order.

4. Write Sorted Output: Write the final sorted output back to disk or process it further.

Example Scenario:

Consider sorting a massive file that cannot fit entirely into RAM. The file can be divided into smaller
segments (chunks) that fit into memory. Each segment is sorted independently in memory, and the
sorted segments are then merged into a single sorted file.

Techniques for External Sorting:

- K-Way Merge: Sorting a large number of chunks using a K-way merge, where K represents the
number of chunks being merged at a time.
- Replacement Selection: A selection-based algorithm used for sorting, often combined with merge
techniques.

External sorting is widely used in databases, file systems, and other applications where sorting large
volumes of data that exceed the available memory is required. It optimizes the usage of memory and
disk storage, efficiently handling and sorting large datasets.

External sorting is a technique used in computer science and data processing to sort data that is too
large to fit entirely in memory (RAM). In external sorting, data is divided into smaller chunks, each of
which can fit in memory, and these chunks are sorted individually. Once sorted, the chunks are
merged together to produce the final sorted output. This process is particularly useful for handling
very large datasets that cannot be sorted entirely in memory.

The main idea behind external sorting is to minimize the number of expensive read and write
operations to external storage (e.g., hard disk drives) while efficiently utilizing the available memory.

The typical steps in an external sorting process include:

1. Divide: The large dataset is divided into smaller chunks or blocks, often referred to as "runs,"
which can fit into memory. The size of each run depends on the available memory.

2. Sort: Each run is sorted using an efficient in-memory sorting algorithm, such as quicksort or merge
sort. Sorting smaller blocks in memory is faster than sorting the entire dataset.
3. Merge: The sorted runs are merged into a single output file. This merging process is typically done
in a way that minimizes the number of I/O operations, such as using a priority queue (min-heap) or
external merge-sort techniques.

4. Repeat: If the dataset cannot be sorted entirely in one pass, the merge step is repeated until the
entire dataset is sorted.

External sorting is commonly used in scenarios where data doesn't fit in memory, but it needs to be
sorted efficiently, such as:

- Sorting large databases that don't fit in RAM.


- Sorting log files and other large collections of data.
- Processing and analyzing big data in distributed computing environments.

Algorithms and techniques for external sorting may vary depending on specific requirements and
constraints. Properly designed external sorting can significantly reduce the time and I/O costs
associated with sorting large datasets.

Dictionaries
The Dictionary Abstract Data Type (ADT) represents a collection of key-value pairs, allowing users
to perform operations such as insertion, deletion, retrieval, and modification of elements based on
their keys. The Dictionary ADT does not permit duplicate keys and usually provides efficient access
to elements.

Common Operations in Dictionary ADT:

1. Insert(Key, Value): Inserts a key-value pair into the dictionary.


2. Delete(Key): Removes a key-value pair associated with the specified key.
3. Search(Key): Retrieves the value associated with a given key.
4. Update(Key, Value): Modifies the value associated with a particular key.
5. Size/Length: Determines the number of key-value pairs in the dictionary.
6. Keys(): Retrieves a list of all keys in the dictionary.
7. Values(): Retrieves a list of all values in the dictionary.
8. Clear(): Removes all elements from the dictionary.

Example Pseudo-Code for Dictionary ADT:

```plaintext
ADT Dictionary:
- insert(key, value)
- delete(key)
- search(key) -> value
- update(key, value)
- size() -> integer
- keys() -> list
- values() -> list
- clear()

Example Usage:
Dictionary d

d.insert("Alice", 25)
d.insert("Bob", 30)
d.insert("Charlie", 27)
d.update("Alice", 26)

value = d.search("Bob")
d.delete("Charlie")

size = d.size()
keyList = d.keys()
valueList = d.values()
d.clear()
```

Implementation of Dictionary ADT:

- In C++, `std::map` or `std::unordered_map` containers can serve as an implementation of the


Dictionary ADT.
- In Python, the `dict` data structure represents a dictionary, allowing key-value pair operations.

The Dictionary ADT provides a flexible and useful structure for managing key-value pairs and allows
efficient retrieval and manipulation of data by keys. The choice of specific implementation (e.g.,
balanced trees or hash tables) might depend on factors such as performance requirements, ordering,
and specific use-case needs.
In C++, a dictionary, often referred to as a map or associative array, is an abstract data structure that
stores a collection of key-value pairs. The `std::map` and `std::unordered_map` containers from the
Standard Template Library (STL) offer implementations of dictionary-like structures.

`std::map` in C++:

The `std::map` is an associative container that stores elements formed by a combination of a key and a
mapped value. It is implemented as a balanced binary search tree, maintaining a sorted order based on
the keys.

# Example using `std::map`:

```cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <map>

int main() {
// Declaration of a map with key-value pairs
std::map<std::string, int> myMap;

// Insert key-value pairs into the map


myMap["Alice"] = 25;
myMap["Bob"] = 30;
myMap["Charlie"] = 27;

// Accessing values using keys


std::cout << "Bob's age: " << myMap["Bob"] << std::endl;

// Iterating through the map


for (const auto &pair : myMap) {
std::cout << pair.first << ": " << pair.second << std::endl;
}

return 0;
}
```

`std::unordered_map` in C++:

The `std::unordered_map` is another associative container that stores elements as key-value pairs. It
uses hashing to organize elements and has a faster average lookup time compared to `std::map`.
However, it doesn't maintain a specific order of elements.

# Example using `std::unordered_map`:

```cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <unordered_map>

int main() {
// Declaration of an unordered_map with key-value pairs
std::unordered_map<std::string, int> myUnorderedMap;

// Insert key-value pairs into the unordered_map


myUnorderedMap["Alice"] = 25;
myUnorderedMap["Bob"] = 30;
myUnorderedMap["Charlie"] = 27;

// Accessing values using keys


std::cout << "Alice's age: " << myUnorderedMap["Alice"] << std::endl;

// Iterating through the unordered_map


for (const auto &pair : myUnorderedMap) {
std::cout << pair.first << ": " << pair.second << std::endl;
}

return 0;
}
```

Both `std::map` and `std::unordered_map` offer ways to store key-value pairs, with different trade-
offs in terms of ordering, time complexity, and underlying data structure (sorted binary tree for
`std::map`, and hash table for `std::unordered_map`). The choice between the two often depends on
the specific requirements of the application, such as the need for ordering and the expected operations
(lookup, insertion, deletion, etc.).

Linear List Representation

A linear list is a fundamental data structure in computer science that represents a collection of
elements in a linear order. It's also known as a sequence, where the elements are arranged
sequentially. There are various ways to represent a linear list, including arrays and linked lists.

Array Representation:

In array representation, the elements are stored in contiguous memory locations, allowing for
constant-time access to elements based on their index. Arrays have fixed sizes, and the elements are
accessed using their index or position.

# Example (C++-like pseudocode):


```plaintext
// Creating an array representation of a linear list
array list[5] = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]

// Accessing elements using index


element = list[2] // Accesses the element at index 2 (value: 30)
```

Linked List Representation:

Linked lists are a dynamic data structure where elements, called nodes, are linked together through
pointers or references. Each node contains the data and a reference to the next node in the sequence.

# Example (C++-like pseudocode for singly linked list):

```plaintext
// Node structure definition
struct Node {
int data;
Node* next;
};

// Creating a linked list


Node* head = nullptr; // Initializing the head of the list

// Inserting elements into the linked list


Node* newNode = new Node;
newNode->data = 10;
newNode->next = nullptr;

head = newNode; // Adding the first node

// Inserting another node


Node* secondNode = new Node;
secondNode->data = 20;
secondNode->next = nullptr;

head->next = secondNode; // Linking the second node to the first


```

Comparison:

- Arrays offer constant-time access to elements but have a fixed size.


- Linked lists can dynamically adjust their size, and insertion and deletion are efficient, but accessing
elements requires traversing the list, which takes linear time.

The choice between array and linked list representations depends on the specific use-case
requirements, such as the need for constant-time access, dynamic resizing, and efficient
insertion/deletion operations. Both representations serve as core structures in data processing and
storage.

Dictionaries: Linear List Representation


In a linear list representation for dictionaries (associative arrays or maps), two common ways involve
using arrays or linked lists. These can be adapted to represent key-value pairs where the key is used to
access the associated value.

Array-based Linear List Representation:

In an array-based representation, two arrays can be used: one for storing keys and another for storing
corresponding values. The indices of the arrays are used to associate keys with their values.

# Pseudocode Example:

```plaintext
// Initialize arrays for keys and values
array keys[5] = [ "Alice", "Bob", "Charlie", "David", "Eva" ]
array values[5] = [ 25, 30, 27, 35, 22 ]

// Accessing values by key


searchKey = "Charlie"
index = search_index(keys, searchKey) // Function to find the index of the key
if index != -1:
value = values[index]
display "Value for Charlie:", value
else:
display "Key not found"

// Update value for a key


updateKey = "Bob"
index = search_index(keys, updateKey) // Function to find the index of the key
if index != -1:
values[index] = 32 // Updating the value for "Bob"
display "Value for Bob updated to:", values[index]
else:
display "Key not found"
```

Linked List-based Linear List Representation:

Using a linked list, each node can contain both a key and its associated value. This is a common
approach, especially for implementing hash tables, where each node in the linked list represents a key-
value pair.

# Pseudocode Example:

```plaintext
// Node structure to represent key-value pair
struct Node {
string key;
int value;
Node* next;
};

// Initialize a linked list of key-value pairs


Node* head = nullptr;
// Inserting key-value pairs into the linked list
Node* newNode1 = new Node("Alice", 25);
// Similar insertions for other key-value pairs

// Searching for a value based on a key


searchKey = "Charlie"
current = head
while current is not null:
if current->key == searchKey:
display "Value for Charlie:", current->value
break
current = current->next
```

Comparison:

- Array-based representations offer direct access to elements by index but may need resizing if the
size is exceeded.
- Linked list-based representations offer dynamic sizing and better handling of insertions and
deletions, but may require traversing the list for searching.

The choice between these representations typically depends on the requirements of the application,
such as the frequency of insertions, deletions, and searches, as well as the expected size of the
dictionary.
Linear List Representation Operations- Insertion, Deletion and Searching
The operations for insertion, deletion, and searching within a linear list (like arrays or linked lists)
involve different steps for each operation.

Insertion in Linear List:

# Array Representation:
- At a Specific Index: In an array, elements can be inserted at a specific index by shifting elements to
the right and then inserting the new element.
- At the End: To append elements, add the new element at the end of the array.

# Linked List Representation:


- At the Beginning: Create a new node, set its data, and make it the head of the list.
- At a Specific Position: Traverse the list to the desired position, then insert a new node after the
previous node, adjusting the pointers.

Deletion in Linear List:

# Array Representation:
- At a Specific Index: Remove the element at the specified index by shifting elements to the left.
- At the End: Delete the last element in the array.

# Linked List Representation:


- From the Beginning: Remove the head node and adjust pointers to the next node.
- From a Specific Position: Traverse to the node to be deleted, adjust the pointers of the previous node
to bypass the node to be deleted, and deallocate memory.

Searching in Linear List:

# Array Representation:
- Linear Search: Traverse the array sequentially and compare each element with the target value until
a match is found or the end of the array is reached.
# Linked List Representation:
- Linear Search: Traverse the linked list sequentially, comparing the data in each node with the target
value until a match is found or the end of the list is reached.

Pseudocode Examples:

# Array Insertion at a Specific Index:

```plaintext
// Insert element 'value' at index 'pos' in the array 'arr'
function insertAtIndex(arr, value, pos):
shift elements from pos to end one position to the right
arr[pos] = value
```

# Linked List Deletion from the Beginning:

```plaintext
// Delete the head node in the linked list
function deleteFromBeginning(head):
if head is not null:
temp = head
head = head->next
deallocate temp
```

# Array Searching (Linear Search):

```plaintext
// Linear search for 'target' in the array 'arr'
function linearSearch(arr, target):
for i from 0 to length of arr - 1:
if arr[i] equals target:
return i
return "Not found"
```

# Linked List Searching (Linear Search):

```plaintext
// Linear search for 'target' in the linked list starting from 'head'
function linearSearch(head, target):
current = head
while current is not null:
if current->data equals target:
return "Found"
current = current->next
return "Not found"
```

Each operation requires different logic and steps, tailored to the specific representation (array or
linked list) and the position (beginning, end, or specific index) where the operation is performed.

Time complexity of Linear List Representation Operations- Insertion, Deletion and Searching
The time complexity of insertion, deletion, and searching operations in linear list representations (like
arrays and linked lists) varies depending on the specific operation and the structure used.

Array Representation:

1. Insertion at a Specific Index:


- Average Case: O(n) - Involves shifting elements to create space for the new element.
- Worst Case: O(n) - Inserting at the beginning requires shifting all elements.

2. Deletion at a Specific Index:


- Average Case: O(n) - Requires shifting elements after deletion.
- Worst Case: O(n) - Deletion from the beginning requires shifting all elements.

3. Searching (Linear Search):


- Average Case: O(n) - Involves traversing the entire array to find the target element.
- Worst Case: O(n) - Target element may be at the end or not present.

Linked List Representation:

1. Insertion at the Beginning:


- Average Case: O(1) - Insertion involves updating pointers to make the new node the head.
- Worst Case: O(1) - Similar to the average case, as insertion at the beginning is constant time.

2. Deletion at the Beginning:


- Average Case: O(1) - Removing the head node involves updating pointers.
- Worst Case: O(1) - Similar to the average case, as deletion at the beginning is constant time.

3. Insertion or Deletion at the End (For Singly Linked List without tail pointer):
- Average Case: O(n) - Requires traversal to the end to perform the operation.
- Worst Case: O(n) - Similar to the average case, as end operations require traversing the entire list.

4. Searching (Linear Search):


- Average Case: O(n) - Traversing the linked list from start to end to find the target.
- Worst Case: O(n) - Target element may be at the end or not present.

Overall:

- For arrays, insertion and deletion operations generally take O(n) time due to shifting elements.
- For linked lists, insertions and deletions at the beginning are O(1) on average, while those at the end
might take O(n) time.

Linear searches in both arrays and linked lists involve traversing the entire structure, resulting in O(n)
time complexity in the worst case. The performance of these operations can vary based on the specific
position where the operation is performed and the size of the list.

Skip List Representation


Skip lists are a data structure that provides a probabilistic alternative to balanced trees, allowing for
efficient searching, insertion, and deletion operations. Skip lists utilize multiple linked lists that
provide multiple layers of access to elements, facilitating faster searching. They were developed by
William Pugh in 1989.

Structure of Skip Lists:


Skip lists consist of multiple levels of linked lists, where the lowest level represents the actual data
elements and each higher level includes a subset of the elements from the lower level. The top-level is
the smallest, containing only a few elements, acting as an access point to the entire list.

- Each node in a skip list contains a key (or value) and pointers to the next node at the same level and
the level below. The bottom level represents a traditional linked list.
- Higher-level nodes act as express lanes, allowing for faster search and traversal of the skip list.

Key Properties of Skip Lists:

1. Probabilistic Structure: The decision to include an element at a higher level is made


probabilistically. This structure helps maintain balance and ensures efficient performance.
2. Efficient Search: Due to multiple layers, skip lists allow for logarithmic time complexity for search
operations, similar to binary search trees.
3. Simple Design: Compared to other balanced search structures, skip lists are easier to implement and
maintain.

Operations in Skip Lists:

1. Search: Starts from the top level and moves down the levels until the appropriate position for the
search key is found.
2. Insertion: Searches for the appropriate position for the new key and then inserts it. While inserting
at the lowest level, a coin toss determines if the element is also included at higher levels.
3. Deletion: Finds and removes the element from the skip list. Adjustments to the pointers are made to
maintain the list's integrity.

Example of Skip List:

```plaintext
+-----------------------------+
| 3 -> 7 -> 9 -> 12 |
+-----------------------------+
| 3 -> 7 9 -> 12 |
+-----------------------------+
|3 7 9 12 |
+-----------------------------+
|3 9 |
+-----------------------------+
```

In the example, each line represents a level in the skip list. Nodes are interconnected through pointers
at different levels, allowing for faster access to the elements.

Skip lists provide an efficient compromise between the simplicity of linked lists and the efficiency of
balanced trees, offering relatively fast search operations with a simple design. This probabilistic
structure makes them a favorable choice in certain scenarios, particularly when balanced trees might
be complex to implement or maintain.

Skip List Representation Operations- Insertion, Deletion and Searching


Skip lists offer efficient searching, insertion, and deletion operations similar to balanced trees. They
consist of multiple levels of linked lists, with each level acting as a faster access path to the elements
in the list. Below are the common operations performed on skip lists:

Insertion in Skip Lists:


1. Insert a Key-Value Pair:
- Start from the top level and move downwards to find the correct position for insertion.
- Insert the key-value pair at the lowest level (as in a traditional linked list).
- With a probabilistic approach (usually a coin toss), decide whether to insert the same key-value
pair into higher levels (creating express lanes for faster access).

Deletion in Skip Lists:

1. Delete a Key-Value Pair:


- Search for the key in the skip list.
- Remove all occurrences of the key-value pair by adjusting the pointers at each level.

Searching in Skip Lists:

1. Search for a Key:


- Start from the top level and move downwards while comparing keys.
- Traverse the list level by level, exploiting the express lanes, until the key is found or a larger key is
encountered, signaling that the search key is not present.

Pseudocode Example for Insertion:

```plaintext
// Insert a key-value pair into the skip list
function insert(key, value):
level = determineLevel() // Randomly determine the level for the new node
new_node = createNode(key, value, level)
current = head // Start from the top level
for i from max_level to 0:
while current->next[i] is not null and current->next[i]->key < key:
current = current->next[i]
if i <= level:
new_node->next[i] = current->next[i]
current->next[i] = new_node
```

Pseudocode Example for Deletion:

```plaintext
// Delete a key-value pair from the skip list
function delete(key):
current = head // Start from the top level
for i from max_level to 0:
while current->next[i] is not null and current->next[i]->key < key:
current = current->next[i]
if current->next[i]->key == key:
to_be_deleted = current->next[i]
current->next[i] = to_be_deleted->next[i]
delete to_be_deleted
```

Pseudocode Example for Searching:

```plaintext
// Search for a key in the skip list
function search(key):
current = head // Start from the top level
for i from max_level to 0:
while current->next[i] is not null and current->next[i]->key < key:
current = current->next[i]
if current->next[0]->key == key:
return "Key found"
return "Key not found"
```

Skip lists utilize a probabilistic approach to create multiple levels, allowing for faster access to
elements, similar to the working principle of a multi-level index. These operations exploit the multiple
express lanes for improved efficiency in searching, insertion, and deletion.

Time complexity of Skip List Representation Operations- Insertion, Deletion and Searching

In skip lists, the time complexity for insertion, deletion, and searching operations depends on the
height of the skip list and the average number of elements per level. Skip lists maintain logarithmic
time complexity for these operations on average. Here are the details:

Time Complexity:

1. Search Operation:
- Average Case: O(log n)
- Worst Case: O(n)

2. Insertion and Deletion Operations:


- Average Case: O(log n)
- Worst Case: O(n)

Details:

- Search Operation:
- In the average case, skip lists exhibit a search time complexity of O(log n), similar to binary search
trees. The search starts from the top level and moves down to the lower levels, which decreases the
number of comparisons significantly.
- In the worst case, if the key to be found is not present in the skip list, the search may reach the last
level, resulting in a time complexity of O(n).

- Insertion and Deletion Operations:


- In the average case, these operations also show a time complexity of O(log n). The insertion or
deletion path is determined by the search process, and insertion and deletion are carried out at each
level passed during the search.
- In the worst case, if the number of levels increases significantly, insertion or deletion could take
O(n) time, as it may involve creating or deleting levels and updating multiple pointers.

The key feature of skip lists is that they offer a balanced trade-off between simplicity and efficiency.
Their average-case time complexity for insertion, deletion, and searching is O(log n), which makes
them favorable compared to other balanced tree structures in certain scenarios.

However, in rare worst-case scenarios where the structure is not maintained optimally or when the
structure degenerates, skip lists can exhibit linear time complexity. Nevertheless, in practice, this is
rare, and the probabilistic structure of skip lists provides good average-case performance for various
operations.

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