Study Session 3: Dynamics

Introduction
Have you noticed how an inflated and untied balloon moves haphazardly through air, and you
were amused and repeated the play to thrill yourself. It is actually one of physics law at play.

In this study session you will learn about the force that causes motion and all the laws that
regulate this force. Also you will understand the concept of work done, energy, power and the
laws of conservation.

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this study session you should be able to:

3.1 Explain the concept of force.

3.2 Understand Newton’s laws of motion.
3.3 Apply the concept of Newton’s universal law of gravitation.
3.4 Apply the concepts of work energy and power.
3.5 State conservation laws.
3.1 Dynamics
Dynamics is the second part of mechanics in physics that studies the motion of bodies and the
cause of the motion. Dynamics studies the force that causes a body at rest or uniform motion,
change its instantaneous velocity and therefore accelerate or decelerate as the case may be.

Following are the concepts to be understood in the study of dynamics, so pay attention so that
you will understand the physical world that you live in.

3.1.1 Concept of force.

A force is any influence which tends to change the motion of an object. In other words, a force
can cause an object with mass to change its velocity which at first may be at rest or moving with
constant velocity to accelerate.

Figure 3.2: Force Formula

Source:http://pad2.whstatic.com/images/thumb/c/cb/Calculate-Force-Step-1.jpg/670px-
Calculate-Force-Step-1.jpg

Force can also be described by simple concepts such as a push or a pull. A force has both
magnitude and direction, thus a force is a vector quantity. It is measured in the SI unit of Newton
(N) and represented by the symbol F.

Mathematically Force= mass × acceleration

3.1.2 Newton’s laws of motion
.First law of motion

A body will continue in a state of rest or constant velocity unless an external force acts
upon it.

Now consider a football is on the ground, you well know it won’t move unless someone
kicks it, and if it is kicked and we make sure we get rid of air resistance and friction the ball
will for ever continue to move at the same velocity, furthermore if a greater kick was made
on it aside the first kick while it was still in motion it will have a change in velocity
(accelerate) and move faster.

This law is also known as the law of inertia. This law actually explains why you need to
strap yourself with the seatbelt in an automobile. If you have noticed when a car in motion
stops abruptly the passengers don’t stop, they keep moving and that’s why they jolt forward.

Figure3.4: driver keeps moving after applying brakes

Source: http://cnx.org/resources/27665d17bca6b90a2132d69ded5a501b/PG11C11_017.png

 Second law of motion

The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the force applied, and the
momentum change is in the direction of the applied force.

This law simply means the amount of force you apply to a body will determine how it will
change its velocity in time, and a body with greater mass will need more force to move than a
lighter body, also the body impacted by a force will move in the direction of the resultant
force that impacted it.

Mathematically this law can be shown as in below.

F = m× Δv = m × v – u Newton’s second law of motion

t t
But recall v – u = a (equation of motion)
t
Therefore we can re-write the above expression as
F = m×a Newton’s second law of motion
Where F= force acting on the body
m= mass of the body
a = acceleration attained by the body due to force

Figure 3.5: Motion in the direction of Applied Force

Source:http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQWoxaeyfJqdUe5OVL5O3HSDpGuVS
q9q2v-BbLZvQomvUg44xB6qA
 Newton’s third law of motion
To every action there is equal and opposite re-action.
This law is so straight forward, whenever you apply a force you receive an equal force
impacted on you in the opposite direction of the initial force. So in a situation you hit a wall
with your fist you feel pain too, you bashed someone’s car with yours , both cars are dented.
So we see these laws at play every day.
 Figure 3.: action and reaction in rockets
Source:http://teachers.district106.net/~dswick/6th_Grade_Science/Rockets_%26_Satellites_
files/Rocket%20action%20reaction.png

This law is what the rocket uses to lift off the ground it thrust itself upward by combusting
enough gas to push on the ground and the ground consequently pushing it up, up it goes till
it’s away.
3.1.3 Newton’s universal law of gravitation.

Figure 3.: Law of Universal Gravitation

Source:http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcREkYUQOVTwlSmngur6BvXpZpr6D
wVPcvT6eiOPHNeDYVU8-QSX

The capital letter “G” in the formula figure above is called gravitational constant and it has
value G = 6.673 84 x 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2.

This law establishes that every object exert a force of attraction on other object in its
surrounding, and the closer objects are the greater this force and vice- versa, also the greater
the mass of the body the greater the force of attraction (gravitation) it exerts on its
neighbouring objects.

This law is what is at work among planetary bodies where they are kept in orbits round the
sun and their moon(s) revolve around them without moving away on a tangent.

Mathematically
 Figure3. : Mathematical expression of gravitational law

Source:http://lrrpublic.cli.det.nsw.edu.au/lrrSecure/Sites/Web/Forces_and_fields_creative_com
mons/7310/graphics/Univgrav.gif

Concept of weight as a force

The weight of a body is the measure of the force of attraction exerted on the body by the earth.
So we see that weight is a force, actually a pulling force, pulling a body towards the centre of the
earth. Weight is measured in Newton (N).

Usually “unlearned” persons use mass to mean weight but as you have learned in study session
one mass is an amount of matter contained in a body while weight is a force. Since weight is a
vector quantity it possesses magnitude and direction and the constant direction of weight is
vertically downwards towards the centre of the earth.

If weight is the force of gravity pulling on a body then it must make the body accelerate because
a force as you have studied is an influence that makes a body accelerate. The acceleration a body
attains when acted upon by the force of gravity “g” has values ranging from 9.8m/s2 to 10m/s2
depending on the location on the earth’s surface.

Example:

Calculate the weight of a body which has a mass of 192kg. Take g to be 9.8m/s2.

Solution.

W = mg
Where W= weight= ?

m= mass = 192kg

g= acceleration due to gravity= 9.8m/s2

W = 192kg × 9.8m/s2= 1881.6kg m/s2=1881.6N

The weight of that body is 1881.6N in that instant at that geographical location, if the location
changed to a place where acceleration due to gravity “g” is 10m/s2 the weight would be 1920N.
Mass of a body is unchanged whatever the location on the earth but the weight may vary from
place to place.

Work, Energy and Power

Work

Work is a phenomenon that is done when a force moves through a distance. So when a force acts
on a body and causing it to change its position we say work has been done.

So consider a crane lifts a concrete slab of weight 700N and change its position through a
distance 15m.

The work done by the crane = force × distance

= 700N × 15m = 10500Nm

In a case you want to calculate the work done on an inclined plane, or an instance where angles
are involved. You resolve the force vertically or horizontally.

Vertically Work done = Force × sine Ø × distance

Horizontally Work done = Force × cosine Ø × distance

Where Ø = angle inclined to the horizontal.

F = Force

Energy
The energy of an object or a body is the ability or capacity of the object to do work. This energy
is measured in terms of the work that can be done, this makes Energy and Work have the same
S.I units the Joule (J) .

The energy quantity of an object can be I various forms, and listed below are some forms of
energy.

1. Heat Energy
2. Electrical Energy
3. Mechanical Energy
4. Chemical Energy
5. Sound Energy
6. Light Energy
7. Atomic Energy
However in this session you are to learn the energy that has to do with motion and this form of
Energy is called Mechanical Energy.

Mechanical Energy possessed by a physical body are in two forms

 Potential Energy
 Kinetic Energy

1. Potential Energy
Potential Energy is energy stored up in a body and not yet put to work. Potential energy of a
body may be due to

 The position of a body in terms of height relative to the earth’s surface.

 The elastic nature of an object
 The chemical composition of a substance
These above factors make there be three types of potential energy.

i. Gravitational Potential Energy (G.P.E) = Weight × height

= mg × h = mgh
Example:
 A boy of mass 42kg stands on a spring board at a height of 4m from the ground. What is
his gravitational potential energy? Take g= 10m/s2
Solution
G.P.E = mgh = 42kg × 10m/s2 × 4m = 1680J
ii. Elastic Potential Energy
This is energy stored up in a material due to its elastic properties. Examples of material
that possess type of potential Energy are
a. Compressed gas
b. Compressed spring
c. Stretched elastic rubber e.g catapult
iii. Chemical Potential Energy
This is stored up energy due to the chemical composition of a substance. This kind of
energy can be found in food. The energy is utilised by respiration for the body’s
activities. Chemical Potential Energy can also be found in a battery and fuels.

Figure 3.8: Types of potential energy

Source:http://media-cache-
ec0.pinimg.com/736x/a6/d5/9d/a6d59d685a64e4255aeac90e80eb0232.jpg
1 Kinetic energy
 This is the energy a body possesses by virtue of its motion. Kinetic energy is measure by the
amount of work done by a body when it comes to rest. The figure below shows the quantitative
expression of kinetic energy

Figure3. : formula for kinetic energy

Source:http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQfeWsOirtIs6aqj0WM3Y1EIf3g9ijJ_37yn9
ObUXAraIWULkAg

Power

Power is the time rate at which energy is used or the rate at which work is done. It can easily be
calculated by dividing work done by time or multiplying force by velocity in mechanical
processes.

By derivation the unit of power will be Joules per second (J/s), however a conventional unit
which is equal to the Joules per second (J/s) is used as the unit of power – Watts (W).

1W = 1J/s. larger units of power are the kilowatts (1000 Watts) and horse power (h.p)
{746Watts}.
Example:

1 The motor of a grinding machine exerts a force of 65N and moves with a velocity of
12m/s calculate the energy dissipated per time.

Solution

By definition energy dissipated per time is Power. Therefore

Power = force × velocity = 65N × 12m/s = 780 Watts.

2 A machine is rated 3.2h.p what amount of work will it do in 5s.

Solution

1h.p = 746 Watts.

3.2h.p= 3×746Watts=2238 Watts

Work = Power × Time = 2238Watts × 5s = 11190J

Pilot Question 3.1

i. The figure below illustrates and paraphrases one of Newton’s laws of motion. Which
law is it?

ii. What is the difference between weight and force?

iii. When is work said to be done?
3.2 Conservation laws
Conservation laws also called laws of conservation, in physics, are several principles that
postulate that certain physical properties (i.e., measurable quantities) do not change in the course
of time within a closed physical system.
Below is explained the laws of conservation you will be learning in this study session.

a) Law of conservation of energy

This law implies that energy can be neither created nor destroyed, although it can be changed
from one form (mechanical, kinetic, chemical, etc.) into another. In an isolated system the sum of
all forms of energy therefore remains constant.

For example, a falling body has a constant amount of energy, but the form of the energy changes
from potential to kinetic. According to the theory of relativity, energy and mass are equivalent.

Thus, the rest mass of a body may be considered a form of potential energy, part of which can be
converted into other forms of energy.

Box 3.1: Law of conservation of energy

This law implies that energy can be neither created nor destroyed, although it can be changed
from one form (mechanical, kinetic, chemical, etc.) into another. In an isolated system the sum of
all forms of energy therefore remains constant.

b) Law of Conservation of linear momentum

This law expresses the fact that a body or system of bodies in motion retains its total
momentum, the product of mass and vector velocity; unless an external force is applied to it. In
an isolated system (such as the universe), there are no external forces, so momentum is always
conserved. Because momentum is conserved, its components in any direction will also be
conserved.
Application of the law of conservation of momentum is important in the solution of collision
problems. The operation of rockets exemplifies the conservation of momentum: the increased
forward momentum of the rocket is equal but opposite in sign to the momentum of the ejected
exhaust gases.

Box 3.2 Law Conservation of Momentum

This law expresses the fact that a body or system of bodies in motion retains its total momentum,
the product of mass and vector velocity; unless an external force is applied to it. In an isolated
system (such as the universe), there are no external forces, so momentum is always conserved.

c) Law of Conservation of angular momentum of rotating bodies

Angular momentum is a vector quantity whose conservation expresses the law that a body or
system that is rotating continues to rotate at the same rate unless a twisting force, called a
torque, is applied to it. The angular momentum of each bit of matter consists of the product of its
mass, its distance from the axis of rotation, and the component of its velocity perpendicular to
the line from the axis.

Box 3.3 Law of Conservation of angular Momentum.

Law of Conservation of angular momentum of rotating bodies expresses that a body or system
that is rotating continues to rotate at the same rate unless a twisting force, called a torque, is
applied to it.

d) Law of Conservation of Matter

Postulates that matter can be neither created nor destroyed i.e., processes that change the
physical or chemical properties of substances within a closed system (such as conversion of a
solid to a gas) leave the total mass unchanged. Actually mass is not a conserved quantity, except
in nuclear reactions where the conversion of residual mass into other forms of mass-energy is so
small that, to a high degree of precision, residual mass may be thought of as conserved.
Box 3.4 Law of Conservation of matter
Postulates that matter can be neither created nor destroyed i.e., processes that change the
physical or chemical properties of substances within a closed system (such as conversion of a
solid to a gas) leave the total mass unchanged.
The laws of conservation of energy, momentum, and angular momentum are all derived from
classical mechanics. Nevertheless, all remain true in quantum mechanics and relativistic
mechanics, which have replaced classical mechanics.

3.3 Friction
Friction is a resistive force which acts at the surface of separation of two bodies in
contact and tends to oppose the motion of one over the other. Thus it is more appropriate to talk
of friction between two surfaces rather than friction of a surface.

3.3.1 Laws of Friction

The extensive work of Leonardo Da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and Charles Coulomb (1736 –
1806) yielded the following laws of friction.

Frictional forces between two surfaces:

A. Is independent of the area of the surfaces in contact.

B. Opposes motion between the surfaces
C. Depends on the nature of the surfaces
D. Is independent of relative velocity between the surfaces
E. Is proportional to normal reaction.

The last law may be expressed in a single equation as : Fr = μN

Where μ a constant is is called the coefficient of friction.

3.3.2 Static and Dynamic friction
Static or limiting frictional force is the type when the body is just about to move over
another surface. Thus if Fs represents the static frictional force, equation (5) may be written as;

Fs = μ S N

Suppose a body is sliding over another with uniform velocity, the frictional force called
into play is called dynamic frictional force Fd given by

Fd = μdN

Experiment shows that Fs is always greater than Fd for a given surface and normal
reaction. Therefore μs is always greater than μd.

3.3.3 Angle of friction

Angle of friction is defined as the angle which the resultant (total reaction) makes with
the normal reaction, if the normal reaction, N and the frictional force Fr is compounded into a
single force.

In the figure above, the resultant of Fr and N

R 

is given as R and this is inclined at an angle  to N.

Then tan  = Fr / N = Fr / W = μ S Fr

Hence,  is the angle of friction.

Determination of μ using an inclined plane

When the angle of inclination  is small, object Q does not move.

However, as the angle of inclination of the plane is gradually increased it is found that the object
Q eventually starts to move.

(i) At this limiting equilibrium stage we have by resolving along the

plane mg sin  = Fr = μN and by resolving perpendicular to the
plane mg cos  = N

(ii) By dividing equation (i) by (ii) we have

tan  = μ

Example 3.1

A metal box of weight 100N is pulled on a horizontal rough surface with a force of 300N
applied horizontally. Determine the coefficient of static friction, if the force is just sufficient to
cause the box moving. Find also the coefficient of kinetic friction if a force of 100N can now
keep the box moving with constant speed.

Solution

Fy = N – W = N – 400 = 0

that is N = 4000N

Fx = P – Fs = 300 – Fs = 0

Fs = 300N

from FS = SN

Fs 300
s    0.75
N 400

After the box is moving, we now have

Fy = N – W = N – 400 = 0, N = 400N

Fx = P – Fx = 100 – Fk = 0

FR = 100N, FR = k N when motion occurs.

Fk 100
k    0.25
N 400

Example 3.2

Determine the magnitude of the minimum horizontal force required to maintain a box of weight
20N when placed on a rough plane inclined at 30 above the horizontal ( = 0.2).

Solution

Let the horizontal force P act to maintain equilibrium.

For the force applied to be minimum the frictional force

must act upward as shown.

N Fr

For motion parallel to the plane

P

P Cos 30 + Fr – 20 Sin 30 = 0

mg
Fr = 10 – 0.866P (i)

For motion perpendicular to the plane

N – P sin 30 – 20 cos 30 = 0

N = 0.5P + 17.32 (ii)

But Fr = N (iii)

 10 – 0.86P = 0.2 (0.5P + 17.32)

0.966P = 13.464 and P = 13.9N

So, the minimum horizontal force required is 13.9N

3.4 Impulse and Momentum

3.4.1 Momentum
The momentum (P) of a body is the product of the mass (m) of the body and its velocity (v). The
momentum (P) of a body of mass m (kg) and velocity V (ms-1) is given as: P = m v (kgms-1)

Momentum is a vector quantity (processes both magnitude and direction). For many
bodies the total momentum is the vector sum of the separate momentum, that is if masses m1, m2
… mn have velocities v1, v2 … vn respectively, and move in the same direction, the total
momentum is m1v1 + m2v2 + … mnvn. However, if they move in different directions, the vector
addition is taken to obtain the total momentum.

3.4.2 Impulse
Impulse is defined as the product of the force and the time during which it acts, provided
the force is constant. That is, it depends on the force and the time during which it acts.

From mathematical expression of Newton second law, that is,

mv - mu
F= or Ft = m (v – u),
t

it follows therefore that impulse Ft is equivalent to change of momentum.

The SI unit of impulse (I) is Ns.

3.4.3 Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum

When the net external force on a system of bodies is zero, the system is said to be
isolated. The law of conservation of momentum may be stated thus;

“the total momentum of an isolated system of bodies remains constant”.

As an example let us consider a body A of mass ma and velocity u A that collides with
another body B of mass mB and velocity uB moving in the same direction in a straight line.
If as a result of the impact their velocities change to vA and vB respectively, then from the
principle of conservation of linear momentum;

mAuA + mBuB = mAvA + mBvB

This is true only if no external forces act on the system of colliding bodies.

Example 3.3

A body of mass 5kg moving with velocity of 10ms-1 is acted upon by a force of 25N for 0.2 s.
Determine the final velocity of the body.

Solution

The impulse due to the force Ft = (25) (0.2) = 5.0Ns

If the motion is in the direction of the force, then,

Ft = mu – mu, thus , 5.0 = 5v – (5  10) or  v = 55

= 11ms-1
5

Example 3.4

Adams finds himself in the centre of a shoot out between the army and armed robbers. A 2.0
gram bullet moving at 200ms-1 strikes him and lodges in his shoulder. If the bullet undergoes
uniform retardation and stops after penetrating a distance of 10.0 cm in his shoulder. Determine
the impulse in the shoulder and the average force experienced by him.

Solution

Recall that impulse is equal to change of momentum

Ft = m(v – u) = (2  10-3) (200) = 0.4Ns

From kinematics, we can find time taken using v2 = u2 + 2as

0 = (200)2 + (2) (a) (10  10-2)

a = - 0.20  106 ms-2 and v = u + at

0 = 200 – 0.20  106t

t = 1.0  10-3s

thus, F (1.0  10-3) = 0.4 and F = 400N.

Example 3.5

A gun of mass 10kg released a bullet of mass 20g at a speed of 100ms-1.

Find the gun’s speed of recoil.

Solution

The total change in momentum is zero.

The velocity of recoil is opposite in direction to that of the bullet, hence,

(20  10-3) (100) - (10  V)

or v = 0.2 ms-1 v = 0.2ms-1.

Example 3.6

A 5kg mass moving in the (+x) - direction at 30ms-1 collides head on with another body of 2kg
mass moving at 50ms-1 in the (–x) - direction. If the bodies stick together after collision, find
their velocity after collision.

Solution

5kg 2kg
Total momentum before collision = (5  30) + - (2  50) = 50kgms-1

Total momentum after collision = (5 + 2) v= 7v kgms-1

By the principle of conservation of linear momentum,

50 kgms-1 = 7v kgms-1 and v = 7.14ms-1

Example 3.7

A bullet of mass 10g is fired into and gets embedded in a stationary block of wood of mass 10kg.
If the bullet and wood move freely with a velocity of 100ms-1; determine the initial velocity of
the bullet.

Solution.

By the principle of conservation of momentum

10  10-3 x ub + 0 = (10 + 0.01)  100

0.01ub = 1001 or ub = 100, 100ms-1

Example 3.8

A proton travelling at 107ms-1 collides with a stationary particle and bounces back at 2  106ms-
1
. If the particle moves forwards at 3  106ms-1, find its mass. [mp = 1.67  10-27kg]

Solution

By the principle of conservation of momentum

 107 (1.67  10-27) + 0 = -(1.67  10-27 (2  106) + m  3  106

3m = 10-27 (1.67  10) + 10-27 (1.67  2)

10-27 (1.67  12)

m=
3

= 6.68  10-27kg

3.5 Collision
One of the most important applications of the conservation of momentum law occurs in
the theory of collisions. There are two types of collisions, to which we give the names elastic and
inelastic.

In an elastic collision, both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved (i.e. no energy is
lost from the system). This type of collision can occur only between atomic particles, although in
physics problems we often assume elastic collision between colliding bodies. In actuality, there
are no elastic collisions, but in some the energy loss is very small and it may be considered
negligible. An inelastic collision is one in which only momentum is conserved while kinetic
energy is not conserved (e.g. some energy is lost to friction, crumpled fenders, or such).

Example 3.9

A bullet is shot into a wooden block suspended by strings. It lodges in the block, losing energy
in its penetration, and the increase in the height of the swinging block and bullet is measured. If
the masses of the bullet and block are 10gram and 50g respectively, and the swing rises 0.1m,
determine the velocity of the penetrating bullet and the fraction of its energy lost during
penetration.

Solution

(a) (b) (c)

m+M
m h
M
Momentum conservation between (a) and (b): mu + 0 = (m + m)V

(0.01) (u) = 0.51V

Mechanical energy is conserved between (b) and (c)

(Ek )b = (EP)c

½ (m + M)v2 = (m + M) g h

v= 2 gh = 1.4ms-1

Substituting this value into momentum equation yields

u =  
0.51   0.51 
 V  
-1
 1.4 = 71.4 ms
 0.01   0.01 

The fraction of its energy lost during penetration is obtained by calculating energy of the system
in (a) and (b)

(Ek)a = ½ mu2 = ½ (0.01) (71.4)2 = 25.5J

(Ek)b = ½ (m + M)V2 = ½ (0.51) (1.4) = 0.5J

E k b 0.5
Fraction remaining = E   25.5 = 0.02
k c

The fraction lost is = 1 – fraction remains

= 1 – 0.02 = 0.98

Note: When colliding objects stick together we say that the kinetic energy is not conserved.

Example 3.10

A uranium atom (U) travelling with a velocity of 5.0  105ms-1 relative to the
containing tube, breaks up into krypton (Kr) and barium (Ba). The krypton atom is ejected
directly backwards at a velocity of 2.35  106ms-1 relative to the barium after separation. With
what velocity does the barium atom move forward relative to the tube? (You may assume that no
other particles are produced and that relativistic corrections are small. What is the velocity of the
krypton atom relative to the containing tube? (Kr = 95.0, Ba = 140, U = 235u)

before after

Solution
Vu VBA Vkr
Momentum equation

muuu = mBa vBa – mkr vkr

235  5  105 = 140VBa – 95Vkr (i)

Velocity of krypton relative to barium is

Vkr -(-VBa) = Vkr + VBa or Vkr + VBa = 2.35  106 (ii)

vBa = 1.45  106ms-1 and Vkr = 0.9  106ms-1

Example 3.11

A 5.0kg object travelling at 1.0ms-1 collides head on with a 10.0kg object initially at rest.
Determine the velocity of each object after the impact if the collision is elastic.

Solution

For perfect elastic collision, both momentum and energy are conserved momentum equation:
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1v1 + m2v2

(5  1) + (10  10) = 5v1 + 10v2

1 = v1 + 2v2 (i)
Kinetic energy equation: ½ m1u12 + ½ m2u22 = ½ m1v12 + ½ m2v22

½  5(1)2 + 0 = ½  5  v12 + ½  10  V22

1 = v12 + 2v22 (ii)

From equation (i) v1 = 1 – 2v2

Substituting this in equation (ii)

1 = (1 – 2v2)2 + 2v22

2
v2 (3v2 – 2) = 0 v2 = 0, or v2 =
3

v2 = 0 implies that m1 did not collide with m2,

2
Hence, it is still stationary. The admissible answer therefore is v2 = ms-1
3

To obtain v1, substitute back : v1 = 1 – 2v2 = 1 – 2  2 

 3

Therefore v1 = - ⅓ ms-1

Negative implies that m1 moves back after impact.

3.5.1 Elastic Collision in two Dimensions

Now let us consider what happens when a body (projectile) is projected at another body
(target) at rest. This is illustrated in Fig. shown below. The projectile m1 moves with u1 and
makes angle 1 with its initial direction after collision with m2 initially at rest, moves with
velocity v2 and makes angle 2 with the initial direction of the incident particle. From
conservation of momentum we have ; m1u1 = m1v1 + m2v2 (i)

m2 v2
 m1 u1 m2 u2 = 0

m1 v1

This is a vector equation and could be written in component form as;

horizontal complement; m1u1 = m1v1 cos 1 + m2v2 cos 2

vertical component; 0 = m2v2 sin 2 – m1v1 sin 1

If the collision is elastic, kinetic energy is conserved, thus,

½ m1u12 = ½ m1v12 + ½ m2v22 (ii)

The solution of the problem lies in the correct handling of equations (i) and (ii)

Example 3.12

A billiard ball moving at 5ms-1 strikes a stationary ball of the same mass. After collision the
original ball moves off with a velocity of 3ms-1 at angle 30 to be original line of motion. If we
assume elastic collision and disregard frictional forces, find the magnitude and direction of the
velocity of the target ball after the collision.

Solution

Horizontally,

(m  5) + 0 = (m  3 cos 30) + m  v cos 

5 – 2.60 = V cos 

 V cos  = 2.4 (i)

Vertically,

0 + 0 = m  3 sin 30 – m  v sin 
v sin  = 1.5 (ii)

Dividing equation (i) by (ii) yields

tan  = 1.5
2.4
= 0.625 or  = tan-1(0.625) = 32.0

Squaring equations (i) and (ii) and adding

v2 (Cos2 + Sin2) = 2.42 + 1.52

v= 8.01 = 2.83ms-1
Summary of study session 3
a) Dynamics is the second part of mechanics in physics that studies the motion of bodies and
the cause of the motion. Dynamics studies the force that causes a body at rest or uniform
motion, change its instantaneous velocity and therefore accelerate or decelerate as the case
may be.
b) A force is any influence which tends to change the motion of an object. In other words, a
force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity which at first may be at rest or
moving with constant velocity to accelerate.
c) First law of motion: A body will continue in a state of rest or constant velocity unless an
external force acts upon it.
Second law of motion: The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the
force applied, and the momentum change is in the direction of the applied force.

Newton’s third law of motion: To every action there is equal and opposite re-action.

d) The force of attraction (gravitation) between two bodies in the universe is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their
distance apart and the direction of this force is along the line connecting the center of the
two bodies
Fg α m1 × m2
r2
Fg = G m1 × m2
r2
Where Fg = force of gravitation or attraction between bodies.
G = gravitational constant = 6.67384 × 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2
m1= mass of first body
m2= mass of second body
r = distance between bodies
r2= square of distance between bodies
e) Work is a phenomenon that is done when a force moves through a distance. So when a
force acts on a body and causing it to change its position we say work has been done.
f) The energy of an object or a body is the ability or capacity of the object to do work. This
energy is measured in terms of the work that can be done, this makes Energy and Work
have the same S.I units the Joule (J)
Mechanical Energy possessed by a physical body is in two forms

 Potential Energy
 Kinetic Energy

g) Potential energy of a body may be due to

i. The position of a body in terms of height relative to the earth’s surface.
ii. The elastic nature of an object
iii. The chemical composition of a substance
h) Power is the time rate at which energy is used or the rate at which work is done. It can
easily be calculated by dividing work done by time or multiplying force by velocity in
mechanical processes.
i) Friction is a resistive force which acts at the surface of separation of two bodies in contact
and tends to oppose the motion of one over the other.
j) The momentum (P) of a body is the product of the mass (m) of the body and its velocity
(v). The momentum (P) of a body of mass m (kg) and velocity V (ms-1) is given as: P = m
v (kgms-1)
k) Impulse is defined as the product of the force and the time during which it acts, provided
the force is constant. That is, it depends on the force and the time during which it acts.
Pilot Answer 3.1
i. Newton’s first law of motion. (The law of inertia)
ii. Weight is the force of gravity pulling on an object, it is Vector Quantity while Mass is
the amount of matter contained in a body.
iii. Work is done when a force moves through a distance otherwise no work is done.
SAQs Self-Assessment Questions
Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved its
Learning Outcomes by answering these questions. You can check your answers with the Notes
on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Study Session.

1. Explain, concisely the concept of force.

2. What will be the rate of change of velocity with time of a soccer ball of mass 1.5kg
kicked by 6N force?
3. A football rolling on the floor meets a wall and stops. Which of Newton’s Law is at play?
4. Which law of motion is expressed as you hit a parked car with yours and both cars were
dented?
5. A force of 55N at an angle of 29o acts on wooden block of mass 11kg. What will be the
acceleration of the block, the direction of travel of the block; also what law of motion is
explains this whole instance?
6. An engineer is to design two space stations weighing 5 mega Newton each and both
stations must not collide as they orbit the earth. In your knowledge of The Universal law
of gravitation how can he avoid the chances of collision?
7. “The heavier objects are the greater the force of attraction between them, and the greater
the distance between them the lesser their attraction.” This statement is a rephrase of
which law in dynamics?
8. Calculate the force of gravity between two masses m1 = 45kg, m2 = 12kg, separated by a
distance of 4m. Take G= 6.673 84 x 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2.
9. A building labourer pulls a concrete slab with a force of 419N using a steel chain making
an angle 450 with the ground. She moved over a distance of 20m. What amount of work
has she done?
10. Calculate the energy dissipated per unit time by two rats exerting a total force of 6N to
pull a fried fish at a velocity of 0.5m/s across the room.
11. If the rats in question 2. Above spent 6s. Calculate their Energy.
12. State the laws of conservation discussed in this study session.