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2019-04-25

Singing In Catalan: A Lyric Diction Manual

Scott Terence Tripp Vidal
University of Miami, scott@brackentripp.com

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 UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI

SINGING IN CATALAN:
A LYRIC DICTION MANUAL

By

Scott Terence Tripp Vidal

A DOCTORAL ESSAY

Submitted to the Faculty

of the University of Miami
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts

Coral Gables, Florida

May 2019
 ©2019
Scott Terence Tripp Vidal
All Rights Reserved
 UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI

A doctoral essay submitted in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Musical Arts

SINGING IN CATALAN:
A LYRIC DICTION MANUAL

Scott Terence Tripp Vidal

Approved:

____________________________ ____________________________
Esther Jane Hardenbergh, Ed.D. Stephen Zdzinski, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of Music Professor of Music Education

____________________________ ____________________________
Robynne Redmon, M.M. Guillermo Prado, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of Music Dean of the Graduate School

____________________________
Jeffrey Buchman, M.M
Assistant Professor of Music
TRIPP VIDAL, SCOTT TERENCE (D.M.A., Vocal Pedagogy and Performance)
Singing in Catalan: (May 2019)
A Lyric Diction Manual

Abstract of a doctoral essay at the University of Miami.

Doctoral essay supervised by Associate Professor Esther Jane Hardenbergh.

No. of pages in text. (124)

This essay is a guide to Catalan lyric diction for American singers. An overview of the

background, grammar, phonetics and linguistic characteristics of the Catalan language

precedes a detailed guide to Catalan phonemes and their occurrence in the language, and

a comprehensive International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) transcription handbook. The

author offers repertoire suggestions for studio teachers suitable for student singers.

Finally, IPA translations and transcriptions of representative song texts are given.
A mi abuelo, Santiago Osvaldo Vidal Cuesta.

iii
 ACKKNOWLEDGEMENTS

During my time in Spain preparing this project, I received the assistance of

several generous people who offered me advice, reviewed my work, and helped provide

me with further professional connections. I am especially grateful to Miriam Arboix

Codina of the Escola Internacional d’Idiomes in Barcelona, who generously reviewed and

edited my work, to Patricia Caicedo, director of the Barcelona Festival of Song, who

coached me in the interpretation of Catalan repertoire, and to Ares Llop Naya of Cardiff

University, who has been an adviser, and who connected me with the Institut Ramon

Llull. I also need to thank the wonderful people at the Institut Ramon Llull, who have

been very encouraging and supporting of this project, particularly Neus Crisol Milian.

I want to thank the members of my doctoral essay committee for their guidance,

support, and encouragement. Dr. Esther Jane Hardenbergh, the chair of my committee,

has been particularly generous with her time helping me to prepare this document, and

her support and encouragement have been invaluable.

Finally, I want to thank my wonderful husband Phillip for his valuable insights

and proof-reading, and his unwavering support.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... vii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... viii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1

Literature Review........................................................................................................ 4

Methodology ............................................................................................................... 8

Notes to the Reader ................................................................................................... 11

CHAPTER 2 BACKGROUND ....................................................................................... 12

History of the Catalan Language in Spain ................................................................ 15

CHAPTER 3 CATALAN LYRIC DICTION ................................................................... 17

Relationship to Castilian and Italian ......................................................................... 18

Essentials of Catalan Grammar and Orthography .................................................... 20

Catalan Sounds.......................................................................................................... 24

Syllabification and Word Stress................................................................................ 35

Vowel Reduction and Neutralization ........................................................................ 38

Adjacent Vowels ....................................................................................................... 38

Cluster Reduction...................................................................................................... 40

Coda Devoicing ........................................................................................................ 41

Assimilation .............................................................................................................. 42

Elision and Sinalefa .................................................................................................. 43

Phonetic Transcription Guide ................................................................................... 45

v
CHAPTER 4 REPERTOIRE ............................................................................................ 62

Catalan Style ............................................................................................................. 62

Enric Granados.......................................................................................................... 63

Eduard Toldrà ........................................................................................................... 64

Frederic Mompou...................................................................................................... 65

Enric Morera ............................................................................................................. 66

Joaquim Serra............................................................................................................ 67

Xavier Montsalvatge ................................................................................................. 68

Other Composers ...................................................................................................... 68

CHAPTER 5 TRANSLATIONS AND TRANSCRIPTIONS .......................................... 70

Eduard Toldrà ........................................................................................................... 70

Enric Morera ............................................................................................................. 84

Frederic Mompou...................................................................................................... 87

Joaquim Serra............................................................................................................ 96

Xavier Montsalvatge ............................................................................................... 100

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................... 108

Additional Resources for Singers ........................................................................... 109

Future Initiatives ..................................................................................................... 110

APPENDIX A TABLE OF SONGS ............................................................................... 112

APPENDIX B GLOSSARY OF TERMS....................................................................... 114

BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 120

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Location of Catalonia within Spain ....................................................................12

Figure 2. Geographic Distribution of Catalan Dialects .....................................................14

Figure 3. Catalan Vowels ...................................................................................................25

Figure 4. Elision .................................................................................................................44

Figure 5. Sinalefa ...............................................................................................................44

Figure 6. Elision .................................................................................................................45

vii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Phoneme Inventories – Catalan, Spanish and Italian ...........................................18

Table 2. Noun Morphology................................................................................................21

Table 3. Present Indicative Verb Conjugation ...................................................................21

Table 4. The Definite Articles ...........................................................................................22

Table 5. The Indefinite Articles .........................................................................................22

Table 6. Stressed Pronouns ................................................................................................22

Table 7. The Alphabet (L’alfabet) .....................................................................................23

Table 8. Vowel Reduction in Central Eastern Catalan ......................................................38

Table 9. Catalan Falling Diphthongs .................................................................................39

Table 10. Catalan Rising Diphthongs ................................................................................40

Table 11. Groups Commonly Affected by Cluster Reduction ...........................................41

Table 12. Catalan Letters and Their Corresponding Phonemes ........................................46

Table 13. Catalan Diagraphs and Their Corresponding Phonemes ...................................48

viii
 CHAPTER 1
Introduction

The art song repertoire of the Iberian Peninsula has historically enjoyed less

prominence than the repertoire of the English, German, Italian, and French languages.

This neglect should not be attributed to inferior quality. In Nico Castel’s A Singer’s

Manual of Spanish Lyric Diction, Castel laments Spanish vocal music’s status as “the

sadly forgotten repertoire,” and praises it as a “vast, beautifully noble and haunting

wealth” of material.1 Castel would be delighted to find that today, Spanish vocal

repertoire is growing in popularity in the United States, likely due to the increasing local

presence of the Spanish language.2 There is, however, a large subgroup of Spanish vocal

repertoire that is not benefitting from this phenomenon. Much of the repertoire of Spain’s

Catalonia region features texts in Catalan, the regional language of the Catalan

community, that is completely distinct from the Spanish language. This Catalan

repertoire is conspicuously missing from recitals, anthologies, and repertoire guides.

Carol Kimball’s very popular repertoire guide Song devotes an entire section to Spanish

art song including in-depth coverage of three of Catalonia’s most important composers,

but mentions only one Catalan-language song, and without making any mention of the

1. Nico Castel, A Singer's Manual of Spanish Lyric Diction (New York: Excalibur Pub, 1994), 5.

2. Carrie Delapp-Culver, "Repertoire with Results: Embracing Spanish Art Song." Journal of Singing 73,
no. 2 (2016): 159-68.

1
 2
language itself.3 Nico Castel’s Spanish diction manual covers Latin American

dialects and the Ladino language in addition to traditional Castilian Spanish but makes

only one fleeting reference to the Catalan language.4 There are no anthologies devoted to

Catalan repertoire, and almost no Catalan-language songs appear in easily accessible

collections in print in the United States. Furthermore, the repertoire guides that do discuss

the Catalan composers, including Carol Kimball’s Song,5 Suzanne Rhodes Draayer’s Art

Song Composers of Spain, and Jacqueline Cockburn’s The Spanish Song Companion do

not discuss the artistic and linguistic distinctiveness of the vast Catalan-language

repertoire.6 A reader of these volumes could be forgiven for believing that Catalan was a

dialect of Spanish, when it is in fact its own unique and distinct language. To the dismay

of Catalans who take great pride in their language and in their distinctive identity, culture,

and art, the repertoire is rarely considered separately from Spanish-language repertoire.7

The quality of Catalan-language repertoire is not in question. Catalan composers

are recognized prominently among Spain’s most important art song composers. Catalans

Xavier Montsalvatge, Frederic Mompou, and Eduard Toldrà are each among Spain’s

most celebrated composers, and the clear majority of each composer’s song output sets

3. Carol Kimball, Song: A Guide to Art Song Style and Literature. Revised ed. (Milwaukee: Hal Leonard
Corporation, 2006).

4. Nico Castel, A Singer’s Manual of Spanish Lyric Diction, 78.

5. Carol Kimball, Song.

6. Suzanne Rhodes Draayer, Art Song Composers of Spain: An Encyclopedia (Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow
Press, 2009); Jacqueline Cockburn, The Spanish Song Companion. Edited by Richard Stokes and Graham
Johnson (London: V. Gollancz, 1992).

7. Adam Kent, "The use of Catalan Folk Materials in the Works of Federico Mompou and Joaquín Nin-
Culmell." (1999), 36.
 3
Catalan-language texts.8 Their Spanish-language songs, however, are much better

represented in print and on the recital stage.

In a recent article in the Spanish journal Música Oral Del Sur, Nan-Maro

Babakhanian echoes Castel’s complaint about the underrepresentation of Spain song and

argues that the imbalance is due in part to relative lack of lyric diction resources for

Spanish.9 A far more serious lack of lyric diction resources is surely a significant barrier

to the interpretation of Catalan-language repertoire. In a recent Journal of Singing article,

Associate Editor Leslie De’Ath specifically mentioned Catalan as a language “especially

in need of essential lyric diction materials.”10 This doctoral essay begins to fill this

knowledge gap through an in-depth study of the pronunciation of the Catalan language.

This essay serves as a guide to Catalan lyric diction, providing detailed instruction

for the pronunciation of Catalan phonemes, along with rules for mapping their

orthographic spelling to phonetic transcription. A substantial portion of the essay will

provide International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) transcriptions of selected poems that have

been set by important Catalan composers. This comprehensive guide to Catalan diction

will serve as an essential resource for singers wishing to interpret this beautiful repertoire

and will break new ground in the field of vocal performance by opening the door to a vast

8. Suzanne Rhodes Draayer, Art Song Composers of Spain: An Encyclopedia.

9. Nan-Maro Babakhanian, "Art Song in Spanish: How can it Achieve its Place on the World Stage?"
Música Oral Del Sur: Revista Internacional, no. 11 (2014): 302-13.

10. Leslie De’Ath, "Linguistics and Lyric Diction - a Personal Retrospective and a Selective Glossary."
Journal of Singing 72, no. 4 (2016): 464.
 4
trove of literature that was previously inaccessible to non-Catalan-speaking singers and

teachers.

Recent similar projects including Anna Hersey’s Scandinavian Song and Timothy

Cheek’s Singing in Czech have led to a swell of interest in Swedish, Norwegian, Danish

and Czech repertoire.11 Through the eventual publication of a guide to Catalan diction

and repertoire, a similar surge of interest in the songs of Catalonia may be possible,

shining a well-deserved spotlight on the region’s rich art song culture.

Literature Review

There are no existing Catalan lyric diction resources designed for singers. This

essay draws primarily upon sources written from linguistics and phonology perspectives.

The Phonology of Catalan by Max Wheeler serves as the primary phonological resource

for this essay.12 Wheeler’s text is the only comprehensive English-language resource

available on Catalan phonology. It is an academic text in the field of phonology, and is

not a pronunciation guide. Five other books have also been particularly valuable

resources: Fonología Catalana,13 by Eulàlia Bonet Maria-Rosa Lloret, in Spanish,

11. Anna Hersey, Scandinavian Song: A Guide to Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish Repertoire and Diction
(Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2016); Timothy Cheek, Singing in Czech: A Guide to Czech
Lyric Diction and Vocal Repertoire (Lanham, Md. : Scarecrow Press, 2001).

12. Max Wheeler, The Phonology of Catalan Oxford; (New York : Oxford University Press, 2005).

13. M. Eulàlia Bonet i Alsina, and Maria Rosa Lloret Romanyach, Fonologia Catalana. (Barcelona:
Editorial Ariel, 1998.).
 5
Gramática Catalana,14 by Margarit Badia, also written in Spanish, Catalan Grammar,15

an English-language resource by Joan Gili, and Gramàtica de la llengua catalana and

Ortografia catalana, which are both authoratitive Catalan-language resources produced

by the Institut d’Estudis Catalans.16 Many other books and journal articles discuss

Catalan grammar, phonology, morphology, and orthography in more specific detail from

the perspective of a linguist. Several of these resources are valuable for consultation in

the IPA transcription of Catalan texts. These include Susann Fischer’s The Catalan Clitic

System,17 "Diftongs i Africats, Dues Qüestions Polèmiques de Fonologia Catalana”18 by

Joan Veny Clar, and Assumpció Rost Bagudanch’s "La Percepción De /ʎ/ y /j/ en Catalán

y en Español. Implicaciones en la Explicación el Yeísmo.”19 Alex Alsina’s Catalan, from

the Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages, is the primary source for chapter two,

which outlines the history and status of the Catalan language in Spain.20

14. Margarit Badia, Gramática Catalana (Madrid: Editorial Gredos, 1962).

15 .Joan Gili, Introductory Catalan Grammar : With a Brief Outline of the Language and Literature, a
Selection from Catalan Writers, and a Vocabulary, Second edition, (New York : Hafner Pub. Co, 1952).

16. Institut d’Estudis Catalans, Gramàtica de la llengua catalana (Barcelona: Institut d’Estudis Catalans,
2016), 473; Institut d’Estudis Catalans, Ortografia catalana (Barcelona: Institut d’Estudis Catalans, 2017),
87.

17. Susann Fischer, The Catalan Clitic System: A Diachronic Perspective on its Syntax and Phonology
(Berlin ; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2002).

18. Joan Veny Clar, "Diftongs i Africats, Dues Qüestions Polèmiques De Fonologia Catalana / Montserrat
Badia i Cardús," Revista De Psicologia, Ciències De l'Educació i De l'Esport Blanquerna, no. 8 (2001).

19. Assumpció Rost Bagudanch, "La Percepción De /ʎ/ y /j/ En Catalán y En Español. Implicaciones En La
Explicación Del Yeísmo; Perception of /ʎ/ and /j/ in Catalan and Spanish Implications on «yeísmo»
Explanation," Estudios De Fonética Experimental 25 (2016).

20. Alex Alsina, “Catalan.” Oxford, England: (Oxford, England: Oxford UP, 2016).
 6
Suzanne Rhodes-Draayer’s Art Song Composers of Spain: An Encyclopedia is an

invaluable resource in making repertoire suggestions for studio teachers .21 Draayer’s

encyclopedia is the most comprehensive guide to Spanish art song in print, and references

works in Castilian, Catalan, and other Spanish minority languages. She provides a

detailed list of songs, anthologies and collections in print, with their publication details,

in an appendix. Repertoire recommendations are made for studio teachers with attention

to availability and accessibility of the repertoire. Although there are no anthologies or

collections of Catalan-language repertoire, many of the Catalan-language works of

Xavier Montsalvatge, Eduard Toldrà, Frederic Mompou, Joaquin Nín, and Joaquin

Rodrigo are available individually in the United States. The works of Xavier

Montsalvatge are published by Peermusic, Inc. Many songs of Eduard Toldrà are

available in the United States through the Spanish publisher Tritó Ediciones. Some of the

songs of Frederic Mompou are available through Editions Durand. Joaquin Rodrigo’s

Cuatre cancons en llengua catalana22 is available through Schott Music, Inc., and the

works of Joaquin Nín are published by Editions Max Eschig. The Spanish song collection

The Singer's Anthology of 20th Century Spanish Songs included a few of the Catalan-

language songs of Frederic Mompou, but the volume is no longer available in print.23

21. Suzanne Rhodes Draayer, Art Song Composers of Spain: An Encyclopedia.

22. Joaquín Rodrigo, Cuatre Cançons En Llengua Catalana: Para Voz Y Orquesta (1935).

23. Josep Miquel Sobrer, Edmon Colomer, Enrique Granados, Manuel de Falla, and Federico Mompou,
The Singer's Anthology of 20th Century Spanish Songs, First ed. (New York : Pelion Press, 1987).
 7
One singer’s guide to Catalan pronunciation has been published in a doctoral

dissertation, but the guide is very narrow in scope, and the author acknowledges that it is

in no way comprehensive.24 The twelve-page guide provides only very brief descriptions

of each phoneme, oversimplifies principles of fusion and elision, and provides very few

rules for mapping orthographic spelling to phonetic transcription. Lynell Joy Kruckeberg

writes in an appendix to her dissertation on the songs of Frederic Mompou, “there are no

currently available Catalan diction guides. Of the Catalan pronunciation guides that are

available, they do not include IPA, an especially useful tool for singers. This appendix

serves as an introductory guide to Catalan pronunciation and IPA and is not a

comprehensive guide to understanding Catalan diction.”25

The Spanish Song Companion, by Jacqueline Cockburn and Richard Stokes

provides excellent translations of a small number of Catalan-language songs by Eduard

Toldrà and Frederic Mompou.26 Many English translations of the songs of Toldrà and

Mompou are also available through The LiederNet Archive.27

Several similar projects have been completed for the repertoire of other

underrepresented languages, including the Scandinavian languages, Czech, Polish, and

others. Some of the organizational aspects of this essay are modeled after those resources,

24. Lynell Joy Kruckeberg, Federico Mompou: A Style Analysis of Thirty-Five Songs (University of Iowa,
2012).

25. Ibid.

26. Jacqueline Cockburn, The Spanish Song Companion.

27. The LiederNet Archive, Emily Ezust, accessed April 8, 2018, http://www.lieder.net.
 8
including Timothy Cheek’s Singing in Czech,28 Anna Hersey’s Scandinavian Song,29 and

especially Hersey’s doctoral dissertation, “Swedish Art Song: A Singer’s Handbook to

Diction and Repertoire.”30

Methodology

In preparation of the lyric diction and IPA transcription guide, several resources

were consulted, including The Phonology of Catalan31, Fonología Catalana32, and other

linguistic resources mentioned in the preceding pages. Consultants for the lyric diction

guide and the IPA transcriptions are credited in the acknowledgements, and include

native Catalan linguists, professors, and language teachers certified by the Generalitat de

Catalunya and recommended by the Institut Ramon Llull, as well as several Catalan-

speaking classical singers, including soprano Patricia Caicedo, director of the Barcelona

Festival of Song. Organizationally, the guide is modeled after some of the recently

published lyric diction guides listed in the preceding pages.

The format of the IPA transcription guide is adapted in part from widely-used

Italian lyric diction guides, including David Adams’s A Handbook of Diction for

28. Timothy Cheek, Singing in Czech: A Guide to Czech Lyric Diction and Vocal Repertoire.

29. Anna Hersey, Scandinavian Song: A Guide to Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish Repertoire and
Diction.

30. Anna Hersey, Swedish Art Song : A Singer's Handbook to Diction and Repertoire (Coral Gables,
Florida: University of Miami, 2012).

31. Max Wheeler, The Phonology of Catalan

.
32. M. Eulàlia Bonet i Alsina, and Maria Rosa Lloret Romanyach, Fonologia Catalana.
 9
Singers33, and Joan Wall’s Diction for Singers34 and IPA for Singers.35 These resources

are appropriate models especially because of Catalan’s close relationship to Italian. In

terms of grammar and morphology, Catalan is more closely related to Italian and French

than it is to Spanish.36 In terms of phonology, Catalan also shares more with the Italian

language than it does with Spanish.37 The transcription method is designed specifically

for singers, assuming an American linguistic bias.

Catalan is a regional language spoken by seven million people, almost all of

whom live in Catalunya or in the adjacent Valencian Community.38 Given the language’s

isolated status and the fact that many singers may not be aware that the language exists at

all, this essay’s lyric diction guide is prefaced by a brief outline of the nature, history and

modern status of the Catalan language. The diction handbook itself begins with a

discussion of similarities and differences between Catalan and its much more familiar

cousins, Spanish and Italian, and with a basic overview of Catalan grammar. An

exhaustive list of each of the language’s phonemes follows, divided between vowels and

consonants. For each phoneme, examples are given along with rules for orthographic

spellings of that phoneme. Unique phonological phenomena that are relevant for singing

33. David Adams, A Handbook of Diction for Singers : Italian, German, French. Second ed. (2008).

34. Robert Caldwaell and Joan Wall, Diction for Singers: A Concise Reference for English, Italian, Latin,
German, French, and Spanish Pronunciation (1990).

35. Wall, Joan., and Robert Caldwell. International Phonetic Alphabet for Singers : A Manual for English
and Foreign Language Diction. (1989).

36. Alex Alsina, “Catalan.”

37. Ibid.

38. Ibid.
 10
are discussed in detail, including vowel reduction, cluster reduction, and coda voicing

neutralization. Chapter three concludes with a detailed comprehensive IPA transcription

guide.

There exists a significant amount of dialectical variance within Catalan. The

language is typically broadly classified into four varieties: North Catalan, Central Eastern

Catalan, Northwestern Catalan, and Valencian.39 The Central Eastern variety is

sometimes called Standard Catalan because of the prominent status of the city of

Barcelona, where the dialect is spoken.40 This is the dialect used in the IPA transcriptions

found in the Complete Works for Voice and Piano of Enric Granados that is published by

Tritò Edicions with the support of the Biblioteca de Catalunya, and also in Josep Miguel

Sobrer’s IPA transcriptions in The Singer’s Anthology of 20th Century Spanish Songs.41

For the purposes of this essay, only the Central Eastern, or Standard Catalan dialect will

be addressed.

The purpose of this essay is to bring a valuable but neglected body of repertoire

into the mainstream. This diction handbook makes Catalan-language repertoire accessible

to those who do not speak the language, but because the repertoire is not well known,

readers of this essay may not know where to begin. To this end, this essay includes a

short chapter with repertoire suggestions for singers and studio teachers. The essay does

39. Max Wheeler, The Phonology of Catalan.

40. Anna Poch Gasau and Alan Yates, Complete Catalan (London: John Murray Learning, 2016), xv.

41. Enric Granados, Obra Completa per a Veu i Piano, ed. Manuel Garcia Morante (Barcelona: Tritò
Edicions, 2007); Josep Miqel Sobrer, The Singer's Anthology of 20th Century Spanish Songs.
 11
not serve as a guide to the Catalan art song repertoire, and the repertoire suggestions

chapter is in no way comprehensive. Repertoire suggestions are based upon the musical

accessibility of the repertoire, and the availability of scores in the United States. To

maximize exposure, the suggested repertoire is suitable for both advanced and student

singers.

Notes to the Reader

The Spanish language will hereafter be referred to as Castilian to avoid confusion.

The word “Spanish” will be used an adjective in application to the Spanish nation as a

whole. Many Spaniards prefer the word for its specificity, as there are several distinct and

widely spoken “Spanish” languages.

References include both surnames for Spanish authors. All Spaniards carry two

surnames, the paternal name and the maternal name. The two surnames are presented

however they are listed in the source material: one immediately after the other or joined

with the conjunction y (i in Catalan).

This essay is the first resource of its kind for the Catalan language. It is therefore

necessarily exhaustive and technical in its examination of Catalan phonetic and

orthographic norms. Chapter three in particular may require prior knowledge in the

subject of lyric diction in order to be maximally useful to the reader. The essay lays the

groundwork for future projects that can directed towards a wider audience.
 CHAPTER 2
Background

Figure 1. Location of Catalonia within Spain

Catalan is the regional language of the northeast corner of Spain. Over 90% of the

Catalan-speaking population lives within the Spanish autonomous communities of

Catalonia and Valencia, whose capital cities, respectively Barcelona and Valencia, are

major cultural and economic centers within Spain.42 The language is also spoken natively

in parts of the Spanish autonomous community of Aragón, the Spanish Balearic Islands,

the French Département de Pyrénées-Orientales, in the nation of Andorra, and on the

Italian island of Sardinia.43 There exists a significant amount of dialectical variance

42. Max Wheeler, The Phonology of Catalan, 1.

43. Ibid, 1.
12
 13
between the various regions where Catalan is spoken, including within Catalonia itself. In

fact, many Valencians refer to their regional dialect as “Valencian,” conferring upon it

the status of a distinct tongue. The very high degree of mutual intelligibility between

dialects, including between Valencian and Eastern Central (Barcelona) Catalan, however,

firmly places them all within the Catalan language.44 The dialect spoken in Barcelona,

Central Eastern, has become the de facto standard Catalan.45 Eleven million people live

in the Catalan-speaking region, seven million of whom speak the language.46 It is a

romance language that is closely related to Castilian, but distinct from it, and should not

be mistaken for a dialect of the Castilian language.47 Catalan is more closely related to

the Occitan language of southern France than it is to the Castilian language.48 In terms of

number of speakers, Catalan ranks 22nd out of 36 European languages.49 This makes it the

most widely spoken of European minority languages.50 The Catalan language is

extraordinarily well-preserved and regulated, given its status as a minority language.51

The remarkable effort to preserve and protect the language is likely present due to the

44. Max Wheeler, The Phonology of Catalan, 1.

45. Anna Poch Gasau and Alan Yates, Complete Catalan, xv.

46. Alex Alsina, Catalan.

47. Rebecca Posner and Marius Sala, "Catalan Language." Britannica Online Academic Edition, 2018,
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

48. Gilbert Chase, The Music of Spain. ed. Albert T. Luper (New York: W. W. Norton and Company,
1941).

49. Anna Poch Gasau and Alan Yates, Complete Catalan, xi.

50. Ibid.

51. Alex Alsina, “Catalan.”

 14
language’s centrality in Catalan culture and identity. Catalans are a unique group,

because their Catalan identity is not predicated primarily upon religion, race, ethnicity, or

even necessarily upon geography, but rather is primarily rooted in language.52 Catalans

identify themselves and each other by their ability to speak their ancestral tongue. This

connection between language and identity is all the more important to Catalans after the

survival of their language was endangered by the Spanish cultural homogenization

policies of the dictator Francisco Franco.

Figure 2. Geographic Distribution of Catalan Dialects

52. Sue Wright, Language, Democracy, and Devolution in Catalonia. Clevedon, England: Multilingual
Matters, 1999. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost), EBSCOhost (accessed April 11, 2018), 9.
 15
History of the Catalan Language in Spain

The language’s earliest known written traces emerged in the 9th century, around

the same time that Castilian emerged in the written record.53 Through the seventeenth

century it was dominant in the region, being the exclusive language for both formal and

informal use.54 Around the turn of the seventeenth century the northern portion of

Catalonia was annexed by France, and the southern portion by Castile, resulting in the

subordination of Catalan to French and Castilian.55 This period marked the beginning of a

long history of suppression of the Catalan language, as both the Castilians and the French

imposed laws prohibiting the use of the language. For centuries, Catalan survived as the

lengua franca of the region, but remained repressed in formal communication. After the

victory of Francisco Franco at the end of the Spanish Civil War in 1939, the new dictator

imposed a policy of complete prohibition of regional languages in favor of Castilian as

part of his effort to culturally unify the Spanish nation. The Franco regime presided over

a particularly dark period in the history of the Catalan language, but as a result of this

tribulation, Catalan is now uniquely vibrant among European minority languages. In the

wake of the collapse of the regime, the Catalan regional government, with the

enthusiastic support of the public, imposed policies to promote the use of the language.

The Catalan language is now used in all areas of Catalan society, including government,

53. Alex Alsina, “Catalan.”

54. Ibid.

55. Ibid.
 16
education, and day-to-day life.56 The language is at the center of a remarkable story of

hard-fought cultural preservation. Michael Eaude’s Catalonia: A Cultural History is a

thorough English-language resource that can be consulted for more information on

Catalan history and culture. 57

56. Alex Alsina, “Catalan.”

57. Michael Eaude, Catalonia: A Cultural History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).
 CHAPTER 3
Catalan Lyric Diction

This handbook assumes basic familiarity with lyric diction for singers and with

the theory and terminology of phonetics. It assumes familiarity with the International

Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), the most universally employed system for phonetic

transcription. Phonetic transcription is a system for describing the individual sounds

(phonemes) that make up speech. The International Phonetic Alphabet uses a one-to-one

character mapping system in which one symbol corresponds to one specific phoneme.

The universal nature of IPA allows it to be employed across many different languages,

making it an ideal system for singers who must be proficient in several different

languages. Most students in university vocal studies programs become well-acquainted

with basic phonetic concepts and with IPA during the standard rotation of lyric diction

courses for the Italian, German, French, and English languages.

This handbook assumes some familiarity with Italian and Castilian diction. The

Italian and Castilian languages are closely related to Catalan, and most American singers

have significant exposure to both. Italian diction is part of the standard curriculum in

most university vocal studies programs. Castilian diction is not taught formally in most

programs, but most Americans experience significant exposure to Latin American

17
 18
varieties of the language, which is the second most widely spoken language in the United

States58 and the second most widely spoken native language in the world.59

Relationship to Castilian and Italian

Like both Castilian and Italian, Catalan belongs to the Western Romance language

family. Within the Western Romance family, some linguists have classified Catalan as an

Ibero-Romance language with Castilian and Portuguese, and others have called it a

Gallo-Romance language with French, or an Occitano-Romance language with Occitan

(or the Lengua d’Oc). Catalan, Castilian, and Italian all developed from Vulgar Latin

along similar timelines. Phonetically, Catalan is quite comparable to both Castilian and

Italian. The Catalan vowel inventory includes the same seven vowels found in Italian,

plus the schwa. The five vowel sounds found in Castilian are also shared with Catalan

and Italian. There is extensive overlap between the consonant inventories of the three

languages as well. The chart below lists all phonemes that occur in the three languages,

indicating which are shared between them.

Table 1. Phoneme Inventories – Catalan, Castilian and Italian

Phoneme Catalan Castilian Italian

[i] canvi salir finiti
[e] només legato
[ɛ] aquet nene presto

58. Elizabeth B. Welles, "Foreign Language Enrollments in United States Institutions of Higher Education,
Fall 2002." Profession, 2004, 128-53

59. Donald N. Tuten, Enrique Pato, and Ora R. Schwarzwald, “Spanish, Astur-Leonese, Navarro-
Aragonese, Judaeo-Spanish” (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016).
 19

[a] blanca blanca pasta

[ə] català
[ɔ] somni morte
[o] ploma oso volto
[u] músic uva lunga
[p] probe papel porto
[b] beca beso bocca
[t] tort tanto testa
[d] dona dolor diva
[k] diàleg casa canta
[g] gaire golpe guarda
[f] fora frio fato
[θ] plaza
[s] sucre rosa sento
[z] rosa mismo tesoro
[ʃ] això lascia
[ʒ] jubilat
[x] bajo
[ts] estats zitto
[dz] setze mezzo
[tʃ] vaig leche certo
[dʒ] platja gemma
[m] matí mesa amore
[n] nena tren nome
[ɲ] any niño sogno
[ŋ] tinc inglés bianco
[r] perquè ritmo cor
[ɾ] gaire caro mirare
 20

[l] cercle lavar alto

[ʎ] aquell figlio
[β] avui abuelo
[ð] perdre adiós
[ɣ] aigua hogar
[j] noia nadie fiamma
[w] claus suave uomo

Essentials of Catalan Grammar and Orthography

While a comprehensive understanding of the Catalan language’s grammar may

not be necessary to become proficient in the performance of Catalan repertoire, an

elementary understanding of the syntax, and especially morphology, will be helpful in the

context of lyric diction study. A basic understanding of verb morphology, for example, is

important for determining word stress. The word parlen, for instance, a conjugated form

of the verb parlar is a paroxytone (penultimate syllable stress), but the conjugation

parlem is an oxytone (final syllable stress). Both forms end with a vowel plus a nasal

consonant, but the stress is determined by the verb conjugation.

Catalan grammar is similar to the grammar of most other romance languages and

will feel familiar to anyone who has studied Italian, Castilian or French. While Catalan is

very similar to Castilian and Italian in its phonology and vocabulary, it is more similar to

French and Occitan in its morphology and syntax.60 Sentence order is variable, but

60. Alex Alsina, “Catalan.”

 21
generally follows the subject-verb-object order of most romance languages.61 Nouns are

inflected for gender and for number.62 Plural nouns are formed by adding an s to the

singular.63 Feminine nouns are marked by a final letter -a, or a final -es in the plural

forms. Uniquely, masculine nouns in Catalan lack any gender marker. As a result,

masculine plural nouns often end in consonant clusters that would sound quite unusual in

Castilian, Italian or French, such as in the masculine plural noun fills, seen below in

Table 2.

Table 2. Noun Morphology

masculine singular feminine singular masculine plural feminine plural
fill [ˈfiʎ] filla [ˈfi.ʎə] fills [ˈfiʎs] filla [ˈfi.ʎəs]

As in Castilian and Italian, verbs are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect,

and mood.64 There exist three different conjugations which are commonly distinguished

by their respective infinitive endings, -ar, -er (or -re), and -ir. Each conjugation has fifty

verb forms. Table 3 shows the present indicative conjugations of a regular -ar verb,

cantar (to sing), as an example. Third person forms are also used as second person formal

forms in Catalan.

Table 3. Present Indicative Verb Conjugation

1st person singular canto 1st person plural cantem
2nd person singular cantes 2nd person plural canteu
3rd person singular canta 3rd person plural canten

61. Institut d’Estudis Catalans, Gramàtica de la llengua catalana, 473.

62. Joan Gili, Catalan Grammar. (Oxford: The Dolphin Book Company, 1993), 28.

63. Ibid., 30.

64. Ibid., 55.

 22
Tables 4, 5, and 6 identify Catalan’s definite and indefinite articles and stressed

pronouns. Articles and pronouns can be recognized quickly by non-speakers, and their

identification can be helpful in understanding the structure and meaning of a sentence or

phrase. The singular definite articles are contracted when appearing before a vowel-initial

word. El home becomes l’home, and la alumna becomes l’alumna.

Table 4. The Definite Articles

Singular Plural
Masculine el noi (the boy) els nois (the boys)
Feminine la noia (the girl) les noies (the girls)

Table 5. The Indefinite Articles

Singular Plural
Masculine un noi (a boy) uns nois (some boys)
Feminine una noia (a girl) unes noies (some girls)

Table 6. Stressed Pronouns

Singular Plural
1st
person jo, mi nosaltres
2nd person informal tu vosaltres
2nd person formal vostè vostès
3rd person masculine ell ells
3rd person feminine ella elles

Catalan diacritical marks include the accent agut or acute accent ( ´ ), the accent

greu or grave accent ( ` ), and the dièresi or diaresis ( ¨ ).65 Accents always indicate word

stress, and over an e or an o also indicate the open or close quality of the vowel. The

accent greu appears over the letter a, and over the open e ([ε]) and open o ([ɔ]). The

65. Institut d’Estudis Catalans. Ortografia catalana, 87; Ibid., 101.

 23
accent agut appear over the letters i and u, and over the close e ([e]) and close o ([o]).

The dièresi appears over the letter u in the groups güe, güi, qüe, and qüi to indicate that u

should be pronounced as [w]. Without the dièresi, the u in such groups would not be

pronounced at all. It also appears over the letters ï and ü to indicate that they should not

form a diphthong with the previous vowel when they otherwise would do so. For

example, in the word creïble [krεˈiβ.le], the group ei would form a diphthong without the

dièresi.

The Catalan alphabet contains the 26 letters of the roman alphabet, with two

additional symbols, and several diagraphs.66

Table 7. The Alphabet (L’alfabet)

a a [ˈa] n ena [ˈe.nə]

b be alta [ˈbe ˈaɫ.tə] o o [ˈo]
c ce [ˈse] p pe [ˈpe]
d de [ˈde] q cu [ˈku]
e e [ˈe] r erra [ˈε.rə]
f efa [ˈefə] s essa [ˈe.sə]
g ge [ˈʒe] t te [ˈte]
h hac [ˈak] u u [ˈu]
i i [ˈi] v ve baixa [ˈbe ˈ βa.ʃə]
j jota [ˈʒɔ.tə] w ve doble [ˈbe ˈðob.lə]
k ca [ˈka] x xeix [ˈʃeʃ]
l ela [ˈe.ɫə] y i grega [ˈi ˈ ɣɾe.ɣə]
m ema [ˈe.mə] z zeta [ˈze.tə]

Though not considered letters of the alphabet, these two symbols have their own

names and unique pronunciations.

ç ce trencada [ˈse tɾəŋˈka.ðə]

l·l ela geminada [ˈe.ɫə ʒə.miˈna.ðə]

66. Max Wheeler, The Phonology of Catalan, 6.

 24
Catalan Sounds

In this section, each phoneme occurring in the Catalan language is listed and

described. Sounds that do not occur in Italian are given special attention. Examples of

each phoneme are given in both Catalan, and in another language, using English or Italian

examples whenever possible. Special notes or instructions are offered for phonemes that

may be less familiar to the reader. Rules describing the occurrence and orthography of

each phoneme and guidelines for IPA transcription are offered later in the chapter.

Vowels

Catalan has an inventory of eight vowels, with the same two open-close pairs that

are found in Italian, and with the schwa, which is found in neither Italian nor Castilian.

The seven vowel phonemes that are shared between Catalan and Italian are nearly

identical in quality. The quality of the schwa varies significantly across Catalonia, being

completely neutral in some areas, while in other areas it is pronounced as a nearly pure

[ε] or [a]. In the de facto standard central eastern dialect, the schwa is slightly brighter

than the completely neutral schwa found in German, for example. This slightly brighter

vowel is particularly well-suited to singing. The schwa will be transcribed here as [ə] due

to the consistent use of that symbol in the literature, but the author recommends using a

slightly brighter phoneme, similar to the [ɐ] found in Portuguese. Native English speakers

should take care to ensure vowels are pure, especially [e] and [o], which are often

mistakenly pronounced as diphthongs by English speakers. Figure 3 places the eight

Catalan vowel phonemes on a standard vowel chart, where vertical position represents

vowel closeness, and horizontal position represents vowel position (front or back).
 25
Figure 3. Catalan Vowels

[i]
Description: High front vowel; as found in Italian or Castilian.

Catalan example: mirar [miˈɾa] Italian example: di [ˈdi]

[e]

Description: Close mid-front vowel; as found in Italian or French.

Catalan example: teva [ˈte.βə] Italian example: stella [ˈstelː.la]

[ε]

Description: Open mid-front vowel; as found in Italian or Castilian.

Catalan example: terra [ˈtε.rə] Italian example: diletto [diˈlεtː.to]

[a]
Description: Open front vowel; as found in Italian or Castilian.

Catalan example: girar [ʒiˈɾa] Italian example: caro [ˈka.ɾo]

 26

[ə]
Description: Mid-central vowel; as found in German or English.

Catalan example: accent [əkˈsen] English example: element [ˈε.lə.mənt]

Note: For singing, the author recommends using a slighter brighter phoneme similar to
the [ɐ] found in Portuguese.

[ɔ]
Description: Open, mid-back vowel; as found in Italian or English.

Catalan example: dona [ˈdɔ.nə] Italian example: opera [ˈɔ.pe.ɾa]

[o]
Description: Close, mid-back vowel; as found in Italian or Castilian.

Catalan example: tardor [tərˈdo] Italian example: sono [ˈso.no]

[u]
Description: High back vowel; as found in Italian or Castilian.

Catalan example: música [ˈmu.zi.kə] Italian example: tua [ˈtu.a]

Consonants

Most consonant sounds in Catalan will be familiar to most singers, as the

phoneme inventories of Catalan and Italian are very similar. Native English speakers will

need to be careful of overly aspirate plosive consonants. Special notes and instructions

are offered here for sounds that are not shared with Italian. The velarized [l] and [ɫ] may

present a special challenge to English speaking singers who have worked to eliminate the

“back,” velar l from their singing. [ð] is a familiar sound to English speakers, but its use
 27
in the context of a romance language is unfamiliar for most singers. The [s] phoneme in

Catalan differs slightly from its Italian counterpart, being less sibilant, with a slightly

retracted tongue. The approximates [β] and [ɣ] may be particularly difficult for singers

who are not familiar with Castilian.

Each phoneme is described below using phonetic terminology that identifies the

point and manner of articulation. Consonants are classified by manner of articulation as

plosives, stops, fricatives, sibilants, affricates, nasals, and approximants. Plosive

consonants are produced when the vocal tract blocks airflow completely, and then

releases air in a sudden burst. Stops are similar to plosives, but once airflow is stopped, it

is not then released in a burst. Fricative consonants are the result of a partially occluded

vocal tract that impedes but does not completely block airflow. Affricate consonants

begin as a stop but release as a fricative. Nasal consonants block airflow through the oral

cavity while allowing air to flow freely through the nose. Approximants are the result of

articulators approaching each other without coming into contact, and without resulting in

the turbulent airflow characteristic of fricatives. Consonants are further classified by

place of articulation (labial, dental, velar, palatal, etc.).67 A voiceless bilabial plosive, for

example, is articulated with the lips closing completely, and then allowing air to escape in

a sudden burst, without phonation.

67. P. H. Matthews, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics, Third ed. (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2014).
 28

[p]
Description: Voiceless bilabial plosive.

Catalan example: pelegrí [pə.ɫəˈɣɾi] Italian example: piano [ˈpja.no]

[b]
Description: Voiced bilabial plosive.

Catalan example: besar [beˈza] Italian example: bacio [ˈba.tʃo]

[t]
Description: Voiceless dental plosive.

Catalan Example: tardor [tarˈðo] Italian example: timore [tiˈmo.ɾe]

Notes: In Catalan, Italian and Castilian, the voiced and voiceless dental plosives are not
aspirate, as they are in English.

[t̪]
Description: Voiceless alveolar stop.

Catalan example: suavitat [swə.βiˈtat̪ ] English (informal) approximation: set [ˈsεt̪ ]

Notes: Catalan is unique among the romance languages for its large inventory of words
that terminate with plosive consonants.68 The Italian and Castilian vocabularies largely
lack words terminating with the letter t¸ for example, except in the case of words of
foreign origin. When found in word-final position the voiced and voiceless dental
plosives are converted to stops and are articulated further back along the alveolar ridge.

68. Josep Miquel Sobrer, The Singer's Anthology of 20th Century Spanish Songs, 16.
 29

[d]
Description: Voiced dental plosive.

Catalan example: dona [ˈdɔ.nə] Italian Example: diva [ˈdi.va]

Note: In Catalan, Italian and Castilian, the voiced and voiceless dental plosives are not
aspirate, as they are in English.

[d̪]
Description: Voiced alveolar stop.

Catalan example: vuit nens [ˈbujd̪ ˈnεnz] English (informal) approximate: red [ˈɹεd̪]

Notes: When found in word-final position the voiced and voiceless dental plosives are
converted to stops and are articulated further back along the alveolar ridge.

[k]
Description: Voiceless velar plosive.

Catalan example: cosa [ˈko.zə] Italian example: [ˈka.ɾo]

[g]
Description: Voiced velar plosive.

Catalan example: gaire [ˈgaj.ɾə] Italian example: guarda[ˈgwar.da]

[f]
Description: Voiceless labiodental fricative.

Catalan example: fora [ˈfɔ. ɾə] Italian example: fato [ˈfa.to]

[v]
Description: Voiced labiodental fricative.

Catalan example: fotògraf de flors [fuˈtɔ.ɣɾəv ðə ˈflɔs] Italian example: voce [ˈvo.tʃe]
 30
Notes: This sound occurs very infrequently in Central Eastern Catalan. It occurs only
when the phoneme [f] is converted to [v] as a result of assimilation, as in the example
above. The phenomenon of assimilation is covered in detail later in this chapter. The
letter v itself usually represents [b] or [β].

[ð]
Description: Voiced interdental fricative.

Catalan example: perdre [ˈperð.ɾə] English example: though [ˈðow]

Note: Most singers will not be accustomed to using this phoneme in the context of a
romance language. Use of the phoneme [d] in place of [ð] is one of the most common
mistakes made by English speaking singers in Castilian and Catalan.

[s̠ ]
Description: Voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant.

Catalan example: plaça [ˈpla.s̠ ə] Italian approximate: cassa [ˈkasː.sa]

Notes: The voiceless and voiced alveolar retracted sibilants can also be called apico-
alveolar fricatives, as apical consonants are articulated with the tip of the tongue.69 Their
closest relatives in English, Italian, or Castilian are the voiceless and voiced alveolar
sibilants. For specificity, this phoneme is represented here as [s̠ ], to differentiate it from
the familiar [s], though in most Catalan language resources, only the symbol [s] is used.
Only the retracted varieties of the alveolar sibilants occur in Central Eastern Catalan. This
sound is produced with the tongue slightly retracted with the very tip of the tongue
against the alveolar ridge, and results in a more pronounced “hissing” or “whistling”
sound. The same sound occurs in Castilian Spanish.

69. Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics, Third ed., s.v. “apical.”

 31

[z̠]
Description: Voiced alveolar retracted sibilant.

Catalan example: cosa [ˈko.z̠ə] Italian approximate: smanie [ˈzman.je]

Notes: For specificity, this phoneme is represented here as [z̠] to differentiate it from the
familiar [z], though in most Catalan language resources, only the symbol [z] is used. It is
the voiced counterpart to the voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant, described above.

[ʃ]
Description: Voiceless palato-alveolar fricative.

Catalan example: xarxa [ˈʃar.ʃə] Italian example: scena [ˈʃe.na]

[ʒ]
Description: Voiced palato-alveolar fricative.

Catalan example: gelat [ʒəˈɫat̪ ] English example: vision [ˈvɪ.ʒən]

[pf]
Description: Voiceless labiodental affricate.

Catalan example: s̠ ap fer [saˈpfe] English example: capful [ˈkæ.pfʊʟ]

[ts̠ ]

Description: Voiceless alveolar affricate.

Catalan example: potser [putˈs̠ e] Italian example: nozze [ˈnɔtːtse]

[dz̠]

Description: Voiced alveolar affricate.

Catalan example: dotze [ˈdod.z̠ə] Italian example: mezzo [ˈmεdːdzo]

 32

[tʃ]

Description: Voiceless palato-alveolar affricate.

Catalan Example: mig [ˈmitʃ] Italian Example: certo [ˈtʃεr.to]

[dʒ]

Description: Voiced palato-alveolar affricate.

Catalan Example: platje [ˈpla.dʒə] Italian Example: gemma [ˈdʒεmːma]

[m]
Description: Voiced bilabial nasal.

Catalan example: mare [ˈma.ɾə] Italian example: amore [aˈmo.ɾe]

[ɱ]
Description: Voiced labiodental nasal.

Catalan example: confiar [kuɱˈfja] Italian example: invece [iɱˈve.tʃe]

Notes: The phoneme [m] is often assimilated to [ɱ] when followed by a labiodental
consonant. This assimilation is intuitive for romance language speakers and occurs in
many other familiar languages, including Italian and Castilian. The phonemes [m] and
[ɱ] are similar enough to be considered allophones. The labiodental [ɱ] differs only
slightly from [m] in that the lower lip is drawn inward to make contact with the front
teeth.

[n]
Description: Voiced alveolar nasal.

Catalan Example: pont ˈ [pɔn] Italian Example: nome [ˈno.me]

 33

[n̪]
Description: Voiced dental nasal.

Catalan Example: menjar [mən̪ˈʒa] Italian Example: cantare [kan̪ˈta.ɾe]

Notes: In English, Castilian, Italian, Catalan, and many other languages, the voiced
alveolar nasal [n] assimilates to its dental allophone counterpart when it is followed by a
dental consonant. This assimilation is intuitive for speakers of any of the aforementioned
languages.

[ɲ]
Description: Voiced palatal nasal.

Catalan Example: any [ˈaɲ] Italian Example: degno [ˈde.ɲo]

[ŋ]
Description: Voiced velar nasal.

Catalan Example: blanc [ˈblaŋ] Italian Example: bianco [ˈbjaŋ.ko]

[l]
Description: Voiced alveolar lateral approximant.

Catalan example: delta [ˈdεl.tə] Italian approximate: fedele [feˈde.le]

Note: All lateral approximants in Catalan are somewhat velarized, taking on a “back”
quality like the final l in informal English, as in the word “call.” The degree of
velarization depends on context, being most velar before a back vowel or other velar
consonant or when in word-final position, and least velar before a front vowel or dental
consonant.70 Here, [l] will be used for the less velar variant, and [ɫ] for the more velar
variant.

70
Josep Anton Castellanos i Vila, Manual de pronunciació, (Vic, Catalonia.: Eumo Editorial, 2004), 132.
 34

[ɫ]
Description: Velarized voiced alveolar lateral approximant.

Catalan Example: àlgid [ˈaɫ.ʒit̪ ] English (informal) approximate: call [ˈkɑʟ]

Note: See [l] above.

[ʎ]
Description: Voiced palatal lateral approximant.

Catalan Example: ulleres [uˈʎe.ɾəs] Italian Example: figlio [ˈfi.ʎo]

[r]
Description: Voiced alveolar trill.

Catalan Example: ruc [ˈruk] Italian Example: rosa [ˈrɔ.za]

Notes: This is the phoneme often referred to as the “rolled r.”

[ɾ]
Description: Voiced alveolar tap.

Catalan Example: ara [ˈa.ɾə] Italian Example: fiore [ˈfjo.ɾe]

Notes: This is the phoneme often referred to as the “flipped r.”

[β]
Description: Voiced bilabial approximant.

Catalan Example: avui [əˈβuj] Castilian Example: haber [aˈβɛr]

Notes: The bilabial approximant will be an unfamiliar sound for most readers. It does not
occur in any of the major “opera languages.” The phoneme does occur in Castilian. An
approximant is a phoneme in which the articulators approach each other without coming
 35
into contact, and without resulting in the turbulent airflow characteristic of fricatives.71
The bilabial approximant is articulated in the same place as the bilabial nasal [m] and
bilabial plosive [b], but with continuous, free airflow.

[ɣ]
Description: Voiced velar approximant.

Catalan Example: aigua [ˈaj.ɣwə] Castilian Example: agua [ˈa.ɣwa]

Notes: The velar approximant will be an unfamiliar sound for most readers. It does not
occur in any of the major “opera languages.” The phoneme does occur in Castilian. The
velar approximant is articulated in the same place as the velar plosive [g], but with
continuous, free airflow.

[j]
Description: Voice palatal approximant.

Catalan Example: noia [ˈnɔj.ə] Italian Example: fiamma [ˈfjamːma]

[w]
Description: Voiced labiovelar approximant.

Catalan Example: quant [ˈkwan] Italian Example: quanto [ˈkwan.to]

Syllabification and Word Stress

Syllabification in Catalan is similar to Italian and Castilian. As in Italian, words

are divided so that syllables begin with consonants whenever possible.72 The affricates

71. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics, Third ed., s.v. “approximant.”
72. Joan Wall, Diction for Singers: A Concise Reference for English, Italian, Latin, German, French, and
Spanish Pronunciation, 40.
 36
[pf], [dz̠], and [ts̠ ] should be separated for syllabification. The affricates [tʃ] and [dʒ]

should not be separated. When followed by a vowel, the groups bl, br, cl, cr, dr, fl, fr, gl,

gr, pl, pr, and tr should not be separated.73 All other consonant groups should be divided

so that that last consonant phoneme in the group is the start of the next syllable. The ela

geminada (l·l) is a double consonant sound and should always be divided as [ɫ.ɫ].

Compound words like celobert (cel-obert) should be divided between their component

words.

Diacritical marks appear often in Catalan orthography, and many Catalan words

feature vowels with an accent obert ( ` ) or an accent tancat ( ´ ). In all cases, the

syllable with the accent is the stressed syllable. As in many other languages, accents

supersede all other word-stress norms.

As a general rule, Catalan words that end in single vowel sounds or rising

diphthongs are paroxytones. A paroxytone is a word with penultimate syllable stress.

anada [əˈna.ðə] porta [ˈpɔr.tə] aquesta [əˈkεs̠ .tə] continua [kunˈtin.wə]

Words that terminate with a vowel plus -s or with -en or -in are also paroxytones.

cossos [ˈkɔ.s̠ us̠ ] marxen [ˈmar.ʃən] penses [ˈpεn.s̠ əs̠ ] diuen [ˈdi.wən]

73. Institut d’Estudis Catalans, Ortografia catalana, 100.

 37
In most other cases, words ending with consonant letters will be oxytones, or words with

final-syllable stress.

incertitud [in.s̠ ər.tiˈtut̪ ] claror [kɫaˈɾo] infinit [iɱ.fiˈnit̪ ] ciutat [s̠ iwˈtat̪ ]

Most words ending in falling diphthongs are oxytones, with final-syllable stress.

estiu [əs̠ ˈtiw] avui [əˈβuj] espai [əs̠ ˈpaj] parleu [pərˈɫεw]

In compound words, each component word retains its stress, resulting in a primary stress

and a secondary stress. The primary stress usually belongs to the second component

word. Vowel reduction does not affect syllables with secondary stress.

benvingut [ˌbem.biŋˈgut̪ ] enhorabona [əˌnɔ.ɾəˈβɔ.nə]

Adverbs ending in -ment are treated as compound words, with primary accent on the final

syllable, but with the root word retaining its stress as secondary. This rule applies only to

adverbs. Not all words ending with -ment are adverbs. There is only one stressed syllable

in the noun argument, for example, but two in each of the adverb examples below.

malament [ˌma.ɫəˈmen] alternadament [əl.tərˌna.ðəˈmen]

 38
Vowel Reduction and Neutralization

Vowel reduction is the closing or modification of vowels in unstressed syllables.74

In Catalan’s eight-vowel system, vowel reduction means that some vowel sounds can

occur only in stressed syllables, and a smaller inventory of distinct vowels occur in

unstressed syllables. Patterns of vowel reduction vary considerably from region to region

in Catalonia. The de facto standard Central Eastern Catalan displays the most extreme

pattern of vowel reduction, allowing only three distinct vowel sounds in unstressed

syllables, [i], [u], and [ə].75 All other vowels will reduce to one of these three when

occuring in unstressed syllables. Except in the case of diphthongs, each vowel letter in an

unstressed syllable can result in only one vowel sound, as shown in Table 8.

Table 8. Vowel Reduction in Central Eastern Catalan

a → [ə] e → [ə] i → [i] o → [u] u → [u]
xalet ulleres mirar brogit suggerir
[ʃəˈɫεt̪ ] [uˈʎe.ɾəs̠ ] [miˈɾa] [bɾuˈʒit̪ ] [s̠ u.dʒəˈɾi]

Adjacent Vowels

Adjacent vowel letters in Catalan can result in falling diphthongs, rising

diphthongs, or simply in two syllables. A falling diphthong is a morpheme consisting of a

vowel followed in the same syllable by a semivowel, as in [aj]. Falling diphthongs are

common in Catalan, occurring whenever any vowel letter is followed by i or u. Table 8

74. Max Wheeler, The Phonology of Catalan, 52.

75. Ibid., 54.

 39
lists all the possible vowel letter combinations that can result in falling diphthongs. Most

of these morphemes are also found in Castilian and Italian, with two exceptions. In

Castilian and Italian, the groups iu and ui will produce rising, not falling diphthongs, in

which the first vowel letter is pronounced as a semivowel. In Catalan, however, iu and ui

are almost always pronounced as falling diphthongs, with the first vowel being

emphasized. Mispronouncing these two combinations is a common mistake made by

those familiar with other romance languages. The word cuina should be pronounced

[ˈkuj.nə], and not [ˈkwi.nə]. The word ciutat should be pronounced [siwˈtat̪ ] and not

[sjuˈtat̪ ]. When the letters i or u fall between two other vowels, they form a falling

diphthong with the preceding vowel. For example, noia would be transcribed [ˈnoj.ə].

Table 9. Catalan Falling Diphthongs

ai au ei eu iu oi ou ui
[aj] [aw] [ej] [ew] [iw] [ɔj] [ɔw] [uj]

A rising diphthong (sometimes called a glide) is morpheme consisting of a

semivowel followed by a vowel, as in [ja]. Rising diphthongs are far less predictable than

falling diphthongs in Catalan. Rising diphthongs are formed when the letters i or u are

followed by another vowel, but such combinations do not always result in rising

diphthongs. With exceptions, the letters i and u plus another vowel will form rising

diphthongs when the group is post-tonic (after the primary stressed syllable), when the

group is word-initial, or when the i or u precedes a vowel with a diacritical mark.76 In the

word continua, for example, the group ua is post-tonic, so the word should be transcribed

76. Antoni M. Badia i Margarit, Gramàtica de la llengua Catalana. (Barcelona: Índice, S.L., 1995), 87.
 40
[kunˈtin.wə], with a rising diphthong. In the word iode, the group io is word-initial, so

forms a diphthong. In the word pretensió, the letter i is followed by a vowel with a

diacritical mark, so the group ió can be transcribed [jo]. In most other cases when i or u

precedes another vowel, no diphthong will be formed, and the two vowel letters will

result in two syllables. The word anunciar, for example would be transcribed [ə.nun.siˈa]

in Catalan, and should be pronounced with four syllables, not three. A consistent

exception to these rules is qu + vowel or gu + vowel. These combinations will always

result in rising diphthongs, for example in the single-syllable word quan and the two-

syllable word igual.

Table 10. Catalan Rising Diphthongs

ia ie io iu ua ue wo wu
[ja] [je] [jo] [ju] [wa] [we] [wo] [wu]

The rules for diphthongs can be complex, and there exist many exceptions.

Fortunately for singers, composers provide instructions for syllabification in the context

of rhythmic text setting. The singer needs only to determine for herself whether a

diphthong is rising or falling.

Cluster Reduction

Cluster reduction, also known as cluster simplification, is the deletion of one or

more consonants in a cluster to reduce the complexity of the cluster. With some

exceptions, Catalan features a particular type of cluster reduction known as coda

homorganic stop deletion.77 This is to say that in Catalan, words ending with consonant

77. Max Wheeler, The Phonology of Catalan. 220.

 41
clusters that include a stop or plosive and at least one other consonant that is articulated

in the same place (dental, alveolar, velar, etc.), the stop or plosive is deleted. The word

pont, for example, without cluster reduction, would terminate with a voiced alveolar

nasal followed by a voiceless alveolar stop. Because there is more than one alveolar

consonant in the cluster, the alveolar stop is deleted, leaving [ˈpɔn]. In the plural form of

the same word (ponts), homorganic stop deletion deletes has the same affect, resulting in

[ˈpɔns]. Cluster reduction most often affects the final consonant clusters shown in Table

11.

Table 11. Groups Commonly Affected by Cluster Reduction

[mp] [nt] [lt] [rt] [st] [nk] [ng]

camp ponts molt parts gust cranc sang
[kam] [pɔns] [mɔɫ] [paɾs] [gus] [kraŋ] [saŋ]
With some exceptions, cluster reduction will not take place when a final stop is

followed by a vowel in the same phrase. For example, the word vint alone should be

pronounced [ˈbin], but vint anys (twenty years) should be pronounced [ˈbint aɲs]. A

similar phenomenon is found in lyric French diction.

Coda Devoicing

In Catalan, like in German, voiced stops, plosives and affricates are devoiced

when word-final.

esnob fred cardiòleg desig

[əz̠ˈnɔp] [ˈfɾεt̪ ] [kəɾˈðjɔ.ɫək] [dəˈz̠itʃ]

 42
Assimilation

Assimilation is a phenomenon whereby the quality of a phoneme will be altered to

match the quality of an adjacent phoneme.78 In Catalan, obstruents in coda position

consonant clusters (at the end of a syllable) will assimilate to match the voiced or

voiceless quality of the following phoneme.79 The obstruent category includes plosives,

stops, fricatives (including sibilants), and affricates.80 For example, the voiced plosives

[b] and [d] will assimilate to [p] and [t] when followed in a cluster by a voiceless

consonant. The reverse phenomenon occurs when [p] or [t] is followed by a voiced

consonant.

dubte adscriure hipnosi futbol

[ˈdup.tə] [ətˈs̠ kɾiw.ɾə] [ibˈnɔ.z̠i] [ˈfud.bjɔɫ]

Assimilation also commonly affects the letter s. When adjacent to another

consonant, it will produce either the voiced [z̠] phoneme or the voiceless [s̠ ] phoneme

depending upon the voiced or voiceless quality of the adjacent consonant. In this

instance, assimilation occurs both when the other consonant follows the letter s and when

it precedes the letter s.

ansar esnob
[ənˈz̠a] [əz̠ˈnɔp]

78. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics, s.v. “Assimilation (1).”

79. Max Wheeler, The Phonology of Catalan. 145.

80. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics, s.v. “Obstruent.”

 43
Assimilation can also refer to assimilation of the consonants [m] and [n] to the

same place of articulation as the following consonant. Both the bilabial nasal [m] and the

alveolar nasal [n] will assimilate to a labiodental articulation [ɱ] when followed by the

labiodental consonant [f]. The alveolar nasal [n] will assimilate to bilabial articulation

[m] when followed by a bilabial consonant such as [b].

un bes canvi infeliç

[um ˈbεs̠ ] [ˈkam.bi] [iɱ.fəˈɫis̠ ]

The letter c when pronounced as [s̠ ] is a common exception to assimilation rules.

When a c that would be pronounced as [s̠ ] is preceded immediately by a voiced

consonant, the [s̠ ] retains its voiced or voiceless quality. For example, the word cims is

pronounced [ˈs̠ imz̠] even when it is preceeded by the article els ([əɫz̠ ˈs̠ imz̠]). The letter z

is always pronounced [z̠], without exception.

Elision and Sinalefa

Elision and sinalefa are similar phenomena related to the combination of two

syllables into one. In both cases, a vowel at the end of one word comes into contact with

a vowel at the beginning of another word, and the two are merged into a single syllable.

Elision is the combination of two syllabic vowels within a phrase when one vowel is a

schwa, and the other is an accented vowel.81 The schwa is deleted completely in these

instances. For example, una hora, meaning “one hour” or “an hour,” should be

pronounced [un ˈɔ.ɾə], with three syllables, not four. The schwa in the second syllable of

81. Josep Anton Castellanos i Vila, Manual de pronunciació, 74.

 44
the word una is deleted in favor of the first, accented syllable of the word hora. While

elision occurs reliably in spoken Catalan, its occurrence varies in sung Catalan,

depending on how the composer has set the text.

Sinalefa is a related phenomenon in which two syllabic vowels are merged into a

single syllable by creating a diphthong. Unlike elision, neither vowel sound is completely

deleted.82 Sinalefa occurs in rapid casual speech or in singing, when two syllables are

assigned to the same rhythmic unit.

For singers, the occurrence of elision or sinalefa is easily recognized by the

presence of two separate syllables that are assigned to the same note. Composers often

indicate this with a curved line underneath the two syllables, as shown in Figures 4 and 5.

Figure 6 shows an instance of sinalefa without the curved line underneath, where it is

clear that the second syllable of the word dolça and the first syllable of the word estimada

are assigned to the same eighth note. These words together should be pronounced

[ˈdol.s̠ ə.s̠ tiˈma.ðə].

Figure 4. Elision Figure 5. Sinalefa

82. Josep Anton Castellanos i Vila, Manual de pronunciació, 74.

 45

Figure 6. Elision

When singers encounter two syllables assigned to the same note, they should first

determine word stress. When neither vowel is a schwa, sinalefa occurs. One of the two

vowels will be reduced to a semivowel, resulting in a diphthong, as in Figure 5, which

should be pronounced [ˈje.ʎə]. If one of the two syllables being merged is a schwa,

elision occurs, and the schwa should be deleted altogether, as in Figure 4.

Phonetic Transcription Guide

Tables 12 and 13 list all the letters and diagraphs of the Catalan alphabet with the

ç and the l·l and lists all possible resulting phonemes with Catalan examples and

approximations in another language. The table is followed by a detailed IPA transcription

guide. The transcription guide is comprehensive, but it should be noted that as in all

languages, exceptions occur frequently. For familiarity and ease of use, the IPA

transcription guide is modeled after Joan Wall’s Diction for Singers, which has become

one of the most widely used lyric diction texts in American colleges and universities.83

83. Andrew Adams, "Unstressed E's and O's in Italian Lyric Diction: A Comparison of Diction Texts."
Journal of Singing 59, no. 4 (2003): 335.
 46
Table 12. Catalan Letters and Their Corresponding Phonemes

Letter Phonemes Example Transcription Approximates

a, à [a] girar [ʒiˈɾa] caro (Italian)
a [ə] xalet [ʃəˈɫεt] cheval (French)
b [b] bigoti [biˈɣɔ.ti] boy (English)
[β] rebo [ˈrε.βu] haber (Castilian)
[p] esnob [əz̠ˈnɔp] crop (English)
c [k] caus [ˈ kaws̠ ] case (English)
[s̠ ] cercle [ˈs̠ er.klə] center (English)
[g] dracma [ˈdɾag.mə] sguardo (Italian)
ç [s̠ ] plaça [ˈpla.s̠ ə] trace (English)
d [d] déu [dew] day (English)
[ð] pedra [ˈpeð.ɾə] that (English)
[t̪ ] nord [ˈnɔɾt̪ ] quit (English)
e, é [e] conreés [kun.reˈes̠ ] perché (Italian)
e, è [ε] Sèrie [ˈs̠ ε.ɾjə] well (English)
e [ə] ulleres [uˈʎe.ɾəs̠ ] carte (French)
f [f] desfullat [dəs̠ .fuˈʎat] fire (English)
[v] buf d’aire [ˈbuv ˈðaj.ɾə] veer (English)
g [g] gaire [ˈgaj.ɾə] gift(English)
[ɣ] aigua [ˈaj.ɣwə] agua (Castilian)
[ʒ] brogit [bɾuˈʒit] vision (English)
[k] radiòleg [rəˈðjɔ.ɫək] tack (English)
[tʃ] desig [dəˈz̠itʃ] latch (English)
h (always mute)
i, í, ï [i] mirar [miˈɾa] see (English)
i [j] cuina [kuj.nə] year (English)
j [ʒ] pluja [ˈplu.ʒə] pleasure (English
k [k] Kafka [ˈkaf.kə] black (English)
*found only in foreign words
l [l] delta [ˈdεl.tə] clear (English)
[ɫ] alba [ˈaɫ.bə] spell (English)
l·l [ɫɫ] aquarel·la [ə.kwəˈɾε.ɫɫə] bell (English)
m [m] mai [ˈmaj] man (English)
[ɱ] trumfa [ˈtɾuɱ.fə] infatti (Italian)
 47

n [n] quan [ˈkwan] name (English)

[n̪] menjar [mən̪ˈʒa] cantare (Italian)
[ŋ] blanc [ˈblaŋ] rang (English)
[m] canvi [ˈkam.bi] tumble (English)
[ɱ] confiar [kuɱˈfja] un filo (Italian)
o, ó [o] món [ˈmon] opera (Italian)
o, ò [ɔ] nom [ˈnɔm] sposa (Italian)
o [u] melodia [mə.ɫuˈði.ə] luna (Italian)
[w] destí opcional [dəs̠ ˈtiwp.sjuˈnaɫ] quasi (Italian)
p [p] platja [ˈpla.dʒə] pair (English)
[b] capdamunt [kəb.dəˈmun] combine (English)
[β] sap ajudar [ˈs̠ aβ a.ʒuˈða] abajo (Castilian)
q [k] quant [ˈkwan] quiet (English)
r [r] perquè [pərˈkε] porta (Italian)
[ɾ] sucre [ˈs̠ u.kɾə] butter (English)
s [s̠ ] seu [ˈsew] sort (English)
[z̠] grisa [ˈgɾi.z̠ə] cosa (Italian)
t [t] tan [ˈtan] tanto (Italian)
[t̪ ] caritat [kə.ɾiˈtat̪ ] sento (Italian)
[d] atmosfera [əd.mus̠ ˈfe.ɾə] padre (Italian)
[ð] pot ajudar [ˈpɔð a.ʒuˈða] though (English)
u [u] ocell [uˈs̠ eʎ] soon (English)
[w] riu [ˈriw] water (English)
v [b] vida [ˈbi.ðə] book (English)
[β] suavitat [s̠ wə.βiˈtat̪ ] uva (Castilian)
w [b] watt [ˈbat̪ ] bill (English)
[β] kiwi [ˈki.βi] pobre (Castilian)
[w] show [ˈʃow] sweet (English)
*found only in foreign words
x [ʃ] xarxa [ˈʃar.ʃə] brush (English)
[ks] pròxim [ˈprɔk.s̠ im] mix (English)
[gz] examen [əgˈz̠a.mən] exit (English)
y [j] Ayora [aˈjɔ.ɾə] year (English)
[i] Chambéry [ʃəɱˈbe.ɾi] berry (English)
*found only in the diagraph ny or in foreign words or proper nouns
z [z̠] zero [ˈz̠ε.ɾu] zero (English)
 48
Table 13. Catalan Diagraphs and Their Corresponding Phonemes

Diagraph Phoneme(s) Example Transcription Approximates

gg [dʒ] suggerir [s̠ u.dʒəˈɾi] gel (English)
ll [ʎ] estrella [əˈs̠ tɾe.ʎə] figli (Italian)
rr [rr] arròs [aˈrrɔs̠ ] terrore (Italian)
ny [ɲ] any [ˈaɲ] canyon (English)
ix [ʃ] mateix [məˈteʃ] shake (English)
[ʒ] mateix líquid [məˈteʒ ˈli.kið] fusion (English)
gu [g] apagui [əˈpa.ɣi] hogar (Castilian)
qu [k] quina [ˈki.nə] king (English)
tg [dʒ] paisatge [pəjˈz̠adʒə] join (English)
tj [dʒ] mitja [ˈmi.dʒə] orange (English)
tx [tʃ] cotxe [ˈko.tʃə] reach (English)

Vowels

a This letter produces either the palatal low central vowel [a], or the
schwa [ə]. It often appears with the accent tancat as à.

[a] when in an accented syllable [ə] in all other cases

parla Català girar arma Català cosa

[ˈpaɾ.lə] [kə.təˈɫa] [ʒiˈɾa] [ˈar.mə] [kə.təˈɫa] [ˈko.z̠ə]
 49

e
In unstressed syllables, the vowel e always produces the schwa [ə].
In accented syllables, it can produce the open vowel [ε] or the closed
vowel [e].

[e] with accent tancat (é) [ε] with accent obert (è) [ə] when unaccented

només entraré absència perquè vine enamorar

[nuˈmes] [ən.tɾəˈɾe] [əpˈs̠ εn.si.ə] [pərˈkε] [ˈbi.nə] [ə.nə.muˈɾa]

When appearing in an accented syllable without any diacritical marks, the following
guidelines often apply, but with frequent exceptions.

[ε] before these single consonant sounds: [k], [ɫ], [n] [ɲ], [t], [tʃ], [z]

bistec estel pena aquest estreny encesa

[biˈs̠ tεk] [əˈs̠ tεɫ] [ˈpε.nə] [əˈkεt̪ ] [əˈs̠ tɾεɲ] [ənˈs̠ ε.z̠ə]

[ε] before u in multi-syllable words

pleura veure reume

[ˈplεu.ɾə] [ˈbεu.ɾə] [ˈrεu.mə]

[ε] before double consonants, except ll [ε] in final enc

alcaldessa terra prenc entenc

[ əɫ.kəɫˈdε.s̠ ə] [ˈtε.rə] [ˈpɾεŋ] [ən̪ˈtεŋ]

[e] in final ent [e] in most other contexts

somirent pensament primera meva

[s̠ u.miˈɾen] [pen.s̠ əˈmen] [pɾiˈme.ɾə] [ˈme.βə]
 50

i i is pronounced [i] except when preceded by another vowel, in which

case it forms a diphthong with that vowel.

[j] when preceded by a vowel [i] in all other cases

cuina aire fiador líder

[ˈkuj.nə] [ˈaj.ɾə] [fi.əˈðo] [ˈli.ðər]

o
In unstressed syllables, the vowel letter o is always sounded [u]. In
accented syllables, it can produce the open vowel [ɔ] or the closed
vowel [o].

[o] with accent tancat (ó) [ɔ] with accent obert (ò) [u] in unaccented syllables

oració son bòric nòmada només.- enamorar

[u.ɾəˈs̠ jo] [ˈs̠ on] [ˈbɔ.ɾik] [ˈnɔ.mə.ðə] [nuˈmes̠ ] [ə.nə.muˈɾa]

When appearing in an accented syllable without any diacritical marks, the following
guidelines often apply, but with frequent exceptions.

[ɔ] before these single consonant sounds: [k], [β], [ɫ], [n], [z]

albercoc proba qualsevol dona prosa

[əɫ.βərˈkɔk] [ˈpɾɔ.βə] [kwaɫ.s̠ əˈβɔɫ] [ˈdɔ.nə] [ˈpɾɔ.z̠ə]

[ɔ] before most consonant clusters

dorm somni tort

[ˈdɔrm] [ˈs̠ ɔm.ni] [ˈtɔr]
 51

[ɔ] before another vowel [o] in most other contexts

canoa encloure ploma olor

[kəˈnɔ.ə] [əŋˈklɔw.ɾə] [ˈplo.mə] [uˈɫo]

u u is pronounced [u] except when preceded by another vowel, in

which case it forms a diphthong with that vowel.

[w] when preceded by a vowel [u] in all other cases

estiu diuen música una

[əˈs̠ tiw] [ˈdi.wən] [ˈmu.z̠i.kə] [ˈu.nə]
 52

Consonants

b
This letter’s pronunciation depends on its position; absolutely initial
(meaning at the beginning of a sentence or phrase), internal, or
word-final.

[b] when absolutely initial [β] when internal [p] when word-final

beca bistec cabra va besar esnob club

[ˈbε.kə] [biˈs̠ tεk] [ˈka.βɾə] [ba βeˈz̠a] [əz̠ˈnɔp] [ˈklup]

Two exceptions this rule are listed here.

[p] when followed by t [b] when followed by d

dubte sobtar cobdícia abdicar

[ˈdup.tə] [s̠ upˈta] [kubˈdi.s̠ jə] [əb.diˈka]

________________________________________________________________________

c
This letter produces either the voiceless sibilant [s] or the voiceless
plosive [k] depending on context. It can also produce the voiced
plosive [g] via assimilation when followed by the letter b or m.

[s̠ ] when followed by e or i. [k] in all other cases

cercle posició circular clar accent cosa

[ˈs̠ eɾ.klə] [pu.z̠iˈs̠ jo] [s̠ iɾ.kuˈɫa] [ˈkla] [əkˈs̠ en] [ˈko.z̠ə]

[k] when followed by b or m

bricbarca dracma
[ˈbɾigˌbaɾ.kə] [ˈdɾag.mə]
 53

ç The ce trencada always produces the [s̠ ] sound.

plaça torçat dolç

[ˈpla.s̠ ə] [tuɾˈs̠ at̪ ] [ˈdoɫs̠ ]

d
The letter d can produce three different phonemes depending on its
context. Between vowels, or before the letter r, it is pronounced as
the interdental fricative [ð], even when word-initial.

[d] when absolutely initial [ð] when intervocalic [t̪ ] when word-final

desig dona va dormir edicte fluid fred

[dəˈz̠itʃ] [ˈdɔ.nə] [va ðuɾˈmi] [əˈðik.tə] [ˈflujt̪ ] [fɾεt̪ ]

There exist three possibilities when d appears in consonant clusters.

[t] adjacent voiceless [d] adjacent voiced

[ð] before or after r
consonants consonants

pedra guardia adscriure adquirir adjunt admirar

[ˈpe.ðɾə] [ˈgwaɾ.ðjə] [ətˈs̠ kɾiw.ɾə] [ət.kiˈɾi] [ədˈʒun] [əd.miˈɾa]

f
In the context of a single word, the letter f always produces the [f]
phoneme. When word-final and followed by a voiced consonant, it
will assimilate to [v].

[f] in most cases [v] before a voiced consonant

fora desfila buf d’aire xef de cuina

[ˈfɔ. ɾə] [dəs̠ ˈfi.ɫə] [ˈbuv ˈ ðaj.ɾə] [ˈʃεv ðə ˈkuj.nə]
 54

g
Like the letter d, the pronunciation of the letter g varies depending
on context: internal, external, or word-final. The surrounding vowels
can also affect the pronunciation of the letter.

[ʒ] before the letters e or i the diagraph tg is always [dʒ]

brogit gest imatge paisatge

[bɾuˈ ʒit̪ ] [ˈʒεs̠ ] [iˈma.dʒə] [pəjˈz̠a.dʒə]

final ig is always [itʃ] with final {vowel} + ig, [i] is deleted

desig mig lleig faig

[dəˈz̠itʃ] [ˈmitʃ] [ˈʎetʃ] [ˈfatʃ]

[g] when absolutely initial [ɣ] when intervocalic [k] when word-final

gaire gust va guisar aigua sociòleg dialeg

[ˈgaj.ɾə] [ˈgus̠ ] [ba ɣiˈz̠a] [ˈaj.ɣwə] [s̠ uˈs̠ jɔ.ɫək] [ˈdja.ɫək]

h In Catalan words, the letter h is never pronounced.

_
 55

j j is pronounced [ʒ] when alone, and [dʒ] in the diagraph tj.

[dʒ] in the diagraph tj [ʒ] in all other cases

viatje corretja pujar forja

[ˈbja.dʒə] [kuˈrε.dʒə] [puˈʒa] [ˈfɔɾ.ʒə]

k The letter k is not found in Catalan orthography. It is found only in

foreign words, in which cases it is usually pronounced [k].

When adjacent to front vowels ([i] [e] and [ɛ]) or dental consonants

l
([t], [d], [f] and [ð], l produces the slightly velar [l] phoneme. In
most other cases, it produces the more velar [ɫ], similar to the
analogous American English phoneme. The double ll diagraph
produces the [ʎ] sound, familiar to speakers of Italian.

[l] following front vowels [i] and [e] [l] adjacent dental consonants

dilució vela delta falda flor

[di.luˈs̠ jo] [ˈbe.lə] [ˈdεl.tə] [ˈfal.də] [ˈflɔ]

[ɫ] in most other circumstances

algú malbé clar Català

[əɫˈɣu] [məɫˈβe] [ˈkɫa] [kə.təˈɫa]
 56

[ʎ] in the diagraph ll

illa aquell
[ˈi.ʎə] [əˈkeʎ]

l·l
This special character has been traditionally pronounced with an
elongated velar [ɫɫ] sound (elongated in the manner of Italian double
consonants), though modern speakers rarely elongate the sound ([ɫ]).

aquarel·la col·lega
[ə.kwəˈɾε.ɫɫə] [kuˈɫɫε.ɣə]

m m produces the nasal consonant [m]. When followed by a labiodental

[f] or [v] sound, the labiodental allophone [ɱ] is used.

[ɱ] before f [m] in all other cases

triomf de l’amor emfàtic amor matí

[tɾiˈoɱv ðə ɫəˈmor] [əɱˈfa.tik] [əˈmor] [məˈti]
 57
In most cases, the letter n produces the nasal [n] phoneme. As in

n Italian or Castilian, it is pronounced [ŋ] when followed by the letter

g, or the [k] phoneme. It assimilates to [ɱ] when followed by
labiodental consonants ([f] or [v]), and to [m] before bilabial
consonants ([m], [p], or [b]).

[ɱ] before f [m] before m, b, or v.

infeliç un favor canvi un petó un mà

[iɱ.fəˈɫis̠ ] [uɱ fəˈβor] [ˈkam.bi] [um pəˈto] [um ˈma]

[ŋ] before g or [k] [n̪] before dental consonants

tanca fang cantar prendre

[ˈtaŋ.kə] [ˈfaŋ] [kən̪ˈta] [ˈpɾεn̪.dɾə]

[n] in most other cases

noi venir
[ˈnɔj] [bəˈni]

p
The letter p produces the voiceless bilabial fricative [p], except when
it assimilates to the voiced [b] phoneme. In rare cases when word
final, it will produce the approximant [β].

[β] when word-final and

[b] before voiced consonants [p] in all other cases
followed by a vowel

hipnosi capdret sap ajudar pelegrí grapat

[ibˈnɔ.z̠i] [kəbˈdɾεt̪ ] [ˈs̠ aβ a.ʒuˈða] [pə.ɫəˈɣɾi] [gɾəˈpat̪ ]
 58

q q always produces the voiceless velar plosive [k].

quant adquirir quina

[ˈkwan] [əd.kiˈɾi] [ˈki.nə]

The letter r produces either the flipped [ɾ] phoneme or the

r rolled/trilled [r], depending on context. It is always mute in ar, er,

and ir verb endings, and sometimes mute when final in other words
(consult dictionary).

rolled [r] when word-initial or final rolled [r] before another consonant

raig amor perquè verde

[ˈratʃ] [əˈmor] [pərˈkε] [ˈber.ðə]

rolled [r] in the diagraph rr rolled [r] after n or s

barri darrera honrat desrosar

[ˈba.ri] [dəˈre.ɾə] [unˈrat̪ ] [dəz̠.ruˈz̠a]

flipped [ɾ] is most other contexts always mute when word-final in verbs

orella fred haver tenir

[uˈɾε.ʎə] [ˈfɾεt̪ ] [əˈβε] [təˈni]
 59

s As in Italian, s is voiced when intervocalic and when adjacent a

voiced consonant, and voiceless in other circumstances.

[z̠] when intervocalic [z̠] adjacent voiced [s̠ ] in all other cases
consonants

posar espasa camins desdir aquesta sospira

[puˈz̠a] [əˈs̠ pa. z̠ə] [kəˈminz̠] [dəz̠ˈdi] [əˈke.s̠ tə] [s̠ uˈs̠ pi.ɾə]

Note: in compound words like entresol (entre + sol) the letter s will be pronounced [s̠ ], as
it is the component word sol.84

t
The letter t produces the voiceless dental plosive [t], except when it
assimilates to the voiced [d] phoneme. In rare cases when word final,
it will produce the fricative [ð].

[ð] when word-final and

[d] before voiced consonants [t̪ ] when word-final
followed by a vowel

etnològic atleta pot ajudar caritat tarda

[əd.nuˈɫɔ.ʒ ik] [ədˈlε.tə] [ˈpɔð a.ʒuˈða] [kə.ɾiˈtat̪ ] [ˈtar.ðə]

[t] in all other cases

trista sentir cantar

[ˈtɾis̠ .tə] [s̠ ən̪ˈti] [kənˈta]

84. Josep Anton Castellano i Vila, Manual de pronunciació (Vic, Catalonia: Eumo Editorial, 2004).
 60

v v, or ve baixa is indistinguishable from b, and follows all the same

norms.

viure viola suavitat

[ˈbiw.ɾə] [biˈɔ.ɫə] [s̠ wə.βiˈtat̪ ]

w w is found only in foreign words, and often behaves as v or b.

watt kiwi show

[ˈbat] [ˈki.βi] [ˈʃow]

x
The letter x often produces [gz] in sequences of exa, exe, or exi when
intervocalic. In other intervocalic contexts, it usually produces [ks]
In all other cases, it produces the voiceless palatal fricative [ʃ].

[gz̠] when following e and intervocalic [ks̠ ] in most other intervocalic cases

exemple exigir boxa fixar

[əgˈz̠em.pɫə] [əg.z̠iˈʒi] [ˈbɔk.s̠ ə] [fikˈs̠ a]

[ʃ] when diagraph ix follows a vowel [ʃ] in all other cases

mateix creixer fitxar xarxa

[məˈteʃ] [kɾεˈʃe] [fitˈʃa] [ˈʃar.ʃə]
 61

y Except when used in foreign words, y is found only in the diagraph

ny, which produces the palatal nasal phoneme [ɲ].

any Catalunya Montseny

[ˈaɲ] [kə.təˈɫu.ɲə] [munˈs̠ εɲ]

Final nys results in [ɲʃ] so that the plural noun anys becomes [ˈaɲʃ]

z The letter z always produces the voiced sibilant [z̠].

colze zero dotze

[ˈkoɫ.z̠ə] [ˈz̠ε.ɾu] [ˈdod.z̠ə]
 CHAPTER 4
Repertoire

This chapter introduces Catalan art song repertoire and recommends specific

composers and works for beginning an exploration of this body of work. Catalan

language repertoire is not easily discoverable at the time of publication of this essay. This

chapter will help singers, teachers and students know where to start. Repertoire

recommendations are made based on the availability of scores in the United States, the

musical accessibility of the works, and the importance or stature of the works in the

larger Catalan repertoire.

Catalan Style

For most people, there is a very specific musical sound that immediately comes to

mind when Spanish music is mentioned. This musical impression is often accompanied

by imagined visions of bullfighting, flamenco dancers, and Moorish architecture. These

sounds and images would not seem out of place in Spain’s southern region of Andalusia,

but they would be completely foreign in another part of the country. In the northwestern

Spanish region of Galicia, the sound of bagpipes and the imagery of Celtic symbolism

would be far more familiar and natural. The Kingdom of Spain is a federation of

culturally distinct nations, but the Andalusian culture in particular has come to be thought

of by many, mistakenly, as Spain’s national style. Arab influences stretch across the

peninsula and play a major role in the distinctiveness of much of Spanish music, but these

influences are most apparent in the music of Andalusia, which may be part of the reason

62
 63
for Andalusian music’s elevation in the minds of many to the stature of a national style.85

The exoticization of Andalusian style and culture by foreign figures like Maurice Ravel

and Georges Bizet further promoted that sound as the nationalist image of Spain.86

Graham Johnson writes in The Spanish Song Companion that the various communities of

Spain “have their own styles and customs as well as their own spoken languages; it

would be very surprising if their music did not also have its own voice.”87

Like each of the communities of the Kingdom of Spain, Catalonia has its own

distinctive art, culture, and musical style. Generally, the Catalan cançó lírica of the 20th

century features simple and sparse textures, nature and dream imagery, avant garde

themes and harmonies, and a certain nostalgia or ennui that brings to mind the Catalan

struggle for cultural preservation. Art song composition from this period is closely

associated with the modernisme movement in art, architecture and literature, of which the

painter Salvador Dalí and the architect Antoni Gaudí were a part.

Enric Granados

Enric Granados Campiña (1867-1916) was born in Lleida, in the western part of

Catalonia, and later moved with his family to Barcelona where he studied with Isaac

85. Robert Stevenson, Louise K. Stein, Albert Recasens, Belen Perez Castillo, Josep i Martí i Perez, Martin
Cunningham, Ramón Pelinski, Jaume Aiats, Sílvia Martínez García, and Arcadio de Larrea Palacín,
"Spain." Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com (accessed February 18, 2019).

86. Carol Kimball, Song: A Guide to Art Song Style and Literature, 213; J. Peter Burkholder, Donald J.
Grout and Claude V. Palisca, A History of Western Music (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 2006),
699.

87. Jacqueline Cockburn, The Spanish Song Companion, 14.

 64
Albéniz and Felipe Pedrell, among other teachers.88 He is better known by the Castilian

translation of his first name, Enrique. With Manuel de Falla, he is among Spain’s most

internationally well-known composers. He set songs with both Castilian and Catalan

texts. His Castilian-language songs often feature a Spanish nationalist flavor, while

Catalan modernisme is on display in his Catalan language songs.89 His Castilian-language

songs are well-known and readily available in the United States, but his Catalan

repertoire is largely unknown. Tritó Edicions, a Barcelona-based publisher, publishes a

complete works for voice and piano collection that includes commentary, translations,

and IPA transcriptions for all of Granados’s songs in both languages.90 The volume is

available online through Tritó with international shipping.

Eduard Toldrà

Eduard Toldrà i Soler (1895-1962) is an especially beloved and iconic figure in

Catalan nationalist music. He lived in Barcelona throughout his life and was a very

prominent figure in the music scene there. He was the conductor of the Orquestra

Municipal de Barcelona for eighteen years.91 While certainly an adherent to Catalan

modernisme, Toldrà’s songs are more romantic and expressive than those of his

contemporaries. Toldrà was an extremely prolific song composer, and most of his songs

88. Suzanne Rhodes Draayer, Art Song Composers of Spain: An Encyclopedia, 267.

89. Jacqueline Cockburn, The Spanish Song Companion, 82.

90. Enric Granados, Obra Completa per a Veu i Piano, ed. Manuel Garcia Morante (Barcelona: Tritó,
2007).

91. Suzanne Rhodes Draayer, Art Song Composers of Spain: An Encyclopedia, 345.
 65
set Catalan texts. Many of his songs are available in a three-volume collection, Colección

de Canciones, published by Madrid-based publisher Union Musical Ediciones.92

Aquarel·la del Montseny and Romança de Santa Llúcia and are two highly accessible,

iconic stand-alone songs that are found in volumes one and two, respectively, of this

collection. Toldrà’s most important song cycle is La Rosa als Llavis, which is no longer

published in print. The cycle, however, along with almost all of Toldrà’s songs can be

found digitized online at http://www.eduardtoldrasoler.info. It is also available in the

United States through ILLIAD (Interlibrary Loan) from the University of Kentucky and

Rice University.

Frederic Mompou

Fredric Mompou Dencausse (1893-1987) was the son of a Catalan father and a

French mother. He studied first at the Conservatori Superior de Música del Liceu, but

quickly moved to Paris, where he lived for over 20 years.93 His style is unique among his

Catalan contemporaries, not adhering to the Catalan modernisme movement.94 His style

is heavily influenced by the French masters, including Fauré and Debussy, but also

incorporates his Catalan heritage through the use of folk melodies and rhythms resulting

in a unique compositional voice.95 Most of his art songs are Catalan settings, but his

currently available published works are fairly evenly divided between French-language

92. Eduard Toldrà, Colección de Canciones Cuaderno I (Madrid: Union Musical Ediciones, 1995).

93. Jacqueline Cockburn, The Spanish Song Companion, 145.

94. Ibid., 146.

95. Suzanne Rhodes Draayer, Art Song Composers of Spain: An Encyclopedia, 343.
 66
and Catalan-language songs. He also set a smaller number of songs to Castilian and

Galician poetry.

Many of Mompou’s songs are published by French and Catalan publishing houses

and are often available through domestic retailers. The largest published collection is

Mélodies et Chansons, published by French publisher Salabert Editions.96 At the time of

publication of this essay, the volume is available in the United States through domestic

online distributors. Cançó de la Fira, available in the Salabert collection, is a highly

accessible stand-alone song. Mompou’s most important song cycle is Combat del Somni,

also found in the Salabert Mélodies et Chansons collection.97

Enric Morera

Enric Morera i Viura (1865-1942) was born in Barcelona and spent his entire

professional career in the city. He is almost completely unknown outside of Catalonia,

but within the community he was one of the most popular Catalan composers of the 20th

century.98 His vocal music includes mostly choral works and about 50 operas and

zarzuelas, but also a fair number of art songs. Like Frederic Mompou, Morera belonged

to the noucentisme movement, a conservative artistic ideology in reaction against

modernisme and avant-gardism. His work is iconically Catalan, and during his lifetime

96. Frederic Mompou, Mélodies et Chansons (Paris: Éditions Salabert, 1989).

97. Suzanne Rhodes Draayer, Art Song Composers of Spain: An Encyclopedia, 340.

98. José Subirá, Historia de la Música Española e Hispanoamericana (Barcelona: Salvat Editores, 1953),
808.
 67
held great popular appeal.99 Many of his art songs have been recorded, but scores are

mostly out of print. His six-song cycle Cançons de Carrer is available as a digital

download through Tritó.100 The collection Cançons, published by Unión Musical

Española is out of print, but digital copies are available to the public through the

University of Rochester website, urresearch.rochester.edu.101 This collection makes

available a number of delightful and accessible art songs, including Cançó tardoral and

On ets amor?

Joaquim Serra

Joaquim Serra i Corominas (1907-1957) was born in Peralada in the north of

Catalonia and spent much of his career in the regional capital of Barcelona. In his youth,

he studied with Enric Morera. He is particularly well known for his many sardanes (a

Catalan dance/song form).102 Despite his impressive reputation in Catalonia, very little

biographical information or musicological analysis exists in scholarly sources – in

English, Catalan, or Castilian. He wrote several art songs that are very accessible and of

high quality, and that are available through the Catalan publisher Clivis. Clivis publishes

a two-volume set, Líriques i Amoroses, that is a complete set of Serra’s cançons

líriques.103

99. Aviñoa, Xosé, "Morera (i Viura), Enric." Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com
(accessed February 20, 2019).
100. Enric Morera, Cançons de Carrer (Barcelona: Tritó, 2008).

101. Enric Morera, Cançons de Carrer (Barcelona: Unión Musical Española, 1900).

102. Clivis, “Serra, Joaquim,” Clivis, http://www.clivis.cat (accessed February 20, 2019).

103. Joaquim Serra, Líriques i Amoroses (Barcelona: Clivis, 2007).

 68
Xavier Montsalvatge

Xavier Montsalvatge i Bassols (1912-2002) is one of the more internationally

recognized modern Spanish composers, but his Catalan-language songs are not among his

well-known works. Many teachers and singers will be aware of his Castilian-language

cycle Cinco canciones negras, for example. He was born in Girona, in northern

Catalonia, and studied music at the conservatory in Barcelona with Enric Morera, Jaume

Pahissa, and others.104 He also spent several years studying in Paris. His work is

generally less accessible for young students, and his songs, though many are available,

can be expensive to acquire, as they must be purchased individually. He is mentioned

here because of the quality, the fame and the great musicological importance of his work,

and his unique style. Montsalvatge felt that the use of nationalism and folksong was an

“overworked concept,” and looked outside the Iberian Peninsula to the colonial Spanish

world for inspiration.105 Scores of individual songs can be purchased through various

publishers, including Tritó. Cançó amorosa is beautiful song that is among his more

accessible. At between four and five minutes long, it makes an excellent recital set piece.

Other Composers

Many other important composers with fine and beautiful repertoires are not

mentioned above primarily because scores are difficult to acquire. In particular, Felipe

Pedrell, Manuel Blancafort and Jaume Pahissa are very important Catalan composers

104. Suzanne Rhodes Draayer, Art Song Composers of Spain: An Encyclopedia, 375.

105. Jacqueline Cockburn, The Spanish Song Companion, 223.

 69
with extensive and fine song repertoires, but their work is difficult to acquire outside of

the Biblioteca Nacional de España or the Biblioteca Nacional de Catalunya.

Cuban composer Joaquin Nín spent much of his life in Catalonia. His Villancicos

Catalanes (Catalan Christmas Carols), part of the Veinte Cantos Populares Españoles are

available for free online through the Petrucci Music Library (IMSLP).
 CHAPTER 5
Translations and Transcriptions

All International Phonetic Alphabet transcriptions here are made according the

composers’ settings. That is to say that elisions, Sinalefa, and other similar phenomena

are noted as they would be sung in the context of the song, and not necessarily as they

would be spoken. No songs of Enric Granados are transcribed here because excellent

transcriptions are included in Tritó’s Obre completa, discussed in the previous chapter.106

Three of the Mompou songs transcribed in this chapter are also transcribed by Josep

Miquel Sobrer in The Singer’s Anthology of 20th Century Spanish Songs, but the

transcriptions in Sobrer’s book use several outdated pronunciation norms and contain

some errors.107 Poetic translations appear first, while word-for-word translations appear

with the IPA transcriptions. All translations are original.

Eduard Toldrà

Aquarel·la del Montseny (Watercolor of Montseny)

Text: Pere Ribot
Aquarel·la del Montseny Watercolor of Montseny

Aquí no hi ha roses ni lliris, Here, there are no roses nor lilies,

però hi ha l’aigua de la neu. but there is water from the snow.
Cal que respiris, You must breathe,
home de Déu, man of God,

106. Enric Granados, Obra Completa per a Veu i Piano.

107. Josep Miquel Sobrer, The Singer's Anthology of 20th Century Spanish Songs.

70
 71

aquesta olor d’eternitat: this smell of eternity:

el blau del cel i el verd del prat. the blue of the sky and the green of the
meadow.
Aquí no tens altra musica Here, you have no other music
–com un antic i amable pont– -- like an ancient, friendly bridge --
que l’ampla pica, that the ample peak,
la vella font the old spring,
que dóna el to d’aquest terreny which sets the tone for this land
i és una entranya del Montseny. and is a heart of the Montseny.

Puja el ramat a la carena, The herd climbs to the crest,

que és fresca l’herba de l’estiu. where there is fresh summer grass.
Jo en faig estrena, I make first use of it,
contemplatiu: contemplatively:
que sempre m’ha donat frescor that it has always given me freshness
i que em recorda el Bon Pastor. and that reminds me of the Good
Shepherd.

Here, none there are roses nor lilies,

Aquí no hi ha roses ni lliris,
[əˈki no jə ˈro.z̠əz̠ ni ˈʎi.ɾis̠ ]

but there is water from the snow.

però hi ha l’aigua de la neu.
[pəˈɾɔ jə ˈɫaj.ɣwə ðə ɫə ˈnɛw]

You must breathe,

Cal que respiris,
[ˈkaɫ kə ɾəˈs̠ pi.ɾis̠ ]

man of God
home de Déu,
[ˈɔ.mə ðə ˈðɛw]

this smell of eternity:

aquesta olor d’eternitat:
[əˈkɛs̠ .təw ˈɫo ðə.tər.niˈtat̪ ]
 72

the blue of the sky and the green of the meadow.

el blau del cel i el verd del prat.
[əɫ ˈblaw ðeɫ s̠ ɛɫ jəɫ ˈbɛr dəɫ ˈpɾat̪ ]

Here, no you have other music (Here, you have no other music)
Aquí no tens altra musica
[əˈki no ˈtenz̠ ˈaɫ.tɾə ˈmu.z̠i.kə]

Like an ancient and friendly bridge

com un antic i amable pont
[kɔm un ən̪ˈtik jə ˈma.βlə ˈpon]

that the ample peak

que l’ampla pica
[kə ˈɫam.pɫə ˈpi.kə]

the old spring

la vella font
[ɫə ˈβe.ʎə ˈfon]

which sets the tone for this land

que dona el to d’aquest terreny
[kə ’ðo.nəɫ ˈto ðəˈkɛt̪ təˈreɲ]

and is a heart of the Montseny.

i és una entranya del Montseny.
[ˈjes̠ u.nən̪ ˈtɾaŋ.ə ðəɫ munˈseɲ]

Climbs the herd to the crest,

Puja el ramat a la carena,
[ˈpu.ʒəɫ rəˈmat̪ ə ɫə kəˈɾɛ.nə]

where there is fresh grass of the summer.

que és fresca l’herba de l’estiu.
[ˈkes̠ ˈfɾɛs̠ .kə ˈɫɛr.βə ðə ɫəs̠ ˈtiw]
 73

I it make pemiere, (I make first use of it,)

Jo en faig estrena,
[ʒwən ˈfaðʒ əs̠ ˈtɾɛ.nə]

contemplatively:
contemplatiu:
[kun̪.təm.pɫəˈtiw]

that always to me has given freshness

que sempre m’ha donat frescor
[kə ˈs̠ em.pɾə mə ðuˈnat̪ fɾəs̠ ˈko]

and that me reminds the Good Shepherd. (and that reminds me of the Good Shepherd)
i que em recorda el Bon Pastor.
[i kəm rəˈkɔr.ðəɫ ˈbon pəs̠ ˈto]

Romanç de Santa Llúcia (Ballant of Saint Llúcia)

Text: Josep Maria de Sagarra

Romanç de Santa Llúcia Ballant of Saint Llúcia

Perquè avui és Santa Llúcia, Because today is Saint Llúcia’s day,

dia de l’any gloriós, glorious day of the year,
pels volts de la Plaça Nova around the Plaça Nova
rondava amb la meva amor. I would stroll with my love.

Anem tots dos a la fira, Let’s go together to the fair,

amiga, anem-hi de jorn, friend, let’s go early,
que una mica de muntanya so that a little bit of mountain
alegri nostra tristor. might brighten our sadness.
Comprarem grapats de molsa We will buy handfuls of moss,
i una enramada d’arboç and a branch of strawberry,
i una blanca molinera and a white miller,
i una ovella i un pastor. and a sheep and a shepherd.
Ho posarem, al migdia, We will place is, at noon
dins el nostre menjador, in our dining room
i abans de seure a la taula and, before sitting at the table,
ens ho mirarem tots dos: we will look at it together,
que una mica de muntanya so that a little bit of mountain
 74

ens faci el menjar més dolç. might make our food sweeter.

Perquè avui és Santa Llúcia, Because today is Saint Llúcia’s day,

dia de l’any gloriós, glorious day of the year,
tals paraules m’acudien these words have come to mind
quan he vist la meva amor. when I saw my beloved.

Because today is Saint Llúcia (Saint Lucy’s Day)

Perquè avui és Santa Llúcia
[pərˈkɛ͜ əˈβuj ˈes̠ ˈs̠ an̪.tə ˈʎu.s̠ jə]

day of the year glorious (glorious day of the year)

dia de l’any gloriós,
[ˈdi.ə ðə ˈɫaɲ gɫu.ɾiˈos̠ ]

by the ways of the Plaça Nova (around the Plaça Nova)

pels volts de la Plaça Nova
[pəɫz̠ ˈβɔɫz̠ də ɫə ˈpla.s̠ ə ˈnɔ.βə]

I would stroll with my love.

rondava amb la meva amor.
[run̪ˈda.βəm ɫə ˈmɛ.βə͜ˈmor]

Let’s go both of us to the fair,

Anem tots dos a la fira,
[əˈnem ˈtotz̠ ˈdoz̠ ə ɫə ˈfi.ɾə]

friend, let’s go early,

amiga, anem-hi de jorn,
[əˈmi.ɣə͜ ˈne.mi ðə ˈʒɔrn]

so that a little bit of mountain

que una mica de muntanya
[ˈkəw.nə ˈmi.kə ðə mun̪ˈta.ɲə͜]
 75

will brighten our sadness

alegri nostra tristor.
[əɫeɣ.ɾi ˈnɔs̠ .tɾə tɾis̠ ˈto]

We will buy handfuls of moss,

Comprarem grapats de molsa
[kum.pɾəˈɾem ˈgɾa.pəs̠ ðə ˈmɔɫ.s̠ ə]

and a branch of strawberry

i una enramada d’arboç
[ˈjun ə͜n.ɾəˈma.ðə ðərˈbos̠ ]

and a white miller

i una blanca molinera
[ˈju.nə ˈβlaŋ.kə mu.ɫiˈne.ɾə]

and a sheep and a shepherd.

i una ovella i un pastor.
[ˈjun uˈβe.ʎə jun pəs̠ ˈto]

It we will place at noon (We will place it all at noon)

Ho posarem, al migdia
[u pu.z̠əˈɾem ə midʒˈdi.ə]

in our dining room

dins el nostre menjador,
[ˈdinz̠ əɫ ˈnɔs̠ .tɾə mən.ʒəˈðo]

and, before sitting at the table,

i abans de seure a la taula
[jəˈβanz̠ ðə ˈs̠ ɛw.ɾə ɫə ˈtaw.ɫə]

we it will look both of us: (we will look at it together)

ens ho mirarem tots dos:
[ənz̠ u mi.ɾəˈɾem ˈtots̠ ˈdos̠ ]
 76

so that a little bit of mountain

que una mica de muntanya
[ˈkju.nə ˈmi.kə ðə mun̪ˈta.ɲə]

for us will make the food more sweet

ens facil el menjar més dolç.
[ənz̠ ˈfa.s̠ iɫ mənˈʒa ˈmes̠ ˈdɔɫs̠ ]

Because today is Saint Llúcia (Saint Lucy’s Day)

Perquè avui és Santa Llúcia
[pərˈkɛ͜ əˈβuj ˈes̠ ˈs̠ an̪.tə ˈʎu.s̠ jə]

day of the year glorious,

dia de l’any gloriós,
[ˈdi.ə ðə ˈɫaɲ gɫu.ɾiˈos̠ ]

these words to me have occurred

tals paraules m’acudien
[təɫz̠ pəˈɾaw.ɫəs̠ mə.kuˈði.ən]

when I saw my beloved

quan he vist la meva amor.
[ˈkwan ə ˈβis ɫə ˈmɛβ əˈmor]

La rosa als llavis (The Rose to the Lips), 1936

Texts: Joan Salvat-Papasseit

1. Si anessis lluny 1. If you went far away

Si anessis lluny, If you went far away,

tan lluny que no et sabés, so far that I could know,
tampoc ningú sabria el meu destí; neither would anyone know my destiny;
cap altre llavi no em tindria pres, no other lips could hold me prisoner,
però amb el teu nom faria el meu camí. but with your name, I would make my way.
 77

Un ram de noies no em fóra conhort, A bouquet of girls could not comfort me,
ni la cançó sota el dring de la copa; nor the song under the clink of the glass;
vaixells de guerra vinguessin al port, warships would come to port,
prou hi aniria, mariner de popa. I would go with them, as a stern sailor.

Si jo posava la bandera al pal If I raised the flag up the mast

i era molt alta, t’hi veuria a dalt. and it was very high, I would see you above.

If you went far away,

Si anessis tan lluny,
[s̠ jəˈnɛ.s̠ is̠ ˈtan ˈʎuɲ]

So far that not you would know, (so far that you would not know)
tan lluny que no et sabés,
[ˈtan ˈʎuɲ kə nwət̪ s̠ əˈβes̠ ]

neither anyone would know my destiny;

tampoc ningú sabria el meu destí;
[təmˈpɔk niŋˈgu s̠ əˈβɾi əɫ ˈmɛw dəs̠ ˈti]

no other lips (no) me could hold prisoner, (no other lips could hold me presoner)
cap altre llavi no em tindria pres,
[kəβ ˈaɫ.tɾə ˈʎa.βi nwəm tin̪ˈdɾi.ə pɾɛs̠

but with your name, I would make my way.

però amb el teu nom faria el meu camí.
[ˈpɾwam əɫ ˈtɛw ˈnɔm fəˈɾi əɫ ˈmɛw kəˈmi]

A bouquet of girls not me make comforted, (could not comfort me)

Un ram de noies no em fóra conhort,
[un ˈram də ˈnɔ.jəz̠ nwəm ˈfo.ɾə kuˈnɔr]
 78

nor the song under the clink of the glass;

ni la cançó sota el dring de la copa;
[ni ɫə kənˈs̠ o ˈs̠ o.təɫ dɾiŋ də ɫə ˈko.pə]

ships of war would come to port

vaixells de guerra vinguessin al port,
[bəˈʃeʎz̠ də ˈɣɛ.rə βim.gəˈs̠ in əɫ pɔr]

with them I would go, (as a) sailor of (the) stern.

prou hi aniria, mariner de popa.
[ˈpɾɔw jə niˈɾi.ə mə.ɾiˈne ðə ˈpo.pə]

If I raised the flag up the mast

Si jo posava la bandera al pal
[si ˈʒo puˈz̠a.βə ɫə bən̪ˈde.ɾəɫ ˈpaɫ]

and it was very high, you would I see up above.

i era molt alta, t’hi veuria a dalt.
[ˈje.ɾə ˈmɔɫ ˈaɫ.tə ti βɛwˈɾi.ə ˈðaɫ]

2. Mocador d’olor... 2. Perfumed handkerchief…

Mocador d'olor Perfumed handkerchief

que la teva sina that your breast
acostava al cor, be brought nearer to the heart,
com que et sap l’enyor as it knows your longing
i et sap la pell fina, and it knows your fine skin,
tremola d’amor. trembles with love.

Mocador d’olor, Perfumed handkerchief,

fragant tarongina, fragrant balm,
com li bat el cor. how the heart is beating.
 79

Handkerchief perfumed
Mocador d'olor
[mu.kəˈðo ðuˈɫo]

that your breast

que la teva sina
[kə ɫə ˈte.βə ˈs̠ i.ne]

would approach to the heart,

acostava al cor,
[ə.kus̠ ˈta.βəɫ ˈkɔr]

As you it knows the longing (as it knows your longing)

com que et sap l’enyor
[kɔm kət̪ ˈs̠ ap ɫəˈɲo]

and you it knows the fine skin, (and it knows your fine skin)
i et sap la pell fina.
[jət̪ ˈs̠ ap ɫə ˈpeʎ ˈfi.nə]

trembles with love.

tremola d’amor.
[tɾəˈmɔ.ɫə ðəˈmor]

Handkerchief perfumed
Mocador d’olor,
[mu.kəˈðo ðuˈɫo]

fragrant balm
fragant tarongina,
[fɾəɣˈɾan tə.ɾunˈʒi.nə]

how it beats the heart. (how the heart beats)

com li bat el cor.
[kɔm li ˈβat̪ əɫ ˈkɔr]
 80

3. I el seu esguard... 3. And her stare…

... i el seu esguard damunt el meu …and her gaze above my

esguard sóc presoner gaze I am a prisoner
que la vull presonera; that wants her prisoner;
aquest matí, que una flor m’ha posat, this morning, when she gave me a flower,
li deia així, I told her like this,
baix, baixet, quietly, very quietly,
a l’orella: in her ear:
sota els teus ulls és un bes el que em plau. under your eyes is a kiss that pleases me.

and her gaze above my

i el seu esguard damunt el meu
[jəɫ ˈs̠ ɛw əz̠ˈgwar dəˈmun əɫ ˈmɛw]

gaze I am prisoner
esguard sóc presoner
[əz̠ˈgwar ˈs̠ oc pɾə.z̠uˈne]

that her wants prisoner; (that wants her to be prisoner)

que la vull presonera;
[kə ɫə ˈβuʎ pɾə.z̠uˈne.ɾə]

This morning, when a flower she to me gave

aquest matí, que una flor m’ha posat,
[əˈkɛt̪ məˈti ˈkju.nə ˈflɔ mə puˈz̠at̪ ]

her I told like this,

li deia així,
[ɫi ˈde.ʃ əˈʃi]

quietly, very quietly

baix, baixet,
[ˈbaʃ bəˈʃɛt̪ ]
 81

in her ear:
a l’orella:
[ə ɫuˈɾe.ʎə]

under your eyes is a kiss that me pleases.

sota els teus ulls és un bes el que em plau.
[ˈs̠ o.təɫz̠ ˈtɛws̠ ˈuʎs̠ ˈez̠ um ˈbɛs̠ əɫ kəm ˈpɫaw]

4. I el vent deixava dintre la rosella 4. And the wind left inside the poppy…

i el vent deixava dintre la rosella and the wind left inside the poppy
granets de blat com espurnes de sol, grains of wheat like sunbeams,
-només per dir com és la boca d’Ella: just to tell what her mouth is like:

com al neu rosa als cims like the pink snow on the summits
quan surt el sol. when the sun rises.

and the wind left inside the poppy

i el vent deixava dintre la rosella
[jəɫ ˈben̪ dəˈʃa.βə ðin̪.tɾə ɫə ruˈz̠eʎə]

grains of wheat like sunbeams,

granets de blat com espurnes de sol,
[grəˈnɛts̠ də ˈβɫat̪ kɔm əs̠ ˈpur.nəs̠ də ˈs̠ ɔɫ]

just to tell how is the mouth of her: (just to tell what her mouth is like)
només per dir com és la boca d’Ella:
[nuˈmes̠ pər ˈdi kɔm ˈez̠ ɫə ˈβo.ke ˈðe.ʎə]

like the snow pink on the summits

com al neu rosa als cims
[kɔm əɫ ˈnɛw ˈrɔ.z̠ə əɫz̠ ˈs̠ imz̠]

when rises the sun.

quan surt el sol.
[kwan ˈs̠ urt əɫ ˈs̠ ɔɫ]
 82

5. Seré a ta cambra amiga... 5. I will be at your room, my friend…

Seré a ta cambra, amiga, I will be in your room, my friend,

que ningú no ho sabrà. no one will know.
Cupidell a la porta, m’obrirà i tancarà. Cupid at the door will for open and close.

Entremaliat i destre, Clever and deft

serà Ell qui et prendrà, will be he who takes you,
i si tu ets temorosa and if you are nervous
no et deixarà cridar. he will be careful not to make you cry.

I will be in your room, my friend,

Seré a ta cambra, amiga,
[s̠ əˈɾe ə ta ˈkam.bɾə ˈmi.ɣə]

that no one not it will know. (no one will know)

que ningú no ho sabrà.
[kə niŋˈgu nu s̠ əˈβɾa]

Cupid at the door for me will open and close.

Cupidell a la porta, m’obrirà i tancarà.
[ˈku.piˈðeʎ ə ɫə ˈpɔr.tə mu.βɾiˈɾa i təŋ.kəˈɾa]

Clever and deft will be he who you will take, (he who will take you)
Entremaliat i destre, serà Ell qui et prendrà,
[ˌɛn̪.tɾə.mə.ɫiˈat̪ i ˈðɛs̠ .tɾə s̠ əˈɾa ˈeʎ kjət̪ pɾən̪ˈdɾa]

and if you are nervous

i si tu ets temerosa
[i s̠ i ˈtu ˈets̠ tə.məˈɾo.z̠ə]

not you will he make to cry. (he will not make you cry)
no et deixarà cridar.
[nwət̪ dɛ.ʃəˈɾa kɾiˈða]
 83

6. Visca l’amor 6. Long live love

Visca l’amor que m’ha donat l’amiga Long live love who has given me her
fresca i polida com un maig content. fresh and beautiful as a happy May.
Visca l’amor Long live love
l’he cridada i venia, I called her and she came,
-tota era blanca com un glop de llet. -- everything was white like a sip of milk.

Visca l’amor que Ella també es delia. Long live love that she too desired.
Visca l’amor: Long live love:
la volia, i l’he pres. I wanted her, and she is mine.

Long live love who me has given the friend (who has given her to me)
Visca l’amor que m’ha donat l’amiga
[ˈbis̠ .kə ɫəˈmor kə ma ðuˈnat̪ ɫəˈmi.ɣə]

fresh and beautiful as a May content.

fresca i polida com un maig content.
[ˈfɾɛs̠ .kəj puˈɫi.ðə kɔm um ˈmatʃ kun̪ˈten]

Long live love

Visca l’amor
[ˈbis̠ .kə ɫəˈmor]

Her I called and she came,

l’he cridada i venia,
[ɫə kɾiˈða.ðaj βəˈni.ə]

everything was white like a sip of milk.

tota era blanca com un glop de llet.
[ˈtot ˈɛ.ɾə ˈβɫaŋ.kə kɔm uŋ ˈgɫop də ˈʎet̪ ]

Long live love that she too desired.

Visca l’amor que Ella també es delia.
[ˈbis̠ .kə ɫəˈmor ˈkeʎə təmˈbes̠ dəˈɫi.ə]
 84

Long live love:

Visca l’amor:
[ˈbis̠ .kə ɫəˈmor]

her I wanted, and her I took..

la volia, i l’he pres.
[ɫa βuˈɫi.əj ɫə ˈpɾe]

Enric Morera

Cançó tardoral (Evening Song)

Text: J. Llongueras

Cançó tardoral Evening song

Tarda commosa com el meu cor Peaceful evening as my heart

en cada cosa plora el record in everything weeps the memory.
d’una besada of a kiss
dolça estimada! sweet beloved!

Tot sol faig via pel meu camí, Completely alone I make my way,
ningú sabria venir-hi amb mi no one could know to come with me
sentint ma pena, feeling my pain,
Tarda serena! Serene evening!

Evening peaceful like my heart

Tarda commosa com el meu cor
[ˈtar.də kumːˈmo.z̠ə kɔm əɫ ˈmɛw ˈkor]

in everything weeps the memory

en cada cosa plora el record
[ən ˈka.ðə ˈkɔ.z̠ə ˈplɔ.ɾəɫ rəˈkɔr]
 85

of a kiss
d’una besada
[ˈdu.nə βəˈz̠a.ðə]

sweet beloved!
dolça estimada
[ˈdoɫ s̠ əs̠ .tiˈma.ðə]

Completely alone I make way down my path

Tot sol faig via pel meu camí,
[ˈtot̪ ˈs̠ ɔɫ ˈfadʒ ˈβi.ə pəɫ ˈmɛw kəˈmi]

no one could know to come with me

ningú sabria venir-hi amb mi
[niŋˈgu s̠ əˈβɾi.ə βəˈni ɾjam ˈmi]

feeling my pain,
sentint ma pena,
[s̠ ən̪ˈtin mə ˈpɛ.nə]

Serene evening!
Tarda serena!
[ˈtar.də s̠ əˈɾɛ.nə]

On ets amor? (Where are you my love?)

Texts: J. Llongueras

On ets amor? Where are you my love?

On ets, amor aimia? Where are you, my affectionate love?

Ma vida se desflora, My life wilts,
mon cor ton cor ansia, my heart longs for your heart,
mon llavi, ton respir. my lips, for your breath.
 86

Mira ma pena. See my pain.

Oh, mira com canta el cor, Oh, see how my heart sings,
com plora, com plora! how it weeps, how it weeps!

Vine, vine, que el jorn ja expira Come, come now that the day is ending
i em sento amb ell morir. and I fear that I will die with it.

Where are you, love affectionate?

On ets, amor aimia?
[ˈon ˈɛts̠ əˈmor əjˈmi.ə]

My life wilts,
Ma vida se desflora,
[mə ˈβi.ðə s̠ e ðəs̠ ˈflɔ.ɾə]

My heart (for) your heart longs,

mon cor ton cor ansia,
[moŋ ˈkor toŋ ˈkor ənˈs̠ i.ə]

my lips, (for) your breath.

mon llavi, ton respir.
[mon ˈʎa.βi ton rəs̠ ˈpi]

See my pain.
Mira ma pena.
[ˈmi.ɾə mə ˈpɛ.nə]

Oh, see how sings my heart

Oh, mira com canta el cor,
[o ˈmi.ɾə kɔm ˈkan̪.təɫ ˈkor]

how it weeps, how it weeps!

com plora, com plora!
[kɔm ˈplɔ.ɾe kɔm ˈplɔ.ɾə]
 87

Come, come now that the day is ending

Vine, vine, que el jorn ja expira
[ˈbi.nə ˈbi.nə kəɫ ˈʒorn ’ʒa ˈks̠ pi.ɾə]

and I fear (that) with it I will die.

i em sento amb ell morir
[jəm ˈs̠ en̪.twam ˈeʎ muˈri]

Frederic Mompou

Combat del Somni (Dream Battle), 1942-1951

Texts: Josep Janés

1. Damunt de tu només les flors. 1. Above you are only the flowers.

Damunt de tu només les flors. Above you are only the flowers.
Eren com una ofrena blanda: They were like a white offering:
la llum que daven al teu cos The light that they shone on your body
mai més seria de la branca; will never again belong to the branch.
tota una vida de perfum An entire life of perfume
amb el seu bes t’era donada. with their kiss was given to you.
Tu resplendies de la llum You were radiant in the light,
per l’esguard clos atresorada. treasured by your closed eyes.
¡Si hagués pogut ésser sospir de flor! That I could have been the flower’s sigh!
Donar-me, com un llir, a tu, Given myself, like a lily, to you,
perquè la meva vida that my life
s’anés marcint sobre el teu pit. might wither over your breast.
I no saber mai més la nit, And never again to know the night,
que al teu costat fora esvaïda. that from your side has vanished.

Above you only the flowers.

Damunt de tu només les flors.
[dəˈmun də ˈtu nuˈmez̠ ɫəs̠ ˈflɔs̠ ]

They were like an offering white:

Eren com una ofrena blanca:
[ˈe.ɾən kɔm ˈu.nəwˈfɾɛ.ne ˈβlaŋ.kə]
 88

The light that they shone on your body

la llum que daven al teu cos
[ˈɫa ˈʎum kə ˈða.βən əɫ ˈtɛw ˈkɔs̠ ]

will never belong to the branch;

mai més seria de la branca;
[ˈmaj ˈmes̠ s̠ əˈɾi.ə ðə ɫə ˈβɾaŋ.kə]

an entire life of perfume

tota una vida de perfum
[ˈto ˈtəw.nə ˈβi.ðə ðə pərˈfum]

with their kiss to you was given.

amb el seu bes t’era donada.
[ˈam əɫ ˈs̠ ɛw ˈβes̠ ˈte.ɾə duˈna.ðə]

You were radiant in the light

Tu resplendies de la llum
[ˈtu ˈrəs̠ pɫənˈdi.əz̠ ðə ɫə ˈʎum]

by your eyes closed treasured. (treasured by your closed eyes)

per l’esguard clos atresorada.
[ˈpər ɫəz̠ˈɣwar ˈkloz̠ ə.tɾə.z̠uˈɾa.ðə]

That I could have been the sigh of the flower!

Si hagués pogut ésser sospir de flor!
[sjəˈɣes̠ puˈɣut̪ ˈe.s̠ ə s̠ us̠ ˈpi ðə ˈflɔ]

Given myself, like a lily, to you

Donar-me, com un llir, a tu,
[duˈnar.mə kɔm un ˈʎir ə ˈtu]

that my life
perquè la meva vida
[pərˈkɛ ɫə ˈme.βə ˈβi.ðə]
 89

would disappear withered over your breast.

s’anés marcint sobre el teu pit.
[s̠ əˈnez̠ mərˈs̠ in ˈs̠ o.βɾəɫ ˈtɛw ˈpit̪ ]

And never to know again the night,

I no saber mai més la nit,
[i ˈno s̠ əˈβe ˈmaj ˈmez̠ ɫə ˈnit̪ ]

that from your side has vanished

que al teu costat fora esvaïda.
[kəɫ ˈtɛw kos̠ ˈtat̪ ˈfo.ɾ əz.βəˈi.ðə]

2. Aquesta nit un mateix vent 2. Tonight the same wind

Aquesta nit un mateix vent Tonight the same wind

i una mateixa vela encesa and the same lit candle
devien dû el teu pensament came from your thoughts
i el meu per mars on la tendresa and mine from the seas where tenderness
es torna música I cristall. is turned to music and crystal.
El bes se’ns feia transparència The kiss made us transparent
– Si tu eres l’aigua, jo el mirall – – if you were the water, I was the mirror –
Com si abracéssim una absència. As if we embraced a void.
¿El nostre cel fóra, poster, It was our heaven, perhaps,
un somni etern, així, de besos an eternal dream, there, of kisses
fets melodia, i un no ser made melody, and not one that is
de cossos junts I d’ulls encesos of bodies joined and burning eyes
amb flames blanques, i un sospir with white flames, and a sigh
d’acariciar sedes de llir? caressing lilies of silk?

Tonight the same wind

Aquesta nit un mateix vent
[əˈkɛs̠ .tə ˈnit̪ um məˈteʒ ˈben]

and the same candle lit (lit candle)

i una mateixa vela encesa
[ˈju.nə məˈte.ʃəˈ βɛ.ɫən ˈs̠ ɛz̠ə]
 90

came from your thoughts

devien dû el teu pensament
[dəˈβi.ən ˈdwəɫ ˈtɛw ˌpen.s̠ əˈmen]

and mine from the seas where tenderness

i el meu per mars on la tendresa
[jəɫ ˈmɛw pər ˈmarz̠ on ɫə tənˈdɾɛ.z̠ə]

is turned to music and crystal.

es torna música i cristall.
[əs̠ ˈtor.nə ˈmu.z̠i.kəj kɾisˈtaʎ]

The kiss us made transparent

El bes se’ns feia transparència
[əɫ ˈβes̠ s̠ ənz̠ ˈfɛ.jə tɾənz̠.pəˈɾɛn.s̠ i.ə]

if you were the water, I was the mirror

si tu eres l’aigua, jo el mirall
[ˈsi ˈtu ˈe.ɾəs̠ ˈɫaj.ɣwə ʒwəɫ miˈɾaʎ]

As if we embraced a void.
Com si abracéssim una absència.
[kɔm s̠ jə βɾəˈs̠ e.s̠ im un əpˈs̠ ɛn.s̠ i.ə]

Our heaven it was, perhaps

El nostre cel fóra, poster,
[əɫ ˈnɔs̠ .tɾə ˈs̠ ɛɫ ˈfoɾə putˈs̠ e]

a dream eternal, there, of kisses

un somni etern, així, de besos
[un ˈs̠ ɔm.njəˈtɛrn əˈʃi ðə ˈβe.z̠us̠ ]

made melody, and one not is (made melody, and not one that is)
fets melodia, i un no ser
[ˈfɛts̠ mɛ.ɫuˈði.ə jun no ˈs̠ e]
 91

of bodies joined and of eyes burning

de cossos junts i d’ulls encesos
[də ˈkɔ.s̠ us̠ ˈʒuns̠ i ˈðuʎz̠ ənˈs̠ e.z̠us̠ ]

with flames white, and a sigh

amb flames blanques, i un sospir
[am ˈfɫa.məs̠ ˈbɫaŋ.kəs̠ jun s̠ us̠ ˈpi]

caressing lilies of silk?

d’acariciar sedes de llir?
[də.kə.ɾi.s̠ iˈa ˈs̠ ɛ.ðəs̠ ðə ʎir]

3. Jo et pressentia com la mar 3. I pictured you as the sea

Jo et pressentia com la mar I pictured you as the sea,

i com el vent, immensa, lliure, and as the wind, immense free,
alta, damunt de tot atzar high above all hazardous things
i tot destí. and all destiny.
I en el meu viure, com el respir. And in my life like breathing.
I ara que et tinc And now that I have you,
veig com el somni et limitava. I see how that dream limited you.
Tu no ets un nom, ni un gest. You are neither name or gesture.
No vinc a tu com a la imatge blava I do not come to you as a hazy image of a
d’un somni humà. human dream.
Tu no ets la mar, You are not the sea,
que és presonera dins de platges, which is imprisoned between beaches,
tu no ets el vent, pres en l’espai. you are not the wind, confined in space.
Tu no tens límits; You have no limits;
No hi ha, encar, mots per a dir-te, there are as yet no words to describe you,
Ni paisatges per sê el teu món – nor lands that can be your world –
ni hi seran mai. nor will there ever be.

I you pictured as the sea

Jo et pressentia com la mar
[ˈʒɔt̪ pɾə.s̠ ə.n̪ˈti.ə kɔm ɫə maˈ]
 92

and as the wind, immense free

i com el vent, immensa, lliure
[i kɔm əɫ ˈben i. ˈmɛn.s̠ ə ˈʎiw.ɾə]

high above all hazardz

alta, damunt de tot atzar
[ˈaɫ.tə ðəˈmun ðə ˈtot̪ ətˈs̠ a]

and all destiny.

i tot destí.
[i ˈtot̪ dəs̠ ˈti]

And in my life like breathing.

I en el meu viure com el respir.
[jən əɫ ˈmɛw βiw.ɾə kɔm əɫ ɾəs̠ ˈpi]

And now that you I have

I ara que et tinc
[ˈja.ɾə kət̪ tiŋ]

I see how the dream you limited (I see how the dream limited you)
veig com el somni et limitava.
[ˈbɛtʃ kɔm əɫ ˈs̠ ɔm.njət̪ ɫi.miˈta.βə]

You neither are a name nor a gesture.

Tu no ets un nom, ni un gest.
[ˈtu ˈnwɛts̠ un ˈnɔm ˈnjun ˈʒes̠ ]

I do not come to you as to an image hazy

No vinc a tu com a la imatge blava
[no ˈβiŋk ə ˈtu kɔm ə ɫəj ˈma.dʒə ˈβɫa.βə]

of a human dream
d’un somni humà.
[dun ˈs̠ ɔm.nju ˈma]
 93

You not are the sea, (You are not the sea)
Tu no ets la mar,
[ˈtu ˈnwɛts̠ ɫə ˈmar]

which is imprisoned between beaches,

que és presonera dins de platges,
[ˈkes pɾə.z̠uˈne.ɾə ˈdinz̠ də ˈpɫa,dʒəs̠ ]

you not are the wind, confined in space.

tu no ets el vent, pres en l’espai.
[ˈtu ˈnwɛts̠ əɫ ˈben pɾɛz̠ ən ɫəs̠ ˈpaj]

You do not have limits;

Tu no tens limits;
[ˈtu no ˈtenz̠ ˈɫi.mits̠ ]

None there are, as yet, words to describe you,

No hi ha, encar, mots per a dir-te,
[no jəŋ ˈkar ˈmots̠ pəɾ ə ˈðir.t ə]

Nor lands that can be your world

Ni paisatges per sê el teu món
[ni pajˈz̠a.dʒəs̠ pər s̠ əɫ tɛw ˈmon]

nor there will be ever.

ni hi seran mai.
[ni s̠ əˈɾan ˈmaj]

4. Fes-me la vida transparent 4. Give me a transparent life

Fes-me la vida transparent, Give me a transparent life,

com els teus ulls; like your eyes;
torna ben pura la mà meva, make my hand completely pure,
i al pensament and in my thoughts
du u-m’hi la pau. give me peace.
 94

Altra aventura no vull, No other adventure do I want,

sinó la de seguir except to follow
l’estela blanca que neixia the white wake created
dels teus camins. by your passing,
I no llanguir And not to languish
per ser mirall d’uns ulls. by being the mirror of your eyes.
Voldria ser com un riu oblidadís I would wish to be like an oblivious river
que es lliura al mar, that is open to the sea,
les aigües pures de tota imatge the pure waters of every image,
amb un anhel de blau. with a yearning for the blue.
I ser llavors feliç And to be happy then,
de viure lluny d’amors obscures Living far from obscure loves
amb l’esperança del teu cel. with the hope of your heaven.

Give me a life transparent

Fes-me la vida transparent,
[ˈfɛs̠ .mə ɫə ˈβi.ðə tɾənz̠.pəˈɾen]

like your eyes;

com els teus ulls;
[kɔm əɫz̠ ˈtɛwz̠ ˈuʎz̠]

make my hand completely pure,

torna ben pura la mà meva,
[ˈtɔr.nə ˈβen ˈpu.ɾə ɫə ˈma ˈme.βə]

and in my thoughts
i al pensament
[jəɫ ˌpen.s̠ əˈmen]

give me peace.
du u-m’hi la pau.
[du mi ɫə ˈpaw]

Another adventure (I) do not want,

Altra aventura no vull,
[ˈaɫ.tɾə βənˈtu.ɾə no βuʎ]
 95

except the one to follow

sinó la de seguir
[s̠ iˈno ɫə ðə s̠ əˈɣir]

the white wake created

l’estela blanca que neixia
[ɫəˈs̠ tɛ.ɫə ˈβɫaŋ.kə kə nəˈʃi.ə]

by your passing.
dels teus camins.
[ðəɫz̠ ˈtɛws̠ kəˈminz̠]

And not to languish

I no llanguir
[i no ʎəŋˈgi]

by being the mirror of your eyes.

per ser mirall d’uns ulls.
[pər ˈs̠ e miˈɾaʎ ðunz̠ ˈuʎz̠]

I would wish to be like a river oblivious

Voldria ser com un riu oblidadís
[buɫˈdɾi.ə ˈs̠ e kɔm un ˈriw βɫiˈða.ðis̠ ]

that is open to the sea,

que es lliura al mar,
[kes̠ ˈʎiw.ɾəɫ ˈmar]

the waters pure of every image

les aigües pures de tota imatge
[ɫəz̠ ˈaj.ɣwəs̠ ˈpu.ɾəs̠ də ˈto.tə iˈma.dʒə]

with a yearning for the blue.

amb un anhel de blau.
[am un aˈnɛɫ də ˈβɫaw]
 96

And to be then happy

I ser llavors feliç
[i ˈs̠ e ʎəˈβɔrs̠ fəˈɫis̠ ]

Living far from loves obscure

de viure lluny d’amors obscures
[də ˈβiw.ɾə ˈʎuɲ dəˈmɔrz̠ upˈs̠ ku.ɾəs̠ ]

with the hope of your heaven

amb l’esperança del teu cel.
[am ɫəs̠ .pəˈɾan.s̠ ə ðəɫ ˈtɛw ˈs̠ ɛɫ]

Joaquim Serra

L’elegia d’una rosa (Elegy for a Rose), 1938

Text: Josep Carner

L’elegia d’una rosa Elegy for a Rose.

Quina cosa, Deu meu, quina cosa! What a thing, my God, what a thing!
És la cosa més trista d’enguany. It is the saddest thing of the year.
Se m’ha mort una rosa, la rosa; A rose has died before me, the rose;
se m’ha mort sense pena ni plany. it has died without pain or crying.

Ni la pluja ni el vent li han fet nosa, Neither the rain nor the wind hindered it,
ni ha mirat de collir-la l’estrany. nor has a stranger tried to harvest it.
Se m’ha mort una rosa, la rosa; A rose has died before me, the rose,
que potser ni tenia averany. that may have only had bad luck.

Ni la bella il·lusió l’ha desclosa, The beautiful dream did not close it,
ni ses fulles puní el desengany. its leaves not punished by disappointment.
Se m’ha mort una rosa, la rosa; A rose has died before me, the rose,
se m’ha mort tota sola en el tany. it died before me all alone on the branch.
 97

What a thing, God mine, what a thing!

Quina cosa, Deu meu, quina cosa!
[ˈki.nə ˈkɔ.z̠ə ˈðɛw ˈmɛw ˈki.nə ˈkɔ.z̠ə]

It is the thing most sad of the year

És la cosa més trista d’enguany.
[ˈez̠ ɫə ˈkɔ.z̠ə ˈmes̠ ˈtɾis̠ .tə ðənˈgwaɲ]

It before me has died, a rose, the rose;

Se m’ha mort una rosa, la rosa;
[s̠ ə mə ˈmɔrt ˈu.nə ˈrɔ.z̠ə ɫə ˈrɔ.z̠ə]

It before me has died without pain or crying.

se m’ha mort sense pena ni plany.
[s̠ ə mə ˈmɔr ˈs̠ en.s̠ ə ˈpe.nə ni ˈpɫaɲ]

Neither the rain nor the wind it have hindered, (have hindered it)
Ni la pluja ni el vent li han fet nosa,
[ni ɫə ˈpɫu.ʒə njəɫ ˈben ljən ˈfɛt̪ ˈnɔ.z̠ə]

nor has seen taking it a stranger. (Nor has a stranger taken it).
ni ha mirat de collir-la l’estrany.
[njə miˈɾat̪ də kuˈʎi. ɫə ɫəsˈtɾaɲ]

It before me has died, a rose, the rose;

Se m’ha mort una rosa, la rosa;
[s̠ ə mə ˈmɔrt ˈu.nə ˈrɔ.z̠ə ɫə ˈrɔ.z̠ə]

that may have only had bad luck

que potser ni tenia averany.
[kə putˈs̠ e ni təˈni.ə vəˈɾaɲ]

Nor the beautiful dream it did close, (the beautiful dream did not close it)
Ni la bella il·lusió l’ha desclosa,
[ni ɫə ˈβe.ʎi ɫuˈs̠ jo ɫə ðəˈkɫɔ.z̠ə]
 98

its leaves not punished by disappointment.

ni ses fulles puní el desengany.
[ni s̠ əs̠ ˈfu.ʎəs̠ puˈniɫ də.z̠əŋˈgaɲ]

It before me has died, a rose, the rose;

Se m’ha mort una rosa, la rosa;
[s̠ ə mə ˈmɔrt ˈu.nə ˈrɔ.z̠ə ɫə ˈrɔ.z̠ə]

It before me has died all alone on the branch.

se m’ha mort tota sola en el tany.
[s̠ ə mə ˈmɔr ˈto.tə ˈs̠ ɔ.ɫən əɫ ˈtaɲ]

El sonet dels llavis (Sonnet of the lips), 1938

Text: Josep Carner

El sonet dels llavis Sonnet of the lips

Seguidament els llavis cantaria Then your lips would sing

amb què em persuadeixes i m’arbores. with which you persuade and uplift me.
Tos llavis són metzines temptadores, Your lips are poisonous temptresses,
ires de voluptat i de follia; Ire of voluptuousness and madness;

Saben paraules embriagadores, They know intoxicating words,

i el dolç segell que l’esperit desnia; and the sweet seal that the spirit breaks;
besen de nit amb flaires dormidores They kiss at night with sleeping flashes
i criden clars en aixecar-se el dia and they call out at dawn.

Oh llavis, de la cara en la blancor Oh lips, on the face in paleness

Són escarlates, de cruel bellesa they are scarlet, of a cruel beauty
Oh llavis, llavis, quina sang malmesa Oh lips, lips, what cursed blood

de ferit us ha dada l’encesor? from injury has made you blush?

Quin cor xuclàreu, que teniu tebior What heart did you squeeze, feeling tepid
d’alguna vida que fa poc heu presa? from some life you recently took?
 99

Next your lips would sing

Seguidament els llavis cantaria
[s̠ əˌɣi.ðəˈmen əɫz̠ ˈʎa.βis̠ kən.təˈɾi.ən]

with which me you persuade and uplift me. (with which you persuade and uplift me)
amb què em persuadeixes i m’arbores.
[am kəm pər.s̠ wəˈðe.ʃəs̠ i mərˈbɔ.ɾəs̠ ]

Your lips are poisonous temptresses,

Tos llavis són metzines temptadores,
[tus̠ ˈʎa.βis̠ ˈs̠ on mədˈz̠i.nəs̠ təm.təˈðɔ.ɾəs̠ ]

Ires of voluptuousness and of madness;

Ires de voluptat i de pollia;
[ˈi.ɾəs̠ də βu.ɫupˈtat̪ i ðə puˈʎi.ə]

They know words intoxicating,

Saben paraules embriagadores,
[ˈs̠ a.βən pəˈɾaw.ɫəs̠ əm.bɾi.ə.ɣəˈðɔ.ɾəs̠ ]

and the sweet seal that the spirit breaks;

i el dolç segell que l’esperit desnia;
[i əɫ ˈdɔɫs̠ s̠ əˈʒeʎ kə ɫəs̠ .pəˈɾit̪ dəz̠ˈni.ə]

They kiss at night with flashes sleeping (sleeping flashes)

besen de nit amb flaires dormidores
[ˈbe.z̠ən də ˈnit̪ am ˈf1aj.ɾəs̠ dur.miˈðɔ.ɾəs̠ ]

and they call out clearly when rises the day (and they call out clearly at dawn)
i criden clars en aixecar-se el dia
[i ˈkɾiˈðən ˈkɫas̠ ən ə.ʃəˈka.s̠ əɫ ˈdi.ə]

Oh lips, on the face in paleness

Oh llavis, de la cara en la blancor
[o ˈʎa.βis̠ də ɫə ˈka.ɾən ɫə βɫəŋˈko]
 100

they are scarlet, of a cruel beauty

Són escarlates, de cruel bellesa
[ˈs̠ on əs̠ .kərˈɫa.təs̠ ðə kɾuˈɛɫ bəˈʎɛ.z̠ə]

Oh lips, lips, what blood cursed

Oh llavis, llavis, quina sang malmesa
[o ˈʎa.βis̠ ˈʎa.βis̠ ˈki.nə ˈs̠ aŋ məɫˈmɛ.z̠ə]

from injury you has made blush? (from injury has made you blush)
de ferit us ha dada l’encesor?
[də fəˈɾit̪ us̠ ə ˈða.ðə ɫən.s̠ əˈz̠o]

What heart did you squeeze, that had tepidness (that was tepid)
Quin cor xuclàreu, que teniu tebior
[ˈkin ˈkɔr ʃu.kɫəˈɾɛw kə təˈniw tə.ˈβjo]

from some life that recently you took?

d’alguna vida que fa poc heu presa?
[ðəɫˈɣu.nə ˈβi.ðə kə ˈfa ˈpok ˈɛw ˈpɾɛ.z̠ə]

Xavier Montsalvatge

Paisatge del Montseny (Landscapes of Montseny), 1970

Text: Pere Ribot

Paisatge del Montseny Landscapes of Montseny

Tot és pur com la teva aïgua, All is pure like your water,
Tot es verd com el teu cos, All is green like your land,
Eternitat en repòs, Eternity in repose,
I jo, rossinyol de l’aire And I, nightingale of the air,
Quin silenci en la teva hombra What silence in your shadow
Que m’abriga l’esperit! Which covers my soul!
Sóc rossinyol de la nit, I am nightingale of the night,
Visc al pais de les pomes, I live in the land of apples,
 101

Quan el vent de la muntanya When the wind of the mountain

Fa sentir les seves veus, Makes its voices heard,
Sento creixer l’herba als peus, I feel the grass growing at my feet,
Sóc ànima del paisatge. I am soul of the landscape.
Bé s’ho val, en la tortura del brogit How good it is in the torture of the clamor
De la ciutat, un moment d’eternitat, Of the city, a moment of eternity
I Deu—que et dona la fruita. And God—who gives you fruit.

All is pure like your water

Tot és pur com la teva aïgua,
[ˈtot̪ ˈes̠ ˈpur ˈkɔm ɫə ˈteβ aj.ɣwə]

All is green like your land,

Tot es verd com el teu cos,
[ˈtot̪ ˈes̠ ˈβɛr ˈkɔm əɫ ˈtɛw ˈkɔs̠ ]

Eternity in repose,
Eternitat en repòs,
[ə.tər.niˈtat̪ ən rəˈpɔs̠ ]

And I, nightingale of the air

I jo, rossinyol de l’aire
[i ˈʒo ru.s̠ iˈɲɔɫ də ˈɫaj.ɾə]

What silence in your shadow

Quin silenci en la teva hombra
[ˈkin s̠ iˈɫɛn.s̠ jən ɫə ˈteβ ˈom.bɾə]

Which covers my soul!

Que m’abriga l’esperit!
[kə məˈβɾi.ɣə ɫə s̠ pəˈɾit̪ ]

I am nightingale of the night,

Sóc rossinyol de la nit,
[ˈs̠ ok ru.s̠ iˈɲɔɫ də ɫə ˈnit̪ ]
 102

I live in the land of the apples,

Visc al pais de les pomes,
[ˈbis̠ k əɫ pəˈiz̠ ðə ɫəs̠ ˈpo.məs̠ ]

When the wind of the mountain

Quan el vent de la muntanya
[ˈkwan əɫ ˈβen də ɫə munˈta.ɲə]

Makes heard its voices

Fa sentir les seves veus,
[ˈfa s̠ ənˈti ɫəs̠ ˈs̠ e.βəs̠ ˈβɛws̠ ]

I feel growing the grass at my feet,

Sento creixer l’herba als peus,
[ˈs̠ en.tu kɾəˈʃe ˈ ɫɛr.βəɫz̠ ˈpɛws̠ ]

I am soul of the landscape.

Sóc ànima del paisatge.
[ˈs̠ ok ˈa.ni.mə ðəɫ pəjˈz̠ad.ʒə]

Good it is in the torture of the clamor

Bé s’ho val, en la tortura del brogit
[ˈbe s̠ uˈ βaɫ ən ɫə turˈtu.ɾə ðəɫ bɾuˈʒit̪ ]

Of the city, a moment of eternity

De la ciutat, un moment d’heternitat,
[ðə ɫə s̠ iwˈtat̪ un muˈmen də.tər.niˈtat̪ ]

And God who to you gives you fruit.

I Deu que et dona la fruita.
[i ˈðɛw kət̪ ˈdo.nə ɫə ˈfɾuj.tə]
 103

Cançó amorosa (Love Song), 1948

Text: Tomas Garcés

Cançó amorosa Love Song

Voldría ser mariner I would like to be a sailor

i durte a la meva vora; and to have you by my side;
la vela iria pel mar the sail would move across the sea
com un cavall blanc que corre, like a white horse running,
el vent posaria olor de fonoll the wind would smell of fennel
entre les cordes between the ropes
i l’ona es faria en llà And the waves would roll far away
deixant el camí a la proa. Leaving a path for the bow.

Passarien els vaixells Ships would pass by

fent voleiar les banderes. flying their flags.
Mariners, cap on aneu, Sailors, to where are you headed,
cap on aneu tan de presa? to where are you going with such haste?
potser cerqueu un tresor maybe you are searching for treasure
perdut en la mar deserta? lost in the deserted sea?

Jo els veuria com se’n van, I would watch how they sailed away
sense mica de recança. without a bit of regret.
Els teus ulls són mon tresor, Your eyes are my treasure,
poc he de cercarne d’altre. I do not need to search for any other.
Quina joia, al teu costat, What joy at your side,
veure la terra allunyarse to watch the land fall into the distance,
i seguir en les nits d’agost and to follow in the August nights
les estrelles que es desmaten. the stars that dazzle
.
On tu giressis l’esguard Wherever you turn your gaze
el vent ens hi portaria, the wind would carry us,
t’escoltarien le veu they would hear your voice
els peixos i les gavines the fish and the seagulls.
els focs ardents de Sant Telm the fierce fire of Saint Elmo
a dalt dels pals s’encendrien atop the masts would burn
i veuries que al teu pas and you would see that with your step
la terra i el mar sospiren. the land and the sea sigh.
 104

I would like to be a sailor

Voldría ser mariner
[buɫˈdɾi.ə ˈs̠ e mə.ɾiˈne]

and to have you by my side;

i durte a la meva vora;
[i ˈðurt ə ɫə ˈme.βə ’βɔ.ɾə]

the sail would move across the sea

la vela iria pel mar
[ɫə ˈβe.lə iˈɾi.ə pəɫ ˈmar]

like a horse white that runs,

com un cavall blanc que corre,
[kɔm uŋ kəˈβaʎ ˈβɫaŋ kə ˈko.ɾə]

the wind would give the smell of fennel

el vent posaria olor de fonoll
[əɫ ˈβen pu.z̠əˈɾi.ə uˈɫo ðə fuˈnoʎ]

between the ropes

entre les cordes
[ˈen.tɾə ɫəs̠ ˈkɔr.dəs̠ ]

And the waves would roll far away

i l’ona es faria en llà
[i ˈɫo.n əs̠ fəˈɾi ən ˈʎa]

Leaving a path for the bow.

deixant el camí a la proa.
[dəˈʃan əɫ kəˈmi ə ɫə ˈpɾo.ə]

Would pass by the ships (The ships would pass by)

Passarien els vaixells
[pə.s̠ əˈɾi.ən əɫz̠ bəˈʃeɫz̠]
 105

flying their flags.

fent voleiar les banderes.
[ˈfen bu.ɫeˈja ɫez̠ bənˈde.ɾəs̠ ]

Sailors, to where are you going,

Mariners, cap on aneu,
[mə.ɾiˈnes̠ ˈkaβ ˈon əˈnɛw]

to where are you going such with haste? (with such haste)
cap on aneu tan de presa?
[ˈkaβ ˈon əˈnɛw ˈtan də ˈpɾe.z̠ə]

maybe you are searching for a treasure

potser cerqueu un tresor
[putˈs̠ e s̠ ərˈkɛw un tɾeˈz̠o]

lost in the deserted sea

perdut en la mar deserta?
[pərˈdut̪ ən ɫe ˈmar dəˈz̠ɛr.tə]

I they would watch how they went (I would watch how they sailed)
Jo els veuria com se’n van,
[ˈʒwəɫz̠ bɛwˈɾi.ə ˈkɔm s̠ ən ˈban]

without a bit of regret.

sense mica de recança.
[ˈs̠ en.s̠ ə ˈmi.kə ðə rəˈkan.s̠ ə]

Your eyes are my treasure,

Els teus ulls són mon tresor,
[əɫz̠ ˈtɛwz̠ ˈuʎz̠ ˈs̠ on ˈmon tɾeˈz̠o]

I do not need to search for any other.

poc he de cercarne d’altre.
[ˈpok ə ðe s̠ ərˈkar.nə ˈðaɫ.tɾə]
 106

What joy at your side,

Quina joia, al teu costat,
[ˈki.nə ˈʒɔ.jə əɫ ˈtɛw kus̠ ˈtat̪ ]

to watch the land fall into the distance

veure la terra allunyarse
[ˈbɛw.ɾə ɫə ˈtɛr ə.ʎuˈɲar.s̠ ə]

and to follow in the nights of August

i seguir en les nits d’agost
[i s̠ əˈɣi ən ɫəz̠ ˈnits̠ ðəˈɣos̠ ]

the stars that dazzle

les estrelles que es desmaten.
[ɫəz̠ əs̠ ˈtɾe.ʎəs̠ kəz̠ dəz̠ˈma.tən]

Wherever you turn your gaze

On tu giressis l’esguard
[ˈon ˈtu ʒiˈɾɛ.s̠ is̠ ɫəz̠ˈɣwar]

the wind us would carry,

el vent ens hi portaria,
[əɫ ˈben ənz̠ i pur.təˈɾi.ə]

they would hear your voice

t’escoltarien le veu
[təs̠ ,kuɫ.təˈɾi.ən ɫe ˈβɛw]

the fish and the seagulls

els peixos i les gavines
[əɫz̠ ˈpe.ʃus̠ i ɫəz̠ gəˈβi.nəs̠ ]

the fires fierce of Saint Elmo

els focs ardents de Sant Telm
[əɫz̠ ˈfoks̠ ərˈðenz̠ də ˈs̠ an ˈtɛlm]
 107

atop the masts would burn

a dalt dels pals s’encendrien
[ə ˈðaɫ dəlz̠ ˈpaɫz̠ s̠ ən.s̠ enˈdɾi.ən]

and you would see that with your step

i veuries que al teu pas
[i βɛwˈɾi.əs̠ kəɫ tɛw ˈpas̠ ]

the land and the sea sigh.

la terra i el mar sospiren.
[ˈɫə ˈtɛ.rə jəɫ ˈ mar s̠ us̠ ˈpi.ɾən]
 CHAPTER 6
Conclusions

Catalan language song repertoire has received very little recognition outside of

Catalonia. The international success of the Catalan composers’ Castilian-language and

French-language repertoire suggests that the Catalan language itself has been the primary

barrier to the proliferation of this repertoire abroad. This essay supplies a detailed and

exhaustive singer’s guide to the pronunciation of Catalan, IPA transcriptions for many

song texts, an IPA transcription guide that enables singers to create their own

transcriptions, and an introduction to the repertoire itself. It is the author’s hope that this

essay will be embraced as a guidebook for students and teachers as they incorporate

Catalan song into their repertoire.

With regard to lyric diction, the Catalan language is comparable in difficulty to

French or Portuguese, which are both languages that are regularly mastered by non-native

singers. It is not uncommon for students in college and university music programs to

reach beyond the standard repertoire by undertaking the study of Castilian, Russian,

Czech, or Scandinavian songs, and there is no reason that Catalan repertoire should not

enjoy the same stature in voice studios. Not long ago, Castilian-language repertoire could

be described as “the forgotten repertoire.”108 While there is still much work to be done,

Castilian repertoire is gradually increasing in visibility in the United States.109 The same

108. Nico Castel, A Singer’s Manual of Spanish Lyric Diction, 5.

109. Suzanne Rhodes Draayer, "Seductively Spanish-Programming Ideas for Spanish Song Repertoire."
Journal of Singing 67, no. 5 (2011): 523.
108
 109
renaissance is possible for Catalan repertoire, and this essay takes the first step towards

making it a reality.

Additional Resources for Singers

Few resources exist dedicated to the study of Catalan music, but Catalan

composers and repertoire are given some space in several important scholarly texts

dedicated to Spanish music. Gilbert Chase’s 1941 The Music of Spain remains the

authoritative general text on Spanish art music.110 Suzanne Rhodes Draayer’s Art Song

Composers of Spain is the most comprehensive guide in existence for Spanish art song

and includes biographical information and musicological commentary on several of the

most important Catalan composers.111 The Spanish Song Companion by Jacqueline

Cockburn and Richard Stokes includes translations of several Catalan songs, and an

excellent introductory essay on Spanish art song by Graham Johnson.112 Diccionario de

la música Española e hispanoamericana is an exhaustive Castilian-language resource on

Spanish music comparable in format to the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.113

IPA transcription resources mentioned in the previous chapter include Josep Miguel

110. Gilbert Chase, The Music of Spain.

111. Suzanne Rhodes Draayer, Art Song Composers of Spain: An Encyclopedia.

112. Jacqueline Cockburn, The Spanish Song Companion, 82.

113. George Grove, Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5th ed., ed. Denis Stevens and Eric Blom
(New York: St. Martin's Press, 1955).
 110
Sobrer’s The Singer’s Anthology of 20th Century Spanish Songs, and Tritó’s Obra

completa per a Veu i Piano of Enric Granados.114

Future Initiatives

Possible future initiatives may include critical editions of Catalan songs with IPA

transcriptions and English and Castilian translations, and a book on Catalan art song and

lyric diction, or more broadly, on art song and lyric diction of the languages of the Iberian

Peninsula. Indeed, there exist several other minority languages on the Iberian Peninsula

that boast their own rich song repertoires, and preliminary research into these areas has

already begun.

This essay, being the first resource of its kind, takes a necessarily thorough,

technical and exhaustive approach. With the goal of lending accessibility to the

repertoire, future projects such as journal articles and books may be more accessible to

individual singers who are not as well-versed in the subject of lyric diction.

Governmental and non-governmental Catalan institutions are dedicated to

expanding the international footprint of Catalan culture. The Institut Ramon Llull is one

such government organization headquartered in Barcelona whose mission is to promote

Catalan language and culture abroad. With the collaboration of Catalan institutions,

future lectures, presentations and recitals across the United States and abroad may be

possible. It is the hope of the author to continue to promote and disseminate this fine but

114. Josep Miquel Sobrer, The Singer's Anthology of 20th Century Spanish Songs; Enric Granados, Obra
Completa per a Veu i Piano.
 111
long-neglected repertoire through performance, scholarly presentations, publications,

online resources, and any other means possible.

 APPENDIX A
Table of Songs

The table below lists all Catalan-language songs referenced in chapters four and

five. Most songs are appropriate for both treble and for tenor or bass voices. For tenor or

bass voices, the indicated vocal range can be transposed down one octave. When the

abbreviation ILLIAD is found in the availability column, it stands for the Interlibrary

Loan system, and indicates that the work is out of print, but is available through ILLAD.

Composer Larger Work Title Range Available

Cançó de la
Mompou, F. D#4 – E5 Salabert
Fira
Combat del Damunt de tu
D4 – Gb5 Salabert
Somni només les flors
Combat del Aquesta nit un
B3 – F5 Salabert
Somni mateix vent
Combat del Jo et pressentia
D#4 – G5 Salabert
Somni com la mar
Combat del Fes-me la vida
B3 – G#5 Salabert
Somni transparent
Cançó Unión Musical
Montsalvatge C4-E5
Amorosa Ediciones
Paisatge del
Bb3 – F#5 Tritó Edicions
Montseny
urresearch.
Morera, E. Cançó tardoral Ab4 – F5
rochester.edu
urresearch.
On ets amor? D4 – F#5
rochester.edu
Cançons del Clavell del
D4 – G5 Tritó Digital
Carrer balcó
Cançons del
Ai, Marguerida F4 – G5 Tritó Digital
Carrer
Cançons del
Abril D4 – G5 Tritó Digital
Carrer
Cançons del
L’oreneta E4 – F#5 Tritó Digital
Carrer

112
 113

Cançons del Estel del

Morera, E. F4 – G5 Tritó Digital
Carrer dematí
Cançons del
La font D4 – G5 Tritó Digital
Carrer
L’elegia d’una
Serra, J. D4 – G5 Clivis
rosa
El sonet dels
E4 – A5 Clivis
llavis
Aquarel·la del Unión Musical
Toldrà, E. E4 - E5
Montseny Ediciones
Romanç de Unión Musical
E4 - F#5
Santa Llúcia Ediciones
La Rosa als Si anessis tan
E4 - F#5 ILLIAD
Llavis lluny
La Rosa als Mocador
D4 – G5 ILLIAD
Llavis d’olor
La Rosa als
I el seu esguard D4 – F5 ILLIAD
Llavis
I el vent
La Rosa als
deixava dintre Eb4 – F#5 ILLIAD
Llavis
la rosella
La Rosa als Seré a ta
C#4 – G5 ILLIAD
Llavis cambra amiga
La Rosa als
Visca l’amor Eb4 – Ab5 ILLIAD
Llavis
 APPENDIX B
Glossary of Terms

absolutely initial: Occurring at the beginning of a musical phrase; the first phoneme
heard or letter appearing in a music phrase.
accent: (see: acute accent; diacritical; grave accent).
acute accent: Diacritical mark ( ´ ) that appears over é, í, ó, and ú.
affricate: A stop/plosive consonant that is released with a fricative in the same place of
articulation.
allophone: An audibly distinct variation of a phoneme that is often not perceived to be
distinct by native speakers of the language (Catalan ex. the letter d in durada
[duˈra.ðə].
alveolar: Articulated with the front of the tongue against the alveolar ridge.
alveolar ridge: The ridge of the gums just behind the upper front teeth.
apical: Articulated with only the very tip of the tongue.
approximant: A consonant phoneme formed when articulators approach each other
without coming into direct contact.
articulation: The production of speech sounds, particularly consonants.
articulator: Any part of the vocal tract (vocal instrument) that is manipulated to form
speech sounds. Particularly: organs used to form consonants sounds, e.g. tongue,
lips, teeth, etc.
aspect: Term for a grammatical verb category relating to an action’s status over time.
E.g. perfective aspect is used for events that take place within a clear time
boundary, while imperfective aspect is used for event that unfold continuously or
progressively.
aspirate: the quality of an audible puff of air that follows a consonant before the
following vowel begins to sound, during which the vocal folds do not vibrate. E.g.
initial plosives in English are aspirate, such as in the words time and pour.
assimilation: The phenomenon by which a sound is changed in order to match the
phonetic qualities of a neighboring sound. E.g. a normally unvoiced consonant
may become voiced to match the voiced quality of a neighboring consonant or
vowel.

114
 115
autonomous community: The highest level geographical administrative division in the
Kingdom of Spain. Comparable to US states or Canadian provinces.
back: Describes a vowel in which the tongue is arched towards the back of the mouth.
bilabial: Articulated with the lower lip and upper lip together.
cancion lírica: The Spanish art song genre.
canço lírica: The Catalan art song genre.
Castilian: The official national language of Spain. Commonly known as “Spanish.”
(Castellano in Spanish, castellà in Catalan)
Castile: (Castilla) The Kingdom of Castile was the dominant power on the Iberian
Peninsula from the 13th century up to the unification of Spain. It is the birth place
of the Castilian language and was the center of the unification of Spain.
cluster: A sequence of consonants or consonant sounds not separated by vowels.
cluster reduction: The phenomenon whereby one or more consonant sounds in a cluster
is deleted, simplifying the cluster for ease of pronunciation.
cluster simplification: (see: cluster reduction)
coda: The final part of a syllable that comes after the nucleus.
conjugation: The inflection of verbs. In most languages, verb stems are inflected in a
regular and predictable manner for tense, aspect, mood, etc.
consonant cluster: (see: cluster)
consonant inventory: (see: phonemic inventory)
dental: Articulated with the tongue and the teeth.
devoicing: The phenomenon whereby a normally voiced consonant is converted to its
voiceless counterpart.
diacritic: (diacritical) Any mark or symbol appearing with a letter. E.g. accent, diarisis,
tilde, etc. ( á , ï , ñ ).
diagraph: (digraph) Two letters that, when appearing together in sequence, produce a
single phoneme.
dialect: A distinctive variant of a language spoken in a specific geographic area.
diaeresis: A diacritic symbol consisting of two dots appearing over a letter. Also known
as the umlaut.
 116
diphthong: The sequence of vowel plus a semivowel that is commonly perceived as a
single distinct sound; a vowel that changes in quality within a single syllable. Diphthongs
can be described as rising or falling depending on which part of the sound is prominent
(i.e. the order of the sequence; vowel plus semivowel, or semivowel plus vowel).
elision: The phenomenon by which a vowel at the end of a word is deleted (elided)
before another vowel at the beginning of the next word.
external: Being the first or last letter or phoneme in a word.
falling diphthong: The class of diphthong in which a vowel is followed by a semivowel;
The class of diphthong in which the first part of the diphthong is prominent. (see:
diphthong).
fricative: A sustainable consonant sound that is characterized by audible friction between
two articulators.
front: Describes a vowel in which the tongue is arched towards the front of the mouth.
fusion: The process by which two or more component syllables might be fused into fewer
syllables.
Galician: (Castilian: gallego; Catalan: gallec; Galician: galego) The regional language of
the Spanish autonomous community of Galicia. Like Catalan, Galician is a
distinct language, and not a dialect of Castilian.
glide: A rising diphthong. (see: rising diphthong)
grave accent: the diacritic symbol ( ` ).
hard palate – The hard roof of the mouth.
infinitive: Referring to a certain non-finite verb form that exists in most languages. E.g.
English: to sing; Catalan/Castilian: cantar.
inflection: The modification of a word to conform to different grammatical categories,
such as singular/plural, male/female. E.g. the English word voice can be inflected
to the plural form voices. Verb conjugation is a form of inflection.
interdental: Articulated with the tip or blade of the tongue between the teeth.
internal: Describes letters or phonemes in a word other than the first or last letter or
phoneme in that word.
International Phonetic Alphabet: A system of phonetic transcription that features one-
to-one mapping of symbols to individual phonemes. Designed by the International
Phonetic Association to be used universally between multiple languages.
 117
intervocalic: Occurring between two vowels.
inventory: (see: phonemic inventory)
labial: Articulated with the lips. Includes labiodental and bilabial consonants.
labiodental: Articulated with the lips and the teeth together.
labiovelar: A consonant which is both labial and velar. Most commonly describes the
labiovelar approximant [w].
Ladino: A language developed on the Iberian Peninsula and around the Mediterranean
that is spoken among Sephardic Jews. Also known as Judeo-Spanish.
lengua franca: A language that is common between different groups of people that can
be used for communication between communities.
lyric diction: The study/field of pronunciation specifically for singing.
minority language: A language spoken exclusively by a minority group within a larger
nation.
modernisme: An art and literature movement in 20th century Catalonia. Also known as
Catalan Modernism.
mood: A grammatical verb category including the indicative, imperative, and
interrogative moods, and others.
morpheme: The smallest grammatical unit into which a word can be divided.
morphology: 1. The study of the inflection of words. 2. The range of forms that a word
can take (e.g. noun morphology includes singular and plural forms).
mute: A letter that is not at all sounded is said to be mute.
mutual intelligibility: The degree to which speakers of two specific languages can
understand each other. Spanish and Catalan have higher mutual intelligibility than
English and Mandarin, for example.
nasal: Any phoneme that is produced with the soft palate lowered, allowing air to be
pushed through the nasal cavity.
neutral vowel: The schwa ([ə]) is a netural vowel because it neither back nor front, and
neither open nor close.
noucentisme: A 20th century Catalan art and literature movement that arose as reaction
against modernisme.
nucleus: The central morpheme (part or element) of a syllable. Usually a vowel or
diphthong.
 118
obstruent: Any consonant sound produced by obstructing the flow of air with the
articulators. Includes stops, plosives, affricates and fricatives.
Occitan: The regional minority language of southern France, the Val d’Aran, and Monaco.
Also known as lenga d’òc.
opera languages: Italian, French, German and English.
orthography: The conventions or norms for writing, spelling, and punctuation in a given
language.
oxytone: A word in which only the final syllable is accented or stressed.
palatal: Articulated with the tongue against the hard palate.
palato-alveolar: Articulated with the tongue against the alveolar ridge.
paroxytone: A word in which only the penultimate syllable is accented or stressed.
phoneme: The smallest phonetic unit of speech; a single distinct speech sound.
phonemic inventory: The complete group of every distinct sound that occurs in a
language.
phonetic transcription: Written representation of language using a notation system
(such as IPA) designed for the universal identification of distinct speech sounds
(phonemes).
phonetics: The study of the production and perception of speech sounds.
phonology – The study of the speech sounds pertaining to a particular language. E.g.
Catalan phonology.
plosive: A stop consonant in which airflow is impeded totally by the articulators before
being released in a burst of air.
regional language: A language that is spoken primarily in a specific part of a country,
and not across the entire country.
retracted: A variation of a distinct speech sound with the tongue drawn further back in
the mouth. E.g. voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant [s̠ ] is produced with the
tongue drawn further back in contrast to the voicless alveolar sibilant [s].
rising diphthong: 1. The class of diphthong in which a semivowel is followed by a
vowel. 2. The class of diphthong in which the second part of the diphthong is
prominent. (see: diphthong).
Romance language: Any language that developed historically from Vulgar Latin.
schwa: A mid-central vowel notated in IPA as [ə] (see: neutral vowel)
 119
semiconsonant: (see: semivowel)
semivowel: A shortened vowel sound that functions as a consonant. E.g. the [w]
semivowel in the word quant is analogous to the vowel [u].
sibilant: A class of fricative consonants that produces a very high frequency (high pitch)
and high amplitude (loud) sound that can be characterized as “whistling” in
quality. E.g. [s] or [z].
sinalefa: (Synalepha) The merging of two syllables into one, especially when the two
syllables belong to two different words.
soft palate: The soft, back part of the roof of the mouth.
stop: Any consonant sound which is formed by completely impeding the flow of air with
the articulators. E.g. the [p] phoneme in the word “stop.”
tap: A class of consonants characterized by extremely brief duration. E.g. the alveolar tap
[ɾ] in the Catalan word ara, or the English word “butter” (American
pronunciation).
tense: Verb inflection category that indicates time. I.e. future, past, present.
tonic: The quality of being stressed or prominent, as in a syllable.
transcription: (see: phonetic transcription)
trill: A consonant produced by repeated vibrations between two articulators. E.g. the
voiced alveolar trill [r], or the “rolled r” occurs frequently in Spanish and Catalan.
velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.
voiced: The class of consonants that are produced with the vocal folds vibrating.
voiceless: The class of consonants that are produced without the vocal folds vibrating.
vowel inventory: (see: phonemic inventory)
vowel reduction: The phenomenon whereby vowels are modified to a more close or
neutral position in particular circumstances. (see: pg. 38)
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