194 Chapter 6 French Melodies This chapter surveys the French art song of the nineteenth and ewen- tieth centuries, beginning with the romance of the mid-nineteenth century and focusing on the mélodies of Fauré, Debussy, Ravel, and Poulenc. It also includes the contributions of such prominent singers as Reynaldo Hahn, Mary Garden, Jane Bathori, Claire Croiza, Charles Panzéra, Maggie Teyte, and Pierre Bernac. Chapters 1 and 2 noted the importance of /e bon goitt (good taste) and the sanctity of the French language in music of the Baroque. Matters of taste and language con- ignificant role in the nineteenth-cencury develop- tinued to play a ment of the mélodie, influencing the relationships between both po- etry and music and composer and performer, We are fortunate co have a close link with the creators of this repertoire through recordings by singers who worked with Fauré, Debussy, and others, as well as fe- cordings performed and supervised by Rayel and Poulenc. Some stu- dents today also still have access to teachers who studied with the ma- jor figures of this period. Many books on che French song repertoire offer advice on diction, translations of poetic texts, and interpretive suggestions (see “Chapter 6: Texts and Diction” in “For Further ReadFrench Mélodies, ye): This chapter does nor attempt to repeat such material but ¢ ather to sup- ment ir by considering the roots of French style as developed by the com- ers and singers who worked together. posers a fe rhe French mélodie took longer than the German lied to come into its own. This delay was duc in part to the devastating effects of the French Revolution icdid not take long, however, for a new aristocracy to emerge, hungry for artis- s Italian opera was all the rage in Paris, where Ros- siniwas the director of the Théitre-Italien. Touring celebrities dazzled Parisian tic stimulation. By the 18 audiences, and the wealthy held private salons to discuss political, philosophi- cal, and artistic ideas. Often composers, or pethaps their hostesses, sang ro- mances, simple strophic songs with modest piano accompaniments, However, music in the salons was often merely incidental to the conversation. Schubert's lieder were first published in French translation in the 1830s and championed in performances by the well-known tenor Adolphe Nourrit, ac- companied by Liszt. Translated as “mélodies,” they became wildly popular and inspired a new level of creativity in the composition of romances. Berlioz com- posed a set of songs to texts by Irish poet and musician Thomas Moore known as “A Selection of Irish Melodies.” Published in 1830 as Neuf mélodies imitées de anglais, they helped introduce the new term mélodie. The French poetry avail- able to composers at this time was also improving. Gounod, Massenet, Saint- Saéns, Delibes, and Bizet all composed songs to French texts for the delight of accomplished amateur and semiprofessional salon performers. Some songs by Berlioz, Liszt, Edouard Lalo, and Henri Duparc may have been written with professional performers in mind. Much of this Romantic song repertoire was written under the predominant influence of Italian opera stars and traveling vireuosi. Within the context of French taste, it can be approached by following the stylistic advice given in chapters 4 and 5. The later music of Fauré, Debussy, and Ravel moved French music in a new direction and style. The Third Republic (1870-1940) witnessed a flowering of all the arts, including painting, literature, and music, transforming Paris into the artistic capital of Europe. Salons now provided a haven for a sophisticated clite and by the end of the century had become the refuge of the avant-garde, The music of Wagner had an important influence on some French composers : he International Exposition of 1889 had a profound impact on Debussy, Ravi cl, and many others by introducing exotic elements such lans ; Javanese game- and Russian orchestral music conducted by Rimsky-Korsakov. Not long rer, cwo other Russians, Sergei Diaghilev and Igor Stravinsky, took Paris by ste ; j istic y tm, revolutioni: zing, the theater and involving the entire arcistic Community 195196 French Melodies Composers hegan creating a new harmonic landscape, highlighting the sound of the music rather than the virtuosity sie with precise notation, They also insisted on of the performer. They sought to pre- serve the integrity of their m formers who were willing to cooperate recurate performances and found per The role of the performer increasingly became less about displaying skill and more about serving the needs of the composer, Composers gravitated ro performers who could fill chis role, often develop. ing close relationships such as those of Fauré and Claire Croiza or of Debussy and Jane Bathori. Some of these have bee! rer that reveal the inner workings of rehearsals and performances.' Pethaps the ese relationships was between Francis Poulenc and Pierre n documented in fascinating memoirs most Fruitful of th Bernac. They first met in 1926 and began a performing relationship in 1934 that lasted for ewenty-five years. Poulenc composed two-thirds of his songs for Bernac, tailoring his music to the baritone’s particular strengchs, including his ease in singing softly in his high range and loudly in his low range. It was a truly collaborative relationship, and the singer strongly influenced the composer re- garding issues of programming, tempo, dramatic presentation, and general style. As Bernac writes in his book, Francis Poulenc: The Man and His Songs, “we created them together.”? We are left with many invaluable recordings of this magnificent pair, as well as with Bernac’s indispensable book The Interpretation of French Song, which every singer of mélodies and chansons should keep close to his or her piano.? Yer this book, written in 1970, reflects the culmination of he advice Bernac gives is not necessarily how he sang an evolutionary proces in his early recordings. His approach also reflects the particular style he created with Poulene, incorporating all their idiosyncrasies. It is also worth exploring the collaborative relationships of some other singers and composers to get a broader sense of French singing styles. Editions, Transpositions, and Voice Types Most ninereenth-century Romantic mélodies were published for the general public, and many composers earned considerable profits from the sale of cheit songs, which were printed both as sheet music and in journals, newsletters, and songbooks. Often songs were transposed into a variety of keys and arranged in different combinations and orders, sometimes with new titles or even nev texts, In his French Song from Berlioz to Dupare, Frits Noske observes that both publishers and composers treated songs with a certain casuialness, considering them to be “mere crifles."* The variety of nineteenth-cencury French song edi uons ca pate Cc i et i ns can creare confusion in determining whether composers intended songsFrench Melodies co be presented as a distinct cycle in a certain onder or whether the songs could and alone or be recombined. 4 good example of this ambi tity is Berlioz’s Les nuits detd, ; first published in isqrava ser of six songs with piano accompaniment Despite the awkward writ- ing for the piano, the songs set a new standard of quality for the mélodie. In 1843 Berlioz orchestrated “Absence” for the mezzo M. arie Recio, who was tour- later married. In 1854 he orchestrated che est ofthe songs, transposing them and dedicating each to adifferent singer. While he may have had a particular order in mind for the publication of the ing with him in Germany and whom he piano-voeal score, he never performed all the orchestrated songs together as a scrict cycle. Singers today therefore can decide whether they want to perform Les nuits d étéwith piano ot with orchestra, in what order, and in what keys. As the century progressed, composers grew more carefull about supervising the publication of their songs. They also became more particular about trans- position. Faure’s songs appeared in three collections of twenty songs each, pub- lished by Hamelle in 1879, 1897, and 1908. The first book was clearly intended for the accomplished amateur, while the later songs demanded higher levels of technical skill and musicianship from both singer and pianist. Fauré preferred avoice of medium range and wrote most of his songs in keys that avoided op- eratic high notes. The “Pie Jesu” solo in his Requiem was written for a boy so- prano only because the clergy of the Madeleine, where it was first performed, forbade women in the cho . In subsequent performances Fauré entrusted the solo co a female soprano. Debussy wrote many of his early songs for the high, light voice of his firse muse, Marie Vasnier, He met her while accompanying a singing class for soci- ety women, and she and her husband gave moral and financial support to the young composer. The Quatre chansons de jeunesse, written for and dedicated to her, were published posthumously in 1926. Jane Bathori, who worked with De- bussy om all his later songs, believed they were issued as curiosities and chat the composer had not wanted them published.° Later Debussy, as well as Ravel and others, developed a preference fora lower voice typeand fashioned compositions primarily for professional musicians. As their music became more subtle and harmonically complex, the choice of key was directly linked with a certain vocal tessitura and a distinct color palette for the piano or instruments, Transposing the music would disturb this deticace urrangement of sounds. Poulenc stated that he never transposed his music once he conceived it for a specific key.” (Pianist Dalton Baldwin, however, has said c. 7 a v.)® Bernac’s book or that Poulenc did transpose certain songs for Gerard Souzay.)* Bernac’s book on 197198. French Melodies Poulene lists all the songs with date of composition, publisher, range, and req ommendations for male or female singer (some songs are only appropriate for a certain Voice type). According to the baritone Martial Singher, Ravel admitted that he had originally conceived “Asie” from Shéhérazade and the Chansons madécawestor a male voice, though only female singers who were excellent mu- sicians had been interested in performing them, Singher, who premiered Ra- vel’s Don Quichotte & Duleinée songs, did eventually perform Chansons madé- cassesand “Asie,” buc noc until after Ravel's death. , Most modern editions of French songs are reprints of nineteenth-century editions or publications supervised by the composer. The original French edi- tions, including those by Durand, are the best places to start for this repertoire Information on publications is available in the New Grovearticles on individual composers as well as in an extensive appendix in Frits Noske’s French Song from Berlios to Dupare. The Dover editions of French Art Songs of the Nineteenth Cen- runy (and of the songs of Fauré, Dupare, Ernest Chausson, and Debussy) all list the original sources for the reprinted scores. The Dover edition of Ravel songs was edited by Ravel scholar Arbie Orenstein and includes introductory infor- mation, notes on each song, and further references. Much of the earlier nine- teenth-century repertoire is suitable to sing in a comfortable transposition, since that was the practice of the amateur singers for whom it was intended. It is advisable, however, to sing the later repertoire in the original keys, especially works by Debussy, Ravel, and Poulenc. The International editions of Fauré and Chausson list the original keys of transposed songs, but these don’t always agree with the original keys listed in the New Grove or reprinted in the Dover editions. For example, both the New Grove and the Dover reprint of 1908 list the original key of Fauré’s “Réve amour” as E-flat major. The International score, however, shows the original key as F Ir also prints some alternative rhythms in the vocal part. The ew Grove Chausson article unfortunately does not list original keys for the songs. While the International edition of Debussy does not indicate transposed songs or original keys, the 1993 Hal Leonard Vocal Library edition of Debussy songs did publish all che songs in original keys, arranged in ewo volumes for high and medium voice. Edited by James Briscoe, it is a critical edition that includes translations, notes, and historical sources. A new scholarly edition of Debussy’s complete works was begun by Durand-Costallac in 198s, but the songs have not yet been published. A new edition of the complete works of Berlioz was begun in 1969 by Barenreiter and includes a volume with orchestral songs, bur the vol- ubb, in his diction ume of songs with piano has yet to be published. Thomas GFrench Melodies, nannal Singing 7” French, warns students to be aware of the unavoidable mis cakes found tn most editions, particularly regarding texts and translations. He 4, most suspect of anthologies with unacknowledged uanspositions and. ssi incerpolations.! french Taste and Aesthetics French music of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries had been character- ized by restrained grace and beauty, especially compared with the obviously emotional and heavily ornamented style of the Italians. In his 1767 Diction- naire de musique, Rousseau emphasized the need for simplicity in the composi- tion and performance of the romance. He believed that songs should be written in asimple, moving style, according to the character of the words: “an accurate, clear voice thar articulates well and sings without affectation is all that is re- quired for singing a romance.”"! In the nineteenth century, this desire for pu- rity and simplicity of style continued, along with a growing aversion to virtuos- ity. An overly demonstrative outpouring of emotion or technical skill was not considered appropriate to the intimate salon setting where romances were sung, Martin Cooper's French Music from the Death of Berlioz to the Death of Fauré suggests that the French composer was interested primarily in “arranging sounds in agreeable and intellectually satisfying patterns. . . . He would prefer the humbler search for perfection in all forms, however small . . . chan in a work planned on a larger scale, with more obvious pretensions to greatness but less aesthetically satisfying.”'? In 1846 Antoine Romagnesi, a well-known composer and singer of ro- mances, published Lart de chanter les romances, les chansonnettes et les nocturnes er généralement toute la musique de salon. In this short treatise he presented sim- ple suggestions that teachers and singers of French repertoire have practiced throughout the twentieth century. In distinguishing the difference between the opera singer and more delicate salon singer, “between a large and intractable voice and the more modest and manageable kind found in the larger number of non-professional musicians,” he advised the salon singer to treat his or her voice with care and never to force it beyond its natural abilities; he should sing Jort bien rather than bien fort (very well racher than very loudly). The singer should study the text before he sings it and convey the sense of the poem with- out vocal display. Breathing and facial expressions should be nacural and un- forced. “Good taste will warn him to search only for chose means that are sim- ple and natural; to avoid mannerism and exaggeration; finally, co model his vocal inflections on the sentiments that he is called upon to express. 199French Melodies. snanual Singing 17 French, warns students to be : aware of the unavoidable mis vikes found in most editions, particularly regarding texts and translations. He is most suspect of anthologies with unacknowledged a anspositions and osséa polations. inter french Taste and Aesthetics prench music of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries had been character- ized by restrained grace and beauty, especially compared with the obviously emotional and heavily ornamented style of the Italians, In his 1767 Diction- att emphasized the need for simplicity in the composi- ‘ion and performance of the romance. He believed that songs should be written inasimple, moving style, according to the character of the words: “an accurate, naive de musique, Rous clear voice that articulates well and sings without affectation is all that is re- quired for singing a romance.”'" In the nineteenth century, this desire for pu- ricy and simplicity of style continued, along with a growing aversion to virtuos- ity. An overly demonstrative outpouring of emotion or technical skill was not considered appropriate to the intimate salon setting where romances were sung, Martin Cooper's French Music from the Death of Berlioz to the Death of Faurésuggests that the French composer was interested primarily in “arranging sounds in agreeable and intellectually satisfying patterns. . .. He would prefer the humbler search for perfection in all forms, however small . . . han ina work planned on a larger scale, with more obvious pretensions to greatness but less aesthetically satisfying.” In 1846 Antoine Romagnesi, a well-known composer and singer of ro- mances, published Lart de chanter les romances, les chansonnettes et les nocturnes et généralement toute la musique de salon. In this short treatise he presented sim- ple suggestions that teachers and singers of French repertoire have practiced throughout the twentieth century. In distinguishing the difference between the opera singer and more delicate salon singer, “between a large and intractable voice and the more modest and manageable kind found in the larger number of non-professional musicians,” he advised the salon singer co treat his or her voice with care and never to force it beyond its natural abilities; he should sing fort bien rather than bien fort (very well rather than very loudly). The singer should study the rext before he sings it and convey the sense of the poem with- out vocal display. Breathing, and facial expressions should be nacural and un- forced, “Good taste will warn him to search only for those means that are sim- his ple and natural; to avoid mannerism and exaggeration; Finally, wo mode . “xpress."! vocal inflections on the sentiments that he is called upon to express. 199200 French Melodies Faure started performing, i aristocrat salons as a young, student, He was ater bellowers” as he “big. th not fond of Halian opera and opera singers oF called them, and while he admired Liszt, he was not interested in the flashy world of the virtuoso pianist, He was an accomplished pianist himself but pre- ferred a collaborative role to the soloists spotlight. One of his favorite singers was Enima Bardac, the wife of a wealthy banker. She sang in an easy soprano soice and was an excellent sight-reader who preferred to perform in private. AF ter a performance of “Soir.” which Fauré had written for her, he told the poec Albert Samain, “You'll never hear it sung berter.” Samain recounted thar “she has a feeling for nuances and especially a purity of expression which are ex- tremely rare’! In-a 1902 letter to a patron, Fauré wrote about his songs: “I dream of hearing them performed by perfect singers, but I don’t know of any among the professionals. It’s the amateurs who understand and interpret me best."! Since many of the singers he preferred did not possess great instru- ments—including the natural, untrained baritone of his friend, composer/ hn—some assumed (much to Fauré’s annoyance) that one singer Reynaldo Ha entrusted his later cycles to two young didn't need a voice to sing his songs. H newcomers, Madeleine Grey and Charles Panzéra, whose singing was charac- terized by extreme refinement and purity. Debussy’s early experience also included accompanying amareurs in the sa- Jon, and in 1904 he married Emma Bardac, whose previous husband had finally lost out to her fascination and involvement with young composers. Debussy scrove for a purity and simplicity of style that was governed by nuance. He in- cluded warmth and passion in his music but knew when to stop before the “One should sing when there is something co sing emotion became vulgar: about, and keep the emotional power of the voice in reserve.” Debussy pa ticularly admired and worked with Mary Garden, whose intense yer simple and restrained acting made het his ideal Mélisande, and Jane Bathori, whose singing was described by Darius Milhaud as hav ng “a pure style, clear diction and discrete interior charm.”!” Bathori, who championed the music of many carly ewentieth-century French composers, was also an accomplished pianist and often accompanied herself when the composers were noc at the piano. The critic Georges Jean-Aubry, in an article from 1913, hailed her as “modern French song incarnate . .. her artis all of nuances . . . nevertheless itis impossible co surpass it in naturalness and in chat important spontaneity which alone has im- portance for the listener. .. . [she possesses] vocal simplicity, the same serupu- lous care of refinement, and the same absence of display even in the most ardent passion,” !*French Mélodies he wor premicte of Ra el’s Histoires naturelles, with the composer accom- paying Bathori: incited «Fotous demonstration in the concent hall and ively J acassion following in the press, Even though Emmanuel Chabrier had previ- ‘sly set poctns bout animals, the public was astonished at Ravel’s unusual “hoice of Jules Renard’s text and his revolutionary treatment of ie, particularly hiselision of many mute “e’,” In his review, Louis Laloy described Bathori as having childlike grace: “a litle gist looking at the beasts and laughing at their comical appearance or the antics they get up to, bue feeling very fond of them junc the same. As for the author, seated at the piano, stiffand impassive, he was the only person in the entire hall who betrayed no emotion.” Ravel also ad- mired the clear voice and impeccable diction of Madeleine Grey and frequently requested chat she pertorm his music. Their recording of Chansons madécassesis decidedly restrained emotionally. Poulenc, in his Diary of My Songs, cautions singers not to overdo the dramatic emotions of his songs. He recommends a simple seriousness, especially in some of the humorous songs where a knowing Jook would spoil the irony.2° Bernac sums up the French aesthetic in writing hac lyricism and passion are not absent in French music, rather that “emotions and feelings are refined, purified and controlled by reason.”?! Ornamentation For the most part, added ornaments were not needed or desired in French vo- cal repertoire, especially by the final decades of the nineteenth century. Earlier in the century, opinion had been mixed. The critic Frangois-Joseph Fétis, writ- ing in 1827, disagreed with the common view that ornaments were not suited to the French language; he believed thac the Italian style had a positive impact on French singing in general and particularly in ornamentation? Most other French writers, however, warned singers not to go too far. Berlioz made no se~ cret of his dislike of ornamented singing in the Italian style. Romagnesi men- tioned that some types of songs—gracious, or light and courtly —may colerate some tiny embellishments, “but they must be used sparingly so as nor to stifle the basic idea under a web of parasite-like details.”** For tender and sad ro- mances, he cautioned to “guard against pretentious Hourishes, or againsc clumsy appoggiacuras [ports de voix], which some singers take to be expression but which is only parody. He should avoid those long fermatas on the penulti- mate note of the phrase that poor taste on the part of several singers has made fashionable.”2" Writing about the romances of Henri Reber, Saint-Saéns men- tioned that Reber “forbade in his songs neither trills nor scales nor arpeggios; gracious arabesques frequently accompany the lines of his architecture, ara- 201202 french Mélodies besques ofa very pure style, i€ goes without saying, and having nothing to do with chose gargoyles of the old Italian school.” The Performer’s New Role As the nineteenth century progressed, composers included considerable perfor- mance instructions in their scores. Singers needed only to execute what was written accurately, without adding any embellishment of their own. Bathori advised! young singers not ro add any personal interpretation to Debussy’ ic exactly and to have “com- songs: only co deliver what is written in the mus plete musical respect.” When Debussy first heard Claire Croiza, another champion of contemporary French music, he said, “What a joy to hear my songs sung as | have written them!”2” Croiza was also a favorite of Fauré’s. In her master classes she said of his songs: “we must try to enter into the atmo- sphere he has created, and not allow our own personalities to disturb it.” She also insisted on scrupulous accuracy in following every detail of a composer’ indications: “A singer's first duty is to sing the music as it is written and to give every note the value the composer has given it. .. . Perhaps itis because the pre-_ cise composers of today mistrust the possible bad taste of some interpreters, that they note everything to the least detail. They indicate everything that should be done and the interpreter has nothing to add, nothing to modify. His magnificent role is to serve and not to collaborate.”?? As early as 1846 Romagnesi had advised that romances should be “sung sim- "30 ply and following the composer's indications.”>° Ac the turn of the century Jean-Aubry railed against performers who used their technical gifts merely to dazzle the audience and gain applause for themselves, “whereas their sole duc) "3! Ravel said. “I do for it co be played.”*? Bernac. is co be the humble and respectful servants of the work noc ask for my music co be interpreted, but only 00, stressed the importance of being faithful co the work by achieving a preci- sion of performance; he quoted Stravinsky, who required an aspiring inter- preter to first be a “Aawless executant.” This credo, which some coday mistak- enly cake as a given for all music, has its roots in the late ninereenth-century French reaction against the excesses of Romanticism Words and Music The French have always held the beauty and refinemenc of their language in high esteem. The wealth of poetry by Paul Verlaine, Charles Baudelaire, Stéphane Mallarmé, and others provided composers wich rich opportunities for son; cttings. Curiously, the relationship beeween French words and melo-French Mélodie: fies way noe ay HUtUally supportive as that of German poetry and lieder, ‘The vigorous rules required for French poctry made setting it to music problematic ris resulted in frequent prosody mistakes, even in the songs of Berlioz, Bizet, ind Bauré, In an essay on the relationship benween words and music in his 18% parmonic et mélodie, Saine-Saéns complained about the woeful state of text set ring, which he found worse at the opera than in the salon. Since French does not have the strong rhythmic inflection of ltalian or the percussive consonant clusters of English or German, syllable stress is made by duration rather than fore. Because French musicians and poets believed that no syllable had an ac- concexcept either the final masculine or penultimate feminine s) lable of a line, they thought chat musical accents could be placed at will, often resulting in a confusing gibberish.“ Debussy chose co attack this problem by setting poetry in a recitative style, preserving the subtle stresses and proper syllable lengths, He was compared to Monteverdi for his natural, speechlike text setting. By contrast, Fauré often chose co stress the general mood or subtext of a poem. Claire Croiza pointed out che rhythmic differences between the settings of Verlaine’s “Clair de lune” by Fauré and Debussy: In example 6.1, Fauré sets the sung silent syllables of paysage” in m, 14 and “masques" in mm. 16 and 17 with rhythmic placement and melodic contours that unnaturally accent those syllables. In example 6.1b, Debussy follows the traditional practice of sounding the silent syllables while deemphasizing their importance, aiming for a more natural, speechlike rhythm and contour, In learning Fauré’s songs, Croiza advised singers to study the po- ems away from the music so as not to be led astray by the false musical rhythms. In contrast, she observed that one could declaim the poems naturally using De- bussy’s settings. Ravel preferred to set free verse and prose so that he would not be bound by the rhythmic constraints of the text. Diction and Articulation Most French singing manuals from the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries stressed dramatic expression and diction without placing much em- phasis on vocal technique. French singers of that period prided themselves on their precise, clear diction and dramatic presentation, but their singing often lacked line and cantabile. The proximity and popularity of Italian singers at the beginning of the nineteenth century helped to solve this problem, considerably improving the technical level of French singing, Diction never lost its primary place, however, and Romagnesi urged singers to practice speaking the text of a song befor singing it, giving the words serious attention: “In singing, not only 20%204 French Meélodies Que vont char-mant mas - ques et ber-ga - mas - ques__ b) P _ Votre me est. un pa- y - sa- ge choi-si, Que te + * = = char-mant mas - ques et ber-ga - mas - ques et vont, Example 6.1. a) Fauré: “Clair de lune,” mm. 12-17, Hamelle, 1897, rev. 1908, reprint Dover, lair de lune” from Féres galantes I, mm. 5~8, E. Fromont, 1905, reprint 1990; b) Debussy Dover, 1981 must one stop appropriately at points of repose, like the comma and full scop— as will have been done when declaiming the words—and not only must one lean on the long syllables and pass lightly over the short ones, but also it will be necessary to emphasize all the words much more vigorously than in speaking: one has to articulate them as if being heard by a slightly deaf person, but how- ever, avoiding all affectation and grimacing.”>> Reynaldo Hahn opposed singing in which virtuosity was the sole interest For him, good singing with bad enunciation was as offensive as excellent dic- tion with poor vocal quality. In his own singing he tried to find a balance be- owen pure vocalism and clear, accurate, and expressive diction. His recom- mendations in On Singers and Singing include suggestions that we might find exaggerated today, including expressive breathing and sighing wich the mood of the poem and enunciating double consonants for special emphasis.°® Croiza The also suggested using consonants to help convey the expression of the tex accent in singing is given by the attack of the consonants, but an energetic ar- ticulation of the consonants does not mean a brusque articulation. Good arcic- ulation must be searched for with suppleness, . .. In Eaure’s ‘Soir,’ all che ©French Melodies Example 6.2. Fauré: “Soir,” mm. 34-37, Hamelle, 1908, reprint Dover, 1990. pression of the end, ‘tes yeux levés au ciel, si tristes et si doux,’ depends on the way we pronounce the consonant of this word, ‘doux.’ French has some conso- nants more ‘explosive’ than others, and use must be made of them in interpre- tations. The absence of the tonic accent in French must be supplemented by the accentuation of the consonants.”*7 Perhaps she meant elongating the at- tack of the d in “doux” by making it softer and more aspirated (instead of per- cussive and dentalized) to complement the rolled chord in the piano accompa- niment (see ex. 6.2). Croiza also stressed knowing how “to give more value to certain syllables thar give the words their significance.” While a student at Juilliard, I sang in a mas ter class for the Swiss tenor Hugues Cuénod, who had made his debut in Paris in 1928, He encouraged me to vary the length and weight of all the sixteenth notes in Fauré’s “Notre amour” co try to approximare a more natural spoken thythm (see ex, 6.3). The underlined syllables in the first line should be slightly longe :“ Notre amour est chose légere”; and the mute "e ” syllables should receive 205206 French Melodies Pe legurero e legate ” Com - me les par - fuums ve aux re 3 & aH Example 6.3. Fauré: “Notre amour,” mm. 3-5, Hamelle, 1897, rev. 1908, International, 1953. less emphasis than the surrounding vowels, especially if they fall on a strong beat lik syllables and passing lightly over the short ones. This approach, of course, con- hose” in m. 3. This is what Romagnesi meant by leaning on the long tinues a long tradition: as mentioned in chapter 1, in 1668 Benigne de BacillyFrench Melodies qresed the importance of emphasizing the differences between bony and shon syllables Ravel incorporated this approach to diction in the very fabric of his settings a Renard’ Histoires naturelles Phe direct clear Language and the profound hidden poetry of the poems in prose tempted me for a long, time, My author's gexedemanded a particular kind of musical declamation from me, closely re Inieal 10 the inflections of the French language.” He believed that diction inust lead the music, and he therefore tried approximate the thythms of everday speech. Rather than set the mute syllables with their own sung pisch and rhythm, he chose to clide them with the surrounding syllables and leave them silent, as in spoken French, For example, the final syllables of “ar- rine’ in example 6.42, “appel/e” in example 6.4b, and “regard and “nuages” in example 6.4¢ do not get their own articulated pitches and rhythms. Rather they aresilencand connected to the next syllable, as they would be in speech. In 1907 this radical approach to text setting was much more common in the music hall than on the concert platform. These examples also show how Ravel captured the contours of the French language. A friend of his, the music critic Emile Vuillermoz, observed: “When Ravel made one of those razor-edged remarks of which he alone possessed the secret, he used to make a characteristic gesture: he put his right hand quickly behind his back, described a sort of ironical pirouette, cast down his mischie- vously sparkling eyes and let his voice suddenly drop a fourth or fifth. In the Histoires naturelles and L'heure espagnole one finds this characteristic intonation in all sorts of places. It is Ravel's own voice, his pronunciation, his well-known mannerisms, that have produced this quasi parlando melody.”*” In contrast, Debussy cautioned against a parlando approach. His friend and biographer Louis Laloy included the following inseructions to singers with the composer's approval: “A very widespread prejudice would have it that, in all modern music, it is only necessary to ‘speak,’ with as little voice as possible, without even observing the correctness of the intervals. This an absurdity. Even when the melody remains motionless on one note, the purpose is not to imitate the intonation of speech, which is endlessly variable. Ic is to paint che half-light of contemplation and silence by means of a thoroughly musical metaphor.” Poulenc was also opposed to a parlando approach, He loved Leal- ian opera and beautiful singing, and admitted chat he wanted some of his la Vocal works such as Le bul masquéand La dame de Monte Carlo w be sung, al- Mostin the style of Tosca or Orello, He hated what he called the “pseudo-int ligenc singer, usually without voice. Hike to hear some singingwith a good 207208 French Melodies ore el § a j me is SS b) P-—simplemant oS SS I n'sien. Il re-gerde: ages. ef -fa-rowchés ont dis-pa-ru Example 6.4. Ravel: Histoires narwrlles, a) “Le paon,” m. 26; b) “Le paon,” m. 33: ¢) “Le eygne,” mm. 15=18, Durand, 1907, reprint Dover, 1990._— French Melodies aivcrrerl jee ol pedal (the butier!), without which my music is destroved.”"! In addi “nao insisting on impeccable precision and accuracy in dition, Bernac abso sramored the legato, non parlando style favored by Poulenc in most situations: Most French dietion manuals today stress an even, legato approach with fast, _jeareonsonants and consistent long, vowels, For American singers, the emph sis on the International Phonetic Alphabet and the lack of tonic accent in French often omits the issue of long and short syllables altogether. In /he Sing- Debussy MarieClaire Rohinsky comments that classical French singers to- day favor a diction close to normal speech, not as informal and casual as that sed for cabaret or musical theater, but not as affected with mannerism as that sf nineteenth-century poetic readings. Her observation implies that French diction at che curn of the pwentieth century was more exaggerated than what we commonly hear today, including more variety in the articulation of consonants andin che length and weight of vowels. Many early recordings of French singers such as Croiza, Garden, Bathori, Panzéra, and others are available on CD and provide fascinating demonstrations of this approach to diction: Portamento and Vibrato Early cwentieth-cencury recordings also show French singers using portamento asagentle slide or strecch to enhance legato and connect small and large leaps. As with everything else in the French style, portamento was used with refine- ment and subtle expression. Hahn distinguishes between the technical and ex- pressive use of portamento: “Singers cannot totally avoid portamento, for with- out it, their singing would be too dry. Unconsciously, most singers make frequent use of this sliding from note to note, barely audible sliding which in fact contributes smoothness and connection to singing, which makes legato passages possible. But chis subtle sliding should not really be called portamente Icisa means very often The real thing is much more obvious, more conscious sbused in singing to add expression; but the quality of expression thus pro- duced very easily becomes whimpering, silly and odiously vulgar." In some situations he even advises attacking a note gently from below to achieve a cer- tain expressive effect. In a discussion of Faure’s “Le parfum impérissable” (ex. 6.5), for instance, he suggests inflecting the last note of m. 16, “parfirmée,” from below: In chis particular harmonic context, the F-sharp at che end of m. 16 helps to curn the harmony back toward the tonic E major after a brief excursion into more distant flat keys; Hahn probably believed that shading the pitch from below would clarify the harmony in addition co being expressive. [might give a special inflection to the F-sharp at the beginning of m. 17 on “parfuree,” bur 209210 French Melodies. vet vin FL sa ponssiére Rew feu ~ seen es = te party OST Example 6.5. Fauré: “Le parfum impérissable,” mm. 15-17, Hamelle, 1908, reprint Dover, 1990. probably not on the previous note and syllable. Hahn does caution that “of course these litte ericks must be used with extreme discretion and tact.” This particular trick of gendy sliding into a pitch from below, which singers today rarely employ, is heard frequently in early recordings. Jane Bathori gives specific recommendations for discreet, expressive porta- menti in Debussy songs. In “Fantoches” she encourages a slight portamento from the low G to high Aon “sous la charmille” (ex. 6.6a), She also allows some very gentle portamenti in “Placer futile” ( Tivis poemes ale Mallarmé) on “Prin- cesse!” (ex. 6.6b) and the final word “sourites” (ex. 6.6c). For “La mort des amants” she cautions, “beware of effects which the tessicura of cerrain descend- ing phrases could permic: I speak of too-obvious porementiwhich would be in bad taste.""?— nous ber-ger de vos sou-ri = rapide et léger a), Encore ralemti —— wv Bon - ore w Encore ralenti ee i | . | =e? NS Sd Example 6.6. a) Debussy: “Fantoches” from Fetes galintes I, mm. 37—39, B. Fromone, 1903, "prine Dover, 1981; b) Debussy: “Placer futile” from Trois podmes de Mallarmé. m. 3. Durand, 1913, reprint Rolland Pére et Fils, 1971; €) Debussy: "Placee futile” from Trois poemes de Mallarmé, mm, 32—33, Durand, 1913, reprint Rolland Pere et Fils, 1974; d) Ravel: “Placet futile” from Trois poemes de Stéphane Mallarmé, m.17, Durand, 1914, reprint Dover, 1990,212 French Mélodies Ravel occasionally used portamento as a special effect, marking it into his setting of Mallarmé’s “Placct futile” on “coiffeurs,” (ex. 6.6d) and “Princesse!” (see ex. 6.10, m. 6). Poulenc, in keeping with his fondness for Italian operatic style, allowed portamento as long as it was used with discernment and taste. He always cautioned against exaggerating any effect that would become vulgar.“ Thomas Grubb explains the difference between the types of portamento ap- propriate for French versus Italian singing: {in French] “the syllable upon which che portamento takes place must give way to the following one as soon as this syllable’s note is reached at the end of the portamento, unlike the porta- mento in Italian where the old syllable is extended indefinitely into the note of the new syllable.”47 Vibrato in the French style is not discussed by most writers and teachers, Ro- magnesi mentions that some singers employed a light trembling of the voice to heighten the expression of grief, But he warns that, if used coo much, “their in- cessant litele tremolos become the most unbearable thing that one can hear. Therefore this effect must only be employed relatively rarely where it can be used in a rational way.”4® Early recordings of French singers reveal the typical small fast vibrato mentioned in previous chapters. Though still mostly a deli- cate shimmer, itis slightly more pronounced than in recordings of Italian and German singers. Rhythm and Tempo Chapter 5 discussed how a free approach to tempo and rhythm gained force throughout the nineteenth century. This resulted in performances that were sometimes described as sloppy and careless, in which the singer may have sounded unconcerned about coordinating with the accompaniment. Perfor- manees of the early romances and mélodies most likely enjoyed this same kind of freedom within the tighter bounds of conservative French caste. Songs by Bizet, Massenet, César Franck, Delibes, Chausson, Chabrier, and Dupare can be approached within the context of this Romantic style. Bernac, writing in 1970, even allows certain purely vocal effects and rubato for the songs of Gounod, though he cautions that “Wwe should not go so faras the interpreters of the period, whose style would undoubtedly be unacceptable to us now." Fauré, wich his dislike of famboyance, wished for a simpler, more accurate ap- proach to rhythm and cempo in his songs. As he became more famous and re- spected, his attitude influenced the younger generation of composers and per- formers. They in turn began to insist on a precise and accurate execution of the rhythms and tempos specified in the music. Yet we must remember thac whatFrench Mélodies sey considered (0 be precise and accurate is quite different from what we are y. The th to hearing toda were ting against the excesses of the Romantic while still somewhat under its influence pIIVTHM AND RUBATO yaure’s son described his father’s musical values as follows: He had a horror of sincwosity, of rubaco and effects aimed at making the audience swoon, He fol joved the printed notes meticulously, keeping strict time.”® Croiza called him ‘metronome incarnate” and advised students working on his “Clair de lune” io practice with a metronome.*! Marguerite Long, a noted concert pianist who worked closely with Fauré from 1902 to 1912, believed that she played his solo piano music as it should be played and—much to his chagrin—designated herself his disciple and champion. Fauré did not necessarily approve of her vir- «woso approach, but she left many fascinating observations in her book Au pi- » avec Gabriel Fauré. “This music requires that one ‘play it straight’ without camouflage or trickery,” she writes. She also mentions that rubato in Fauré is a for pacing the long line and rounding the phrase, cautioning that “Fauré thought thar the search for effect was the worst sin of all. . . with Fauré it is the 52 line chat counts.” Long also worked with Debussy and describes his playing: “Debussy was an incomparable pianist. How could one forget his suppleness, the caress of his touch? While floating over the keys with a curious penetrating gentleness, he could achieve an extraordinary power of expression.” She relates how he played his preludes with an almost metronomic precision and became annoyed at pi- anists who took any liberties with his music. She tells of a pianist who came co play some of the composer's music for him. At a certain passage the pianist stopped and said, “Master, according to me this should be ‘free."” Debussy re- sponded by looking at the carpet and vowing that the offending pianist would never tread on it again. Rubato in Debussy of nuances that are not to be defined unless they are felt. ... itis confined by a Long explains, “adds up to a series rigorous precision, in almost the same way asa stream is the captive of its banks. Rubato does not mean alteration of line of measure, but of nuance or ¢lan.”** Bathori, Croiza and Hahn all complain in their writings about singers thythmic imprecision. They frequently admonish their students to study the thythm and to respect the note values. Croiza even begs singers to listen to the accompaniment and try co sing with it. Hahn argues that “good singing is sus- tained by steady, firm rhythm, allowing, the diction ro remain flexible within the limits sec by the rhythm.”*" In recordings in which Bathori accom214 French Melodies Modére : Poe £ HEL rete DP slewcrmentvntena _ - => == SSF . Les hauts ta - Tons lut-taient a= vec les lom-gues ju - pss, p Dede I Pour le jour des Hy-a - cin - thies,— i m'a don-né une sy eo —= faite de ro-seauxbien tall-Ies, un-nis a Example 6.7. Debussy: a) “Les ingénus” from Fetes galantes Il, mm. 1%, Durand, 1994. E reprint Dover, 1981; b) “La flte de Pan” from Trois chinnsons de Bilitis, ram. 3~ Fromont, 1899, reprint Dover, 1981.French Mélodies panies herself ac the piano, her rhythm ta anges from ‘aay metronomic in Debussy’s “Les ingénus” (see ex. 6.7a) to subtly flexible in“ La fldite de Pan” (see ex. 6.7b)." » She advises studying the latter song “Wren Ricorous ATrENTION vo Ruvrnsne Varurs,” making sure to give the duplets and triplets their arking, Lent et sans rigueur de ry- hme, “does not mean that one’s fancy can be the by proper lengeh, She cautions that Debussy's m asis of interpretation, but hac the sounds must succeed one another without stiffness, with a flow so nat- ural that the phrase seems to be improvised.” Ina later recording of this song by ie Teyte, the rhythm is precise throughout most of the song, yet she takes ccater liberties with exaggerated ritardandos, Teyte succeeded Mary Garden in the role of Mélisande, but she caused De- bussy co complain bitterly about her. In a recording of “La chevelure” from Chansons de Bilitis, she holds the high note on “bouche,” forcing the pianist to seretch the last four beats of m. 12 considerably (see ex. 6.8a). She also elongates cendre” in m. 24, almost putting a fermata on the C-flat. She follows this with an indulgent portamento down to the A-flat and an expressive double “s” on “friggon” in m, 25 (see ex. 6.8b). Croiza cites this song when admonishing singers to follow the rhythms indicated in the score: “if the composer had wanted a pause on the word ‘tendre,” he would certainly have indicated it; most singers, however, make one.”5¢ Bathori discusses the same moment in the song: “The last phrase is full of gentle and subtle emotion: et il me regarda d'un regard rendre, que je baissai les yeux, separating this with a tiny break from the fol- lowing words avec un frisson, as simply as possible. ‘And above all, no shiver, Claude Debussy said before the lase phrase, so painful was it to him co hear the word frisson sung in this way."°” Bathori describes rubato in Debussy as we have encountered it before: “in an expressive passage one steals a fragment of time from one measure by hurrying abit and, in the following measure, one gives it back by slowing down . .. one must have good taste and sensitivity.” Interestingly, the tempo marking in De- bussy’s “Le faune” is Andantino (Tempo rubato), yet Bathori plays only the opening three measures with rubato and adopts a metronomically even tempo from m. 4 on, In contrast, in her recording, of Chabrier’s “Vile heureuse” (see ©, 69) she uses a great deal of rhythmic flexibility and rubaco, as che tempo marking Animato, molto rubato ed appassionato indicates. Croiza, too, mentions Lile heureuse,” observing that Chabrier demands special crearment: “there isa rubato which is not in the French character. There is a kind of supple right hand, whilst the left hand ‘v: of a Ravel or a Debussy , unlike the exactness son train’ [goes on its way or the liberty allowed to che interpreter is not 2 2ap snosump vosy Mody DUMBPA ET, AssNqagy -g°9 9] fA dd =e 5) if ae = seq af anb zz z ras) ‘up ua) 1s pmB-as unp — ep-F- a1 aw + ot ae ° et ——_ —1— +) HH 4 — SS ie = — 7 pS Z . a a ee ed yp nog % ans 3yp-noq | oy = mys ok yp om OD nee mi A 2 a —— a 4 = - =i 2 # | = SSS et = SS ee ————- St —' wessoad ug fu“ (yFrench Mélodies 217 fs _& 3 rit. poco a poco, | Fh | crese | awe 3 5 lS ‘con slancio RE fe aux jar-dins om - Poco lento atempo Dans le gol. - 3 3. 3 3 i a Example 6.9. Chabrier: “Lile heureuse,” mm. 1-9, Enoch & Costallat, 1890, reprint Belwin-Mills, [1972]218 French Melodies modern characteristic.” Bernac notes that the lyricism in this song, ap proaches caricature, and he writes that the dynamics, nuances, and rubaros should be made without fear of exaggeration.” Poulene demanded strict observance of note values, and his playing on recordings reveals steady and accurate rhythm, He said he was against rubato of any kind, bur Bernac acknowledged that “because of his love for the voice, he wava little less strict at times (which wasin fact true) in order to allow the singer to ‘sing,’ to prepare certain effects, and to breathe. TEMPO AND METRONOME MARKS. Berlioz known for his rhythmic precision as a conductor—used metronome markings on his orchestral songs. Given the importance he assigned to rhyth- mic accuracy, his markings probably reflect the tempos he wanted. Fauré com- plained that his songs were usually sung too slowly. Croiza acknowledges that “[ am certainly among the interpreters of Fauré who adopt the fastest tempi, and yet the composer himself often found I did nor go fast enough.” She asked him what tempo he wanted for “Aprés un réve,” and he replied “sans ralencir!” Fauré deplored the common practice of slowing down at a diminuendo or at the end of a song, and he rarely specified a rallentando unless he really wanted it. The Dover score of all sixty Fauré songs includes many metronome mark- ings, mostly in the second and third collections. These may have been added with Faure’ consultation or by the original editors, Dupare also lamented that singers generally took his songs too slowly. He confided to Croiza that “IFI had known what some singers do with them I would never have put any rallentandi in my songs.”6" The tradition of greatly speeding up for crescendos or for high, Joud passages and drastically slowing down for diminuendos, rallentandos, and softer moments was so ingrained in most performers that composers had co in- sist, demand, plead, and beg for their music to be performed at a consistent tempo. Even in a recording by Charles Panzéra, the baritone who sang the Re- quiem solo at Fauré’s memorial service and for whom Fauré wrote Lborizon chimérique, singer and pianist make a significant ritardando during the last five measures of “Apres un réve.” ;: Debussy wrote many tempo indications into his scores to try to control the flow of the rhythm and the tempo. Bathori advises following all chese rempo marking precisely. She relates an interesting story about the cempo ard metronome marking of “Mandoline”: “I remember having sung *Mandoline for Debussy in the tempo indicated in the first edition: alleererto, without a metronome marking, After the first measures Debussy exclaimed, ‘I's twice asFrench Mélodies fast as that.” When [told him no one would understand the t mpo with alle- « had later editions emended to include the Seaonome marking.”©? In 1904 recordings of Debussy yas only the indication, h accompanying Mary and “Il pleure dans mon cocur® are surpris ‘They both achieve a simplicity and calmness domi- Carden, the rempos for “Green” ingly fast yet NOL hectic. nated bya eee Ravel wanted exactitude of chythm, but as pianist Vlado Perlemuter ex- Ravel's strict approach doesn’t scorn subtlety. plains, ° ©" Perlemuter, who stud- ied all Ravel's solo piano music with the composer, cautions pianists not to rush in fast passages or to slow down where it is not marked, Ravel does ask for ru- aco anda flexible flow of tempo, but only where he specifies it in the score, His cempo indications often require merely a subtle nuance without a significant change of speed. In “Placet futile” (see ex. 6.10), Ravel gives a metronome marking but also controls the flow of rhythm and tempo with meter changes and several different tempo indications, including rubato, in each of the first eight measures. The chythm thus must be precise yet infinitely flexible within a subtle range of tempos. Poulenc demanded a steady tempo and disliked slowing down at the end of asong, In 1960 he declared that “all my metronomic speeds, worked out with Bernac, are exact.” Yet in writing about Zéd jour, telle nuit he cautioned that “the cempo, which no metronome can indicate exactly, must be felt instinctively." Bernac observed from countless performances and recordings made at different times that Poulenc’s tempos varied over the course of their long association: “He played more quickly (too quickly, in my opinion) in his youth than in his maturity.” Bernac also allowed that “Poulenc knew becter than anyone how to take a breath co prepare an unexpected modulation, or to hesitate for a sudden change of dynamics, but this without ever altering the basic tempo.”°° Poulenc and Bernac provided an important link between the new attitudes of the turn of the twentieth century and our present modern style. They helped transmit co the next generation of singers the French ideals of tasteful reserve and crupu- ous attention to details in the score. The most important new ideas presented in this chapter have had to do with the turn away from virtuosity toward a strict observance of the notated score, Performers were expected to serve the composer, following the details of che music with scrupulou uracy. This was the genesis of an approach that is ©metimes mistakenly applied to music of a II earlier periods. French composers of the lace nineteenth century reacted against the earlier excesses of Romanti- 29220 French Melodies Tres modéré d= 108 Qui point surcette asse aubar Prin-cesse! ‘Trés ralenti_au Moust Ajmlou-ser ledes-tin dune HE - bé. Retenti - — Un pew plus tent Gitpeuphsten A Example 6.10. Ravel: “Placet futile” from Trois potmes dle Stephane Mallarmé, mm. 1-8 Durand, 1914, reprint Dover, 1990. cism and demanded accurate rhythms and steady tempos, Portamento and ru- bato were governed by French “good taste” and used only with subtlety and re- straint, As they had since the seventeenth century, French composers and per- formers shunned empty display in favor of a refined purity of expression and 2French Melodies simples natural approach, The performers job by the beginning of the event vip ecatury was co enter into the world of the composer and to leave their own ‘jowmanship—ineluding ornamentation and even expressive interpreta- “jon —behind. For this repertoire, subtlety and simplicity are crucial, Follow- ing esaetly what is written iy the score will probably feel familiar and comfort- able \qtirudes toward French diction were quite different through the nineteenth and early gwencieth centuries than they are today. In contrast with the even vowels and fast, light consonants taught today, singers at che turn of the century sce vowels with a variety of weights and lengths, as well as expressive double consonants. You might consider observing some of Bénigne de Bacilly’s seven- ‘eenth-century rules for long and short syllables when you approach French inglodies of the late nineteenth and early ewentieth centuries. 221