Product

Management
COMPENDIUM

DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES

Indian Institute Technology, Delhi

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 CONTENTS

S.No. Topics Covered Page No.

1 Introduction 3
2 PM Jargons 9
3 Important Metrics 14
4 Laws for Product Design 17
5 Industry Overview and Analysis 28
6 Important Technologies 33
7 Telecom Sector Overview 50
8 Additional Prod Man Concepts 58
- Application Teardown
- Product Management tools
- Company Specific framework
- Guesstimates
9 Other Trending Technologies 75

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 INTRODUCTION

What is Product management?

Product management is basically to lead a team in researching, developing, and shipping

the proper product to users and bridge the gaps among disparate stakeholders involved.
The Product managers are very commonly known as the CEO of a product. And they are
basically the bridge between the technology, user experience and business teams.

What are all included in the job role of a Product Manager?

ALMOST EVERYTHING
• Business Development
• Feasibility Analysis
• Financial Metrics
• User Experience
• Research Design

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• Prototyping/Testing/Surveying
• Managing with cross-functional teams

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The product managers in different companies hold different roles and responsibilities. The
job description can vary from one company to another. The Product Manager has basically
two core goals: one is to successfully lead the development of a product, and second is to
effectively work with different teams to ensure that the direction of deliverables is aligned
with the core objectives of the company.

Core responsibilities of Product Managers:

• Devising strategies
• Defining releases
• Evaluating ideas
• Prioritizing features
• Building roadmaps
• Analyzing and reporting on progress

What is the Product Lifecycle?

The different phases through which a product undergoes is something we term as Product
Lifecycle. These are as depicted in the below diagram:

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PM roles based on Product Lifecycle

What exactly does a Product Manager do?

The most important thing that a product manager does is to communicate a clear vision
and strategy to the teams involved in bringing the product to the target market and the
business.
They are basically responsible for 3 major parts in the product development:
• Product Discovery
• Solution finding
• Leading the development of Product

It is crucial for the product manager, who oversees the product, to make sure that all
relevant company stakeholders are aware of the product's goals and the product team's
viewpoints on specific issues. Consequently, a large portion of a PM's time is typically spent
communicating with and collaborating with functional & non-functional teams throughout
the organization, be it the client/consumer facing team, the development team, or the core
business team which is composed of main stakeholders.

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STAGES FOR PM:

The different stages that a PM went through are:

Stage 1: Figure out the real problem

Product Managers are basically the main decision maker who performs the feasibility check
for any product requirements. So, they are the ones who are basically responsible for
understanding the real problem.

Now, to solve these problems, the PMs went through following ways to discover and
understand the crux of it:
• Discuss with target audience: We can have surveys, or in-person discussion about the
main problem, to understand what all are the major factors that can affect its
implementation.
• Observing the requirements of the user: This is a very important step, since not every
time will we have all the data available to get deeper into the main pain-point of the
problem. So, in such a scenario, observation helps.
• Understand the existing market for such a product: It is completely the prerogative of
a Product Manager to understand the existing market and they completely brainstorm
it before going for the new product.
• Performing the market analysis: PMs must be aware of current market trends, and
also need to account for the competitor’s information to stay relevant to their target
market.
Once the problem is identified, then PMs usually figure out the severity and salience of that,
through market research, user feedback, market testing, prototyping etc.

Stage 2. Devise solution for the problem

Once PMs identify the problem, the next major step for them is to identify the way ahead
and direct to the solution for the same. For this, the PMs discuss with multiple teams, be it
development team, user experience (UX) designers, or the engineering team.
Once this is identified, they estimate the efforts needed to perform these implementations,
and the resources needed. And then the real implementation of the product starts, and PMs
prepare the roadmap, and maintain the logs and backlogs of the product.

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What is the product backlog in terms of product management?

The product backlog is basically a set of authoritative sources of action items with priorities
that the team will be working on. So, PMs need to regularly work upon it, by collaborating
with cross-functional teams and update it.
Now the next thing, which the PMs are very wary of, is to identify if the solution which his
team is coming up with is good enough and sustainable to beat the competition in the
market. And for that, they perform market research very thoroughly, through prototyping
or user testing, and observing how users respond to their solutions.

Stage 3. Developing the product

This is the most important phase in any product management role. And for this PMs work
with all the stakeholders to develop detailed requirements of the product, and the features
they want to build. Now at this stage, it completely depends on the size of the organization
and the severity of the products, based on the complexity of which many various teams are
involved, and the PM regularly connects with them to get the updates.

The main work for at PM at this stage is to discuss with these teams, and maintain the
following important documents:

• PRD (Product Requirement Documents): This document contains the specificity of

the requirements of the product, such as what must be built, how it is going to be
built, and their timelines.
• TSD (Technical Specification Document): The technical specifics to develop the
product are all mentioned in this document.
• User Stories: The requirements are broken down into several small deliverables and
a timeline is being given to it. An example of a user story is the introduction of the
like button in the LinkedIn post.

Once the development team has developed the user stories, then it goes for quality testing,
something which we call the QA process to ensure that the requirements are completely
met, as mentioned in the PRD, TSD and the user story.

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Different types of Product Managers:

The product management processes changes based on specialties required. Some of the
different responsibilities for PM includes the following:

Title Responsibilities
Product Work with internal and external stakeholders to manage the
Manager entire product lifecycle and product roadmap
Product Work with development team and create user stories and
Owner product backlog
Growth
Product Work with business leaders and devise business outcomes
Manager across growth, customer retention, revenue etc.
Technical
Product Works with internal stakeholders on core specifications and
Manager product functionality
Platform
Product Works with internal stakeholders to optimize technical
Manager components shared across multiple products

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 PM JARGONS

Important Terms in Product Management:

Peak Product Manager – Someone who is not just creating features to ship them but
rather delivers value and creates an impact at all stages.
There are 4 key pillars:
1. Product Strategy
2. Product Execution
3. Customer Insight
4. Influencing People
Product Strategy – As a PM one should have a clear metric-oriented approach. It
comprises of:
Product vision & Roadmap – It consists of measuring the impact and prioritizing the
features to be realized via a roadmap.
Strategic Impact – It is about building the business strategy of the product by analyzing
the outcomes and pain points.
Business Outcome ownership – It accounts for the ability to connect the goals of the
features of any product to the strategic objectives.
Product Execution – A PM must be a team player and should deliver catering to the needs
of all the stakeholders. It comprises of:
Feature Specification – The major skillset required here is to identify the user need and
build features simultaneously driving the delivery of product.
Product Delivery – The ability to build features and scale them by bringing different teams
such as Engineering, sales, QA together.
Product Quality Assurance – It involves identifying errors and working on all the possible
use cases of the product, making sure that the user goes through a smooth journey while
using the product.
Customer Insight – Feedback and figuring out pain points is very necessary. It should be
backed by the data. It comprises of:
Fluency with Data – Analyzing the trends captured and aligning them with the goals to
drive the growth of the business.
Voice of the customer - The ability to identify pain points and take feedback while
implementing features at each stage is one of the major aspects in building successful

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products.

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User Experience Design – Understanding the design is an important part and how do you
build an easy-to-use design without compromising on the business impact is a great skill to
have as a PM.
Influencing People – This is a very team-oriented role. This covers aspects like:
Managing Up – Every PM must manage a team be it big or small and deliver the impact
further to Product leaders.
Team Leadership – Since the most important task of PM is prioritization so taking the
team as a unit to deliver on it is a key task.
Stakeholder Management – As a PM your job is to listen to all the stakeholders and then
build the roadmap considering all the inputs.

Opportunity Solution tree

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Example for a payment product:

Hypothesis testing
Hypothesis in products is generally the outcome you would expect after shipping a
product. Therefore, testing it to confirm your assumptions is an important aspect of
product lifecycle. To test different use cases there are 2 approaches A/B Testing or
Multivariate Testing. In A/B Testing, the userbase is clustered into 2 groups and the
feature is tested with one of them. Post comparing the results the decision is made
regarding the production. While in multivariant testing, the user base is clustered into
multiple groups and the best variant is decided after analyzing the results.

Metrics Indicators –
Leading Indicators – They define what actions are necessary to achieve your outcomes.
They set a benchmark for measuring the level of KP’'s. Examples – Number of new
subscriptions, number of new license purchases.
Lagging Indicators – It is used to measure the current output level. They are used to
account for the mistakes to measure future success. Examples – Number of orders
processed; number of payments made.

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 Important Metrics

MAU (Monthly Active Users), DAU (Daily Active Users) and DAU/MAU – This ratio
shows how active daily users are monthly. It is used to measure user engagement on
various activities performed by a user.
Churn Rate – It defines the rate at which customers stop using a particular feature of a
product or a product itself.

Net Promoter Score –

It measures customer experience and business growth with the input given. Promoters are
the loyal customers of the product who refer the same to their acquaintances. Detractors
are the group of people who are not satisfied with your product and affect the growth of
the business. Passive is the major target group to focus on. They can be converted into
promoters via new offerings.

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CSAT – It is calculated by diving the number of positive responses by total number of
responses.

CAC – Customer Acquisition Cost – It is calculated by measuring the total marketing

budget against the number of users acquired.
ARR – This metric shows the recurring growth via annual subscriptions or another
channel.
ARPU – It shows the average revenue a user generates for the product. It has a direct
correlation with the total revenue.
Stickiness – It is measured in terms of DAU/MAU or DAU/WAU to depict how frequently
users are getting engaged on the platform.
North Star Metric – It is the most important metric depicting the growth of the business
with respect to all the stakeholders. It is also the key aspect to measure the success of a
particular product team in an organization.
For example, for a payments bank, the north star metric could be Number of Payments
each day.

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Example: Facebook – Daily Active Users, Amazon – Monthly purchase per user.

Goals of a Product Manager

Acquisition >> Retention >> Engagement >> Monetization

Acquisition: Shipping features to acquire new users or customers is called Acquisition. It

might be creating a completely new product, or it involves adding new features as per user
need. For example, any SaaS offering going for Freemium model.

Retention – Once the user starts using the services it is very important to keep your
product on top of their shelf. For example, Flipkart introduced the coins model to force
users indirectly to shop from Flipkart over other marketplaces.

Engagement:
For example, to keep the users engaged spotify released a new feature “wrapped” which
contains the topmost songs played by user throughout the year. This gives them a way to
keep the platform engaging.

Monetization: Spotify is one of the best examples to explain this as they introduced
opportunities for users as well as their business. Apart from rolling out premium features,
they introduced Paid Subscription platform, Spotify Open Access Platform and Spotify
Audience Network for content creators.

Product Analytics Tools:

1. Google Analytics
2. Amplitude
3. Mix Panel
4. Pendo
5. Hotjar
6. Full Story
7. Glassbox
8. Heap

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 UI/UX Laws for Product Design

Hick’s Law – It states that the time and effort required for making a decision increase as
the number of choices increases. So, it has a huge implication in UX as giving a lot of
options to users may increase churn rate. Therefore, it is important to remove noise and
talk specifics.

Miller’s Law – It revolves around the fact that immediate memory span of people is
limited to seven items on an average plus or minus 2. Therefore, as a product designer we
should be mindful of the same and create the experience to keep the platform engaging.
The best example of the application of this law is OTT Platforms wherein trending content
is portrayed using this.
Fitt’s Law - According to Fitts' law, the time needed for a human to move a pointer (such
as a mouse cursor) to a target region depends on the target's size divided by the target's
distance. Therefore, the time required increases with distance and target size. It is used in
tracking and improving the browsing experience.

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Prioritization Frameworks with example:
Prioritization frameworks are essential tools for product managers to evaluate and
prioritize tasks or projects and make informed decisions about the features of a product.
There are several popular frameworks that product managers use, such as RICE,
MoSCoW, Kano, and Value vs Complexity. Here we will focus on the RICE framework,
and its components and provide examples of how it can be used to prioritize product ideas
and features.
RICE is a prioritization framework used to prioritize tasks or projects. It stands for:
1. Reach (R): How many people will be impacted by the task or project?
2. Impact (I): How significant is the impact on the people affected?
3. Confidence (C): How confident are we that we can complete the task or project
successfully?
4. Effort (E): How much effort will it take to complete the task or project?

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To calculate a RICE score, you need to combine these factors according to the importance
of each for your project. The higher the score, the higher the priority of the task or
project. This framework is simple to use and can be easily understood by product
managers and other members of the product team.

An example of using RICE to prioritize tasks might be:

Task 1: Create a new feature for the company's website that allows users to save their
favorite products (R: 10,000 users, I: high, C: high, E: medium)

Task 2: Fix a bug in the checkout process that is causing errors for some customers (R:
100 customers, I: medium, C: high, E: low)

Task 3: Develop a new mobile app for the company (R: 100,000 users, I: high, C: low, E:
high)

In this example, the first task would be prioritized over the second task because it has a
higher reach (10,000 users’ vs 100 customers) and a similar level of impact and
confidence. The third task would be prioritized last because it has a high reach and
impact, but a low level of confidence and a high level of effort.

It's important to note that the RICE framework is not a standalone tool, it's just one of the
several frameworks that can be used to prioritize features. Product managers can use
multiple frameworks to evaluate and prioritize tasks or projects and make informed
decisions about the features of a product.

Another example of a prioritization framework is the Value vs Complexity Quadrant.

This framework is used to assess the impact and complexity of potential features. The
quadrant is divided into four sections:
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The initiatives are then plotted on the matrix and prioritized according to their position in
the quadrant, with the highest value and lowest complexity initiatives are given priority. A
weighted, customized scoring system is used to determine the value and complexity of each
initiative. It is important to note that this framework is one of many that product teams
can use for prioritization and that different frameworks may be more suitable for
different contexts and goals.
This framework helps product managers to identify which features are high value and low
complexity and should be prioritized, and which features are low value and high
complexity and should be avoided.
In conclusion, prioritization frameworks are essential tools for product managers to
evaluate and prioritize tasks or projects and make informed decisions about the features
of a product. The RICE framework is a simple and widely used method that product
managers and other members of the product team can easily understand.

Other prioritization frameworks commonly used in product management include:

1. MoSCow (Must Have, Should Have, Could Have, Won't Have)
2. Kano
3. Weighted Scoring Prioritization
4. Priority Poker

It is also worth noting that some sources recommend using multiple frameworks in
combination, such as using RICE results and re-applying in another framework as a
sanity check.

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MVP vs MLP vs MMP

Minimum Viable Product (MVP), Minimum Lovable Product (MLP), and Minimum
Marketable Product (MMP) are all terms used in product management to describe
different stages of product development. They each have their own unique characteristics
and are used for different purposes.

MVP is a product with the minimal functionality necessary to validate a business idea. It
is a tool used to test a product idea's feasibility and gather feedback from potential
customers. The MVP is intended to be a simple, low-cost version of the final product, with
only the most essential features.
Advantages of MVP:
1. A low-cost way to test the feasibility of a product idea and gather feedback from
potential customers
2. Fast to develop, which can be beneficial for start-ups or small businesses with
limited resources
3. Allows you to check if your target audience is chosen correctly
4. Helps find out what features are the most popular
5. It helps determine possible problems and create a user base of early adopters.

MLP is a product that not only has minimal functionality, but also has a certain degree of
"wow" factor, or emotional appeal. It is a product that not only works but also creates a
positive emotional connection with the user. The MLP is intended to be a product that users
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will fall in love with and will be willing to pay for. It is used to test the market and validate

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the product before investing a significant amount of time and money into it.

Advantages of MLP:
1. Heavy engagement from users as you build up the lovability.
2. Creates attachment and an emotional link with early adopters.
3. Creates loyal customers who will be more likely to invest in the product.

MMP is a product that has been updated several times over and is of better quality than
MVP. An MMP is a minimum that the market is ready to pay for. The MMP is intended to
be a product that has been refined and improved based on feedback from customers, and
that is ready to be released on the market.

Advantages of MMP:
1. Solves the business goal.
2. Provides Return on Investment (ROI) faster than an MLP.

When developing a new product, it is important to understand the difference between these
three terms and when to use them. MVP is used at the very beginning of the product
development process to test the feasibility of a product idea and gather feedback. MLP is
used during the development of the product to ensure that it not only works but also has a
certain degree of emotional appeal. MMP is used when the product is ready to be released
on the market and to ensure that it is the minimum that the market is ready to pay for.

For example, let's say a company is developing a new mobile app for tracking fitness. The
MVP of this app might include only the most basic features, such as tracking steps and
calories burned. This MVP would be used to test the market and gather feedback from
potential customers.

After gathering feedback, the company could then develop the MLP of the app, which would
include more advanced features, such as tracking specific exercises and a more user-
friendly interface. The MLP would be used to test the market and validate the product
before investing a significant amount of time and money into it.

Again after gathering further feedback, the company could then develop the MMP of the
app, which would include even more advanced features, such as tracking progress over
time, and more detailed analysis of the data. The MMP would be used when the product is
ready to be released on the market and to ensure that it is the minimum that the market is
ready to pay for.

MVP (Minimum Viable Product) examples:

1. Amazon's MVP was a simple online bookstore before it expanded to include a wide
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range of products and services.

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 2. Facebook's MVP was a platform for Harvard students to connect and network with
each other before it was opened to other universities and eventually the general
public.
3. Dropbox, which created an explainer video before any of the hardware, software, or
infrastructure was built.
4. Groupon, which began as a piecemeal MVP, promoted the services of local businesses
and offered deals that lasted for a limited amount of time.
5. Foursquare began as a single-featured MVP that allowed users to check in to locations
and share it with friends.
MLP (Minimum Lovable Product) example:
• Groupon's MLP was a platform that offered daily deals on local businesses but added
features such as personalized recommendations and a loyalty program to increase
customer engagement and loyalty.

MMP (Minimum Marketable Product) example:

• Amazon's MMP was the development of a basic set of features that addressed users’
needs and pains, such as adding a search bar and shopping cart functionality to their
MVP.

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 Wireframe vs Mock-up vs Prototype with example

Wireframes, Mockups, and Prototypes are common terms used in the design and
development of digital products, such as websites and mobile apps. These terms are often
used interchangeably, but they each serve a different purpose and are used at different
stages of the design process. Let’s understand the differences between wireframes,
mockups, and prototypes -
A wireframe is a visual representation of a website or app's structure, layout, and content.
It is a low-fidelity representation of the user interface (UI) and is often created in black
and white. The purpose of a wireframe is to finalize a user-experience (UX) concept before
actually coding a website or app. According to a Coursera article, the purpose of a
wireframe is "to finalize a user-experience (UX) concept before actually coding a website
or app. Think of a wireframe as a digital sketch, mock-up, or prototype showing each
element’s position and layout, but without any styling, graphics, or interactive elements.
A mockup, on the other hand, is a more detailed representation of the UI and is often
created in high fidelity. It is a visual way of representing a product and is used to show
how the final product will look like. A mockup is not clickable, just like the wireframe.
According to a UX Planet article, "A mockup is a visual way of representing a product.
While a wireframe mostly represents the structure of a product, a mockup shows how the
product is going to look like. But still, a mockup is not clickable (just like the wireframe).
As opposed to a wireframe, a mockup is either a mid or high-fidelity display of design.
A prototype, on the other hand, is a high-fidelity representation of the UI that includes
interactive elements. It is an early model of a product that focuses on functionality and is
used to test the product's usability and user experience. According to a Sketch article, "A
prototype is an early model of a product that focuses on functionality and gives your
stakeholders a taste of the final version.

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Therefore, these three tools are used at different stages of the design process and serve
different purposes. Wireframes are used to finalize the UX concept and are created
quickly, mockups are used to show how the final product will look like and are created in
high-fidelity, and prototypes are used to test the product's usability and user experience
and are created in high-fidelity with interactive elements.
It is also important to note that a mockup acts as a bridge between the wireframe and the
prototype. According to a Visual Paradigm article, "While wireframes are design
placeholders, mockups are built to give the viewer a more realistic impression of how the
end product will look.

Wireframe vs Mockup vs Prototype example:

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 Industry Overview and Analysis

With a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.2%, the global market for information
technology increased from $8179.48 billion in 2022 to $8852.41 billion in 2023. At least
temporarily, the Russia-Ukraine conflict hampered the possibilities of a COVID-19
pandemic-related global economic rebound. Economic sanctions on a number of nations,
an increase in commodity prices, and disruptions in the supply chain as a result of the
conflict between these two nations have caused inflation in the prices of products and
services and had an impact on numerous markets throughout the world. At a CAGR of
7.9%, the market for information technology is projected to reach $11995.97 billion in
2027.

During the projected period, the demand for IT services is anticipated to be driven by the
need for cloud computing services. In the cloud computing model, a cloud computing
provider, who manages and runs data storage as a service, stores data on the internet.
Applications hosted in the cloud are increasingly a popular choice for many businesses'
daily operations. For instance, hostingtribunal.com figures show that in 2019, 60% of
computing workloads were carried out on the public cloud. In a similar vein, cloud data
centers are anticipated to handle 94% of enterprise workloads in 2021. Additionally,
businesses are choosing cloud-based data storage, which is increasing the demand for IT
services.

The market for information technology worldwide is divided into the following categories:
1) By Type: IT Services, Computer Hardware, Telecom, and Software Products
2) By Organization Size: Big Business, Small Business, and Medium Business
3)End User Industries: Manufacturing, Healthcare, Retail & Wholesale, Financial Services,
and Other End User Industries

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SWOT Analysis of IT Industry

Strengths Organizations are constantly looking for ways to surpass their rivals. A company
must therefore possess a variety of qualities in order to dominate its industry.
● Efficiency is increased because businesses must run their operations effectively in the
fast-paced environment that technology has created.
● Increases Security: Businesses must protect their data from being stolen or lost. Since they
are aware of the potential consequences of a data breach, organizations employ a variety of
techniques to protect their data.
● Income Growth: Businesses are constantly seeking for ways to boost their revenue. By
lowering downtime and boosting productivity, establishing an IT network can raise business
revenue.

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Weaknesses
Weaknesses are the flaws that cause a company to have trouble competing in the market.

● High setup fees: Businesses are aware of the benefits of having an IT network. However,
because of the hefty startup costs, they have trouble establishing an IT network.

● Time-consuming: Setting up a solid IT network takes a lot of time in addition to costing

enormous sums of money. Organizations will need to teach the workers to become comfortable
with the technology after purchasing all the required equipment. Months will be needed for this.
Time will be lost in large amounts as a result.
● Increasing Dependence on IT Network: After establishing its IT network, a company
gradually starts to rely more and more on it. The company begins delegating IT network
activities that were previously handled manually. Additionally, it becomes reliant on the IT
network to manage data.

Opportunities
Opportunities for achievement in one way or another are given to every company.
Organizations must, however, seize chances quickly if they want to profit themselves. For
enterprises, having an information technology network opens them to a world of possibilities.

● Cost-cutting measures are constantly being used by businesses in an effort to increase

earnings. Creating an IT network within the company can aid in cost savings.
● Better Planning: Organizations need to forecast and plan in order to develop future plans
that are appropriate. Prior to the development of information technology, the organization's
management created long-term goals by manually projecting the future.
● Growth: By utilizing all of its resources, a business seeks to optimize its growth. IT
networks help organizations expand by expanding their consumer base through efficient
marketing.

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Threats
The concerns that an organization must manage are threats. Although networks for information
technology are thought to be very advantageous, the organization is also threatened by their
presence.

● Security dangers: The majority of IT solutions are shifting toward cloud-based systems as
a result of the transition toward cloud-based software and services. In addition, computers in IT
networks are used to store data and information. Despite the fact that this has made it easier for
businesses to store their data. However, online and computer data storage carries a substantial
danger.
● Law enforcement Agency Responses: Few employees were in charge of data and
information storage prior to firms beginning to use IT networks. However, since the
introduction of IT networks, more people have access to sensitive data.

● Operations disruption: Because IT networks now handle a lot of the organizations'

operations, their reliance on them has grown. Since these processes require computers and the
internet for IT networks to complete, issues may occur if the internet connectivity or electrical
supply is interrupted.

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Global vs Indian IT sector

Information technology (IT) has altered not only market dynamics but also those of
specific sectors. The ability to make decisions logically and statistically is what has driven
such a change. People maximize their wealth in addition to increasing their profits.
Over the years, there have been many developments in the IT industry. There has never
been a turning back since the invention of the computer, from assisted computation in the
form of tally sticks to the creation of transistors.
India finally got its first computer in nearly two decades. In 1991, the Indian economy
underwent reforms as it entered a new era of globalization. And today, one of the main
centers for IT outsourcing can be found in India's IT sector.
A few of these findings from India compared to the rest of the world are:
1. Business intelligence has become the focus of IT spending, which is a significant
shift from software development.
2. Roughly 27% of global spending goes toward IT services, with India accounting for
nearly 80% of this total.
3. The greatest growth in export income has been in IT services, followed by business
process management.
4. Industry sectors other than IT that are investing extensively in outsourcing include
banking, public sector, automobile, oil & gas, and consumer products.

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 Important Technologies

Today's technology is developing quickly, enabling quicker change and advancement and
accelerating the rate of change. However, there are many more changes that have
occurred this year as a result of the COVID-19 epidemic, which has made IT professionals
recognize that their job will alter in the contactless world of the future. And an IT
professional will be continually learning, unlearning, and relearning in 2023–2024. (Out of
necessity if not desire).

With improvements in machine learning and natural language processing, artificial

intelligence will be more common in 2023. Using this technique, artificial intelligence will
be able to comprehend us better and carry out more difficult tasks. According to
predictions, 5G will drastically alter how we live and work.

DBMS

Database Management System: A database management system is a piece of software that

is used to manage databases (DBMS). Examples of well-known commercial DBMSs used
in many applications include MySQL, Oracle, etc.

The following tasks are possible with DBMS:

1. Data Definition: It aids in the development, revision, and deletion of definitions that
specify how data is organized in a database.
2. Data Updating: It aids in adding, changing, and removing the actual data from the
database.
3. Data Retrieval: It aids in the retrieval of data from the database that programme
can use for a variety of functions.
4. User administration: It aids in user registration and management, data security
enforcement, performance monitoring, data integrity maintenance, concurrency
control management, and information recovery from unexpected failure.

ERP

ERP, or enterprise resource planning, is the capacity to provide a coordinated set of

business applications. ERP technologies have a shared process and data model that covers
a wide range of in-depth operational end-to-end operations, including those in supply chain
management, manufacturing, distribution, human resources, and finance.

Many administrative and operational business operations, including line of business,

customer-facing, administrative, and asset management parts of an organization, are
33
automated and supported by ERP solutions across a variety of industries. ERP

34
implementations are difficult and expensive projects, and some businesses find it difficult
to articulate the benefits to the company.

BIG DATA

Big Data is a body of information that is enormous in volume and is always expanding
exponentially. No typical data management system can effectively store or process this data
because of its magnitude and complexity. Big data is a type of data that is extremely large.
There are basically 3 types of big data:
• Structured
• Semi-structured
• Unstructured

Following traits can be used to define big data: Volume, Variety, Velocity & Variability

There are many advantages to being able to analyze big data in DBMS, including:
• Businesses can use outside intelligence while making choices.
• Organizations are now able to fine-tune their business plans because of the
availability of social data from search engines and websites like Facebook and
twitter.
• enhanced client services
• New systems created using Big Data technology are replacing conventional
consumer feedback systems. Big Data and natural language processing technologies
are being employed in these new systems to read and assess customer feedback.
• Early detection of any risk to the goods or services
• improved operational effectiveness
• Before deciding which data should be sent to the data warehouse, big data
technologies can be utilized to create a staging area or landing zone for new data. A
company can unload rarely used data by integrating big data technologies with data
warehouses in this way.

35
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

In today's world, technology is growing very fast, and we are getting in touch with
different new technologies day by day.
Artificial Intelligence is composed of two words Artificial and Intelligence, where Artificial
defines "man-made," and intelligence defines "thinking power", hence AI means "a man-
made thinking power."
So, we can define AI as:
"It is a branch of computer science by which we can create intelligent machines which can
behave like a human, think like humans, and able to make decisions."
It can be used in a variety of subfields, ranging from general to specific, such as self-
driving cars, playing chess, proving theorems, playing music, Painting, etc.

Why AI?
Following are some main reasons to learn about AI:
• With the help of AI, you can create such software or devices which can solve real-
world problems very easily and with accuracy such as health issues, marketing, traffic
issues, etc.
• With the help of AI, you can create your personal virtual Assistant, such as Cortana,
Google Assistant, Siri, etc.
• With the help of AI, you can build such Robots which can work in an environment
where survival of humans can be at risk.
• AI opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new
Opportunities.Goals of AI:
Following are the main goals of Artificial Intelligence:
• Replicate human intelligence
• Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks
• An intelligent connection of perception and action
• Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn new things by
itself, demonstrate, explain, and can advise its user.
• Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human intelligence such
as:
o Proving a theorem
o Playing chess
o Plan some surgical operations.
o Driving a car in traffic
36
Types of AI:

AI type 1: Based on Capabilities

1. Weak AI or Narrow AI:
o Narrow AI is a type of AI which can perform a dedicated task with intelligence. The
most common and currently available AI is Narrow AI in the world of Artificial
Intelligence.
o Narrow AI cannot perform beyond its field or limitations, as it is only trained for
one specific task. Hence it is also termed as weak AI. Narrow AI can fail in
unpredictable ways if it goes beyond its limits.
o Apple Siri is a good example of Narrow AI, but it operates with a limited pre-defined
range of functions.

2. General AI:

o General AI is a type of intelligence which could perform any intellectual task with
efficiency like a human.
3. Super AI:
o Super AI is a level of Intelligence of Systems at which machines can surpass human
intelligence and can perform any task better than humans with cognitive properties.
It is an outcome of general AI.

37
Artificial Intelligence type 2: Based on functionality
1. Reactive Machines:

o Purely reactive machines are the most basic types of Artificial Intelligence.
o Such AI systems do not store memories or past experiences for future actions.
o These machines only focus on current scenarios and react to it as per possible best
action.
o IBM's Deep Blue system is an example of reactive machines.
o Google's AlphaGo is also an example of reactive machines.

2. Limited Memory:

o Limited memory machines can store past experiences or some data for a short
period of time.
o These machines can use stored data for a limited period only.
o Self-driving cars are one of the best examples of Limited Memory systems. These
cars can store recent speed of nearby cars, the distance of other cars, speed limit,
and other information to navigate the road.

3. Theory of Mind:

o Theory of Mind AI should understand human emotions, people, beliefs, and be able
to interact socially like humans.

4. Self-Awareness:

o Self-awareness AI is the future of Artificial Intelligence. These machines will be

super intelligent, and will have their own consciousness, sentiments, and self-
awareness.

38
MACHINE LEARNING
Machine learning is a growing technology which enables computers to learn automatically
from past data. Machine learning uses various algorithms for building mathematical
models and making predictions using historical data or information. Currently, it is being
used for various tasks such as image recognition, speech recognition, email filtering,
Facebook auto-tagging, recommender system, and many more.
Machine Learning is said to be a subset of artificial intelligence that is mainly concerned
with the development of algorithms which allow a computer to learn from the data and past
experiences on their own.
The wide range of machine learning techniques are such as Supervised, Unsupervised, and
Reinforcement learning.

How does Machine Learning work?

A Machine Learning system learns from historical data, which is known as training data,
builds prediction models, and whenever it receives new data, predicts the output for it.
The accuracy of predicted output depends upon the amount of data, as the huge amount of data
helps to build a better model which predicts the output more accurately.

39
Classification of Machine Learning:

1) Supervised Learning:
Supervised learning is a type of machine learning method in which we provide sample
labelled data to the machine learning system to train it, and on that basis, it predicts the
output. The system creates a model using labelled data to understand the datasets and learn
about each data. Once the training and processing are done then we test the model by
providing sample data to check whether it is predicting the exact output or not. The goal of
supervised learning is to map input data with the output data. Supervised learning is based
on supervision, and it is the same as when a student learns things under the supervision of
the teacher. An example of supervised learning is spam filtering.

Supervised learning can be grouped further in two categories of algorithms:

• Classification
• Regression

2) Unsupervised Learning:
Unsupervised learning is a learning method in which a machine learns without any
supervision. The training is provided to the machine with the set of data that has not been
labelled, classified, or categorized, and the algorithm needs to act on that data without any
supervision. The goal of unsupervised learning is to restructure the input data into new
features or a group of objects with similar patterns. In unsupervised learning, we don't have
a predetermined result. The machine tries to find useful insights from the huge amount of
40
data.

41
 It can be further classifieds into two categories of algorithms:
• Clustering
• Association

3) Reinforcement Learning:
Reinforcement learning is a feedback-based learning method, in which a learning agent gets
a reward for each right action and gets a penalty for each wrong action. The agent learns
automatically with this feedback and improves its performance. In reinforcement learning,
the agent interacts with the environment and explores it. The goal of an agent is to get the
most reward points, and hence, it improves its performance.
The robotic dog, which automatically learns the movement of his arms, is an example of
Reinforcement learning.

42
DEEP LEARNING
Deep learning is based on the branch of machine learning, which is a subset of artificial
intelligence. Neural networks imitate the human brain and so deep learning will do. In deep
learning, nothing is programmed explicitly. Basically, it is a machine learning class that
makes use of numerous nonlinear processing units so as to perform feature extraction as
well as transformation. The output from each preceding layer is taken as input by each one
of the successive layers.
Deep learning is a collection of statistical techniques of machine learning for learning
feature hierarchies that are based on artificial neural networks.

Example of Deep Learning:

43
Types of Deep Learning Networks:
o Feed forward neural network

o Recurrent neural network

o Convolutional neural network

o Restricted Boltzmann network

o Autoencoders

Deep learning applications:

o Self-driving cars
o Voice controlled assistance – Siri
o Automatic Image caption Generation

o Automatic Machine Translation

44
CLOUD COMPUTING
The term cloud refers to a network or the internet. It is a technology that uses remote
servers on the internet to store, manage, and access data online rather than local drives.
The data can be anything such as files, images, documents, audio, video, and more.
There are the following operations that we can do using cloud computing:
• Developing new applications and services
• Storage, back up, and recovery of data
• Hosting blogs and websites
• Delivery of software on demand
• Analysis of data
• Streaming videos and audios

Why Cloud Computing?

Every IT company needs a Server Room, that is the basic need of IT companies.
In that server room, there should be a database server, mail server, networking, firewalls,
routers, modem, switches, QPS (Query Per Second means how much queries or load will be
handled by the server), configurable system, high net speed, and the maintenance engineers.
To establish such IT infrastructure, we need to spend lots of money. To overcome all these
problems and to reduce the IT infrastructure cost, Cloud Computing comes into existence.

45
Characteristics of Cloud Computing:
The characteristics of cloud computing are given below:
o Agility

o High availability and reliability

o High Scalability

o multi-Sharing

o Device and Location Independence

o Maintenance
o Low cost
o Services in the pay-per-use mode

46
DATA SCIENCE
Data science is a deep study of the massive amount of data, which involves extracting
meaningful insights from raw, structured, and unstructured data that is processed using
the scientific method, different technologies, and algorithms.
It is a multidisciplinary field that uses tools and techniques to manipulate data so that you
can find something new and meaningful.

47
INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT)
Connecting everyday things embedded with electronics, software, and sensors to the
internet enabling collecting and exchange data without human interaction called the
Internet of Things (IoT).
The term "Things" on the Internet of Things refers to anything and everything in day-to-
day life which is accessed or connected through the internet.
IoT is an advanced automation and analytics system which deals with artificial intelligence,
sensor, networking, electronic, cloud messaging etc. to deliver complete systems for the
product or services. The system created by IoT has greater transparency, control, and
performance.

48
How does Internet of Thing (IoT) Work?
The entire working process of IoT starts with the devices themselves, such as smartphones,
digital watches, electronic appliances, which securely communicate with the IoT platform. The
platforms collect and analyze the data from all multiple devices and platforms and transfer the
most valuable data with applications to devices.
Features of IOT:

o Connectivity
o Analyzing

o Artificial Intelligence

o Integrating

o Sensing
o Active Engagement

o Endpoint Management

49
 Telecom Sector terminologies and overview:

Terminologies:
Access Services is the collection, carriage, transmission and
1 Access delivery of voice and/or non-voice messages over Licensee's
Service network by deploying circuit and/or packet switched equipment

Adjusted Gross Revenue - AGR is Gross revenue reduced by

2 AGR permissible deductions (i.e., PSTN related call charges paid to
other telecom service providers for carriage of calls
(IUC)/Roaming and service/sales tax actually paid to the
Government, as per the license agreement
A Service Provider must offer customers the ability to place and
3 Basic receive voice-grade calls over all distances utilizing the public
Services switched telephone network or successor network

Basic Service Operators - They were permitted to offer “limited-

4 BSOs mobility” services over Wireless Local Loop (WLL (M)) using
CDMA technology in their coverage areas
5 BWA Broadband wireless access
6 Call Call charges are variable and are used to pay for the cost of the
Charges equipment to route a call from the caller's exchange to the
recipient's exchange.
7 CAPEX Capital Expenditure
Provision of wired or wireless facilities to originate, terminate or
transit calls, charging for interconnection, settlement or
termination of domestic or international calls, charging for jointly
8 Carrier
used facilities including pole attachments, charging for the
Service
exclusive use of circuits, a leased circuit or a dedicated link
including a speech circuit, data circuit or a telegraph circuit
9 CDMA Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a technology for
providing wireless services.

50
 Cellular Mobile Telephone Service - It is a type of short-wave
analog or digital telecommunication service in which a subscriber
has a wireless connection from a mobile phone to a relatively
10 CMTS
nearby transmitter. The transmitter's span of coverage is called a
cell. As the cellular telephone user moves from one cell or area of

51
 coverage to another, the telephone is effectively passed on to the
local cell transmitter.

11 Data Provision of access to wired or wireless facilities and services

Service specifically designed for efficient transmission of data
12 DoT Department of Telecommunications
13 Entry fee One-time non-refundable Entry Fee fixed by DoT has to be paid
by the Licensee prior to signing of the License agreement.
14 FAT Free Airtime
Fixed During the National Telecom Policy-1994 regime, licensees were
15 license selected through a bidding process and were to pay to the
fee Government a fixed amount of annual license fee, agreed during
regime the bidding process.
16 FOC Free of Cost
17 FTT Full talk time
GR - The Gross Revenue shall be inclusive of installation charges,
late fees, sale proceeds of handsets (or any other terminal
equipment etc.), revenue on account of interest, dividend, value
18 GR
added services, supplementary services, access or interconnection
charges, roaming charges, revenue from permissible sharing of
infrastructure and any other miscellaneous revenue, without any
set-off for related item of expense, etc.
19 GSM Global System for Mobile communication is a technology for
providing wireless services.
International Long Distance - The ILD Service is basically a
20 ILD network carriage service (also called Bearer) providing
international connectivity to the Network operated by foreign
carriers.
21 Installati
on Charges for installation of customer terminal equipment
charges

52
 A ‘charge’ levied by network operators on other service providers
22 Interconn to recover the costs of the interconnection facilities (including the
ection hardware and software for routing, signaling, and other basic
charges service functions) provided by the network operators

23 Internet
Services Internet services provides for accessing, using, or participating
on the Internet
24 Internet Internet telephony offers digital telecommunications services
Telephon based on Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) that are
y provisioned via the Internet
25 IOT Inter Operator traffic
Infrastructure provider category- I -No license is issued for IP-I.
26 IP-I Companies registered as IP-I can provide assets such as Dark
Fiber, Right of Way, Duct space and Tower.
Infrastructure provider category- II - An IP-II license can lease /
27 IP-II rent out /sell end to end bandwidth i.e., digital transmission
capacity capable to carry a message. Issuance of IP-II License has
been discontinued w.e.f. 14.12.05
28 ISP Internet Service Provider
29 ISP (IT) Internet Service Provider (including Internet Telephony)
30 IUC Interconnection Usage Charges as defined at serial 16
31 License The Licensee shall pay License Fee as a percentage of Adjusted
Fee Gross Revenue (AGR) for providing telecom services on basis of
licenses granted by DoT.
32 LSAs Licensed Service Areas (Circle)
33 Microwa Microwave (MW) Access is normally in the frequency band 10
ve Access GHz and beyond for GSM and CDMA based telecom service
providers
34 Microwa Microwave (MW) Backbone networks are generally below 10
ve GHz frequency band for GSM and CDMA based telecom service
Backbon providers
e
35 MoC&IT Ministry of Communications and IT

53
 National Long Distance - National Long Distance (NLD) service
36 NLD refers to the carriage of switched-bearer telecommunications
services over a long-distance network i.e., a network connecting
different short distance charging areas (SDCAs)
37 NTP-94 National Telecom Policy-1994
38 NTP-99 New Telecom Policy-1999
39 OPEX Operating Expenditure
40 PSPs Private Service Providers
41 PSTN Public Switched Telecom Network charges
charges
Revenue New Telecom Policy - 99 introduced the 'Revenue Share Regime'
42 sharing in which telecom service providers, in place of the fixed license
regime fee were required to pay a percentage of their Adjusted Gross
Revenue (AGR) as license fee
Roaming is the ability for a cellular customer to automatically
43 Roaming make & receive voice calls, send & receive data, or access other
charges services when traveling outside the geographical coverage area of
the home network, by means of using a visited network. The
charge for this facility is Roaming charges
44 Sales Tax Sales tax is a consumption tax imposed by the government on the
sale of goods and services
Service tax is a tax levied by the government on service providers
45 Service on certain service transactions but is actually borne by the
Tax customers. It is categorized under Indirect Tax and came into
existence under the Finance Act, 1994
46 SUC Spectrum Usage Charges - In addition to License Fee, wireless
service providers are required to pay Spectrum Usage Charges
as a percentage of AGR.
GSM offers three basic types of services: Telephony services or teleservices,
Data services or bearer services & Supplementary services. Supplementary
services are additional services that are provided in addition to teleservices
47 Suppleme and bearer services. These services include caller identification, call
ntary forwarding, call hold, call waiting, conferencing, number identification,
services closed user group and barring of outgoing (international) calls
48 TB Trial Balance

54
49 TDSAT Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal

55
 Terminal A device that constitutes a point of termination of a communications circuit
50 equipment or channel. Terminal equipment includes all customer premises equipment
(CPE), including voice terminal equipment and data terminal equipment
(DTE)
51 TRAI Telecom Regulatory Authority of India
Unified Access Services License - The UASL services cover collection,
carriage, transmission and delivery of voice and/or non-voice messages over
licensee’s network in the designated service area and include provision of all
types of access services. Access Service Provider can also provide Internet
52 UASL Telephony, Internet Services and Broadband Services. If required, the access
service provider can use the network of NLD/ILD service licensee. The access
service includes but is not limited to wireline and / or wireless and fixed
wireless access.
Unified License - The Licensee may establish, operate and maintain
Telecommunication Networks and telecommunication services using any
technology as per prescribed standards in the service area as per scope of
53 UL services authorized under this License. In case, the Licensee obtains Access
Spectrum, the terms and conditions of the allotment of spectrum regarding
use of technology shall be applicable.

Universal Service Obligation - NTP’99 provided that the resources for

54 USO meeting the USO would be raised through a ‘Universal Access Levy (UAL)’,
which would be a percentage of the revenue earned by the operators under
various licenses.

Value-added service (VAS) is a popular telecommunications industry term

55 Value for non-core services, or in short, all services beyond standard voice calls and
added fax transmissions. In the telecommunication industry, on a conceptual level,
services value- added services add value to the standard service

Very Small Aperture Terminal - VSAT License is to establish, install, operate

56 VSAT and maintain VSAT Closed Users Group Domestic Data Network service via
INSAT Satellite System on non- exclusive basis within territorial boundary of
India

57 WFD Wireless Finance Division of DoT

58 WLL (M) Wireless in Local Loop (Mobile)
59 WPC Charges levied by the Wireless Planning & Coordination Wing of DoT
Charges

56
Overview: India's telecommunication network is the second largest in the world by
number of telephone users (both fixed and mobile phone) with 1179.49 million subscribers
as on 31 January 2021. It has one of the lowest call tariffs in the world enabled by mega
telecom operators and hyper-competition among them. India has the world's second-
largest Internet user-base with 747.41 million broadband internet subscribers in the
country.
Major sectors of the Indian telecommunication industry are telephone, internet and
television broadcast industry in the country which is in an ongoing process of
transforming into next generation network, employs an extensive system of modern
network elements such as digital telephone exchanges, mobile switching centers, media
gateways and signaling gateways at the core, interconnected by a wide variety of
transmission systems using fiber-optics or Microwave radio relay networks. The access
network, which connects the subscriber to the core, is highly diversified with different
copper-pair, optic-fiber, and wireless technologies. DTH, a relatively new broadcasting
technology has attained significant popularity in the Television segment. The introduction
of private FM has given a fillip to the radio broadcasting in India. Telecommunication in
India has greatly been supported by the INSAT system of the country, one of the largest
domestic satellite systems in the world. India possesses a diversified communications
system, which links all parts of the country by telephone, Internet, radio, television and
satellite.
Telecommunication has supported the socioeconomic development of India and has
played a significant role to narrow down the rural-urban digital divide to some extent. It
also has helped to increase the transparency of governance with the introduction of e-
governance in India. The government has pragmatically used modern telecommunication
facilities to deliver mass education programme for the rural folk of India.

57
 Additional ProdMan Concepts:
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS

BUS (Business Objectives – User Problems – Solutions)

This framework focuses on aligning Business Objectives with User Problems to find effective Solutions. It
starts with identifying the strategic goals of a business, understanding the core problems users face, and
then devising solutions that bridge the gap between the business's objectives and the users' needs.
Example: A SaaS company aims to increase its market share (Business Objective) by addressing users'
need for more customizable software options (User Problem). The solution could be the development of a
new feature set that allows for greater customization.

STAR (Situation – Task – Action – Result)

The STAR framework is used to structure responses to behavioral interview questions. It stands for
Situation (setting the context), Task (what needed to be done), Action (what you did), and Result (the
outcome).
Example: Used in interviews to describe a past experience where you led a team through a project
turnaround, detailing the initial challenges (Situation), your objectives (Task), the strategies you
implemented (Action), and the successful outcome (Result).

HEART (Happiness – Engagement – Adoption – Retention – Task Success)

HEART is a user-centered framework to measure the quality of the user experience, focusing on
Happiness, Engagement, Adoption, Retention, and Task Success.
Example: For a mobile app, measuring user Happiness through satisfaction surveys, Engagement by
daily active users, Adoption by new user sign-ups, Retention by the percentage of users returning, and
Task Success by completion rates of key actions.

AARRR (Acquisition – Activation – Retention – Referral – Revenue)

AARRR stands for Acquisition, Activation, Retention, Referral, and Revenue. It's a framework for
understanding the customer lifecycle and optimizing the funnel for growth.
Example: A streaming service focuses on acquiring users through targeted ads (Acquisition), encourages
them to start a free trial (Activation), uses personalized content to keep them engaged (Retention),
incentivizes sharing with friends (Referral), and converts them to paid subscribers (Revenue).

CIRCLES Method
A framework for product design and problem-solving that stands for Comprehend, Identify, Report, Cut
through the clutter, List solutions, Evaluate trade-offs, and Summarize.
Example: Used in product management interviews or to tackle design challenges by comprehensively
understanding the problem, identifying user needs, brainstorming solutions, and evaluating the best
options.

LEAN Canvas
A one-page business plan template that helps entrepreneurs deconstruct their idea into key assumptions,
focusing on problems, solutions, key metrics, and competitive advantages.
Example: A startup uses the LEAN Canvas to outline its value proposition for an online marketplace,
identifying customer segments, revenue streams, and key resources needed.
58
Software Life Cycle Models

Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) models are systematic approaches used in the development of
software projects. Two prominent models are the Waterfall Model and the Agile Model.

Waterfall Model

The Waterfall model is a linear and sequential approach to software development. It is divided into distinct
phases such as requirements, design, implementation, testing, deployment, and maintenance. Each
phase must be completed before the next begins, with little to no overlap between them.

Example: Consider the development of a banking system. Initially, the project starts with a comprehensive
requirement analysis phase, where all the banking system's needs are thoroughly documented. Following
this, the system's design phase outlines how the software will be structured. After the design phase, the
implementation phase involves actual coding and development of the banking system. The system then
moves to the testing phase, where it is rigorously tested for bugs and issues. Once testing is successfully
completed, the system is deployed for use. Finally, maintenance is carried out as needed to fix issues or
update the software.

Agile Model

The Agile model is an iterative and incremental approach to software development. Unlike the Waterfall
model, the Agile model emphasizes flexibility and customer involvement throughout the development
process. Development is carried out in small, manageable increments known as sprints, with each sprint
delivering a potentially shippable product increment.

Example: Development of a mobile application can follow the Agile model. The project starts with planning
a limited set of features for the initial sprint. After the sprint planning, the team works on developing those
features within a short time frame (typically 2-4 weeks). At the end of the sprint, the product is reviewed
with stakeholders, and feedback is gathered. This feedback is then used to plan the next set of features
for the subsequent sprint, and the cycle continues until the product meets the desired outcome.

59
Scrum
Scrum is an Agile framework for software development, emphasizing collaboration, simplicity, and self-
organization. It operates in short iterations called Sprints, typically lasting one month or less. Stages in a
scrum are:
Sprint: A time-boxed period when a scrum team works to complete a set amount of work. Usually lasting 2
weeks - 1 month.
Sprint Review: Non-achievable features of the previous sprint will be reviewed in this stage.
Sprint Retrospective: Quality or status of the software(delivered to undelivered) is checked
Product Backlog: Remaining features are organized and re-organized according to the priority.
Sprint Backlog: List of tasks identified by the Scrum team to be completed during the upcoming Scrum
sprint.
Release: Deliver high-quality products incrementally, and adapt to changing requirements.

Kanban
Kanban, a variant of Agile methodology, derives its name from Japanese, meaning "visual sign" or "card."
It is implemented through a Kanban board, which visually represents a product team's workflow. This
board divides work into three main categories: "to do," "in progress," and "completed." Each task is
represented by a Kanban card, which moves across categories as it progresses through the process. The
visual aspect of Kanban aids team members in staying aligned and quickly identifying areas for process
improvement, such as bottlenecks or gaps. Kanban also stresses the importance of limiting work in
progress to enhance efficiency. Its ultimate aim is continuous improvement in product development,
achieved through regular team meetings to analyze data from the Kanban board and propose necessary
changes. Kanban is particularly suitable for small teams with a manageable number of tasks and is
effective for tracking personal productivity as well.

Both models have their advantages and are chosen based on the project's needs. The Waterfall model is
often preferred for projects with well-defined requirements and where changes are not expected. In

60
contrast, the Agile model is suited for projects requiring flexibility and where customer involvement is
crucial for success.

V-Model is also another commonly used model.

V-Model
The V-Model, also known as the Verification and Validation Model, is a SDLC model where each phase
progresses sequentially, with the subsequent phase commencing only after the completion of the
preceding one.
This model is characterized by the alignment of testing phases with each stage of development.
Essentially, for every development phase, there is a corresponding testing phase, forming a V-shaped
structure. This integration ensures that both development and testing activities occur concurrently, with a
symbiotic relationship between verification and validation. The Coding Phase serves as the connecting
point, establishing the V-shaped association between these activities, hence earning its name as the V-
Model.

Example, The V-Model is applied in automotive software development, to synchronize development,

testing, and validation phases, ensuring thorough attention to requirements and prompt identification of
defects. V-Model helps mitigate the risk of late-stage defects, saving costs and ensuring software
reliability.

Product Pricing for Software Products: YouTube, Netflix, and More

Product pricing is a critical component in the software industry, affecting how products are perceived and
adopted by the market. Effective pricing strategies can significantly influence the success and profitability
of software products such as YouTube, Netflix, and others.

What are Pricing Strategies?

Pricing strategies are methodologies and approaches used by businesses to determine the best price for
their products or services. These strategies consider various factors, including production costs, customer
perceived value, market demand, and competition. The goal is to set a price that maximizes profitability
while being attractive to consumers.

Top 7 Pricing Strategies

61
1. Value-Based Pricing: Prices are set based on the perceived value to the customer rather than on the
cost of the product or market prices. This strategy is often used by companies with highly differentiated or
unique offerings.
Example: Apple's pricing of its products reflects a value-based approach, where prices are set high due
to the perceived innovation, quality, and brand value.

2. Competitive Pricing: Pricing decisions are made based on the prices of competing products.
Businesses may choose to price their products lower, higher, or the same as their competitors, depending
on their market positioning and product differentiation.
Example: Pepsi and Coca-Cola often engage in competitive pricing, adjusting their prices in response to
each other’s pricing changes to maintain market share.

3. Price Skimming: Setting high prices initially and then gradually lowering the price over time. This
strategy can be effective for recouping the investment made in product development and is commonly
used for new and innovative products.
Example: Technology companies like Sony and Samsung use price skimming for their new electronic
products.

4. Cost-Plus Pricing: Adding a standard markup to the cost of the product. This straightforward approach
ensures all costs are covered and a profit margin is achieved.
Example: Many restaurants use cost-plus pricing to determine the prices of their dishes, ensuring they
cover the cost of ingredients and overheads while achieving a profit.

5. Penetration Pricing: Setting a low price to enter a competitive market and attract customers away from
established competitors. The price may be increased once market share is captured.
Example: Reliance Jio used penetration pricing to quickly gain a large share of the Indian
telecommunications market by offering free or very low-priced services initially.

6. Economy Pricing: This strategy involves minimizing marketing and production costs to keep product
prices low. It’s often used for commodity goods where differentiation is minimal.
Example: Large retailers like Walmart and Costco use economy pricing for generic products to attract
price-sensitive customers.

7. Dynamic Pricing: Adjusting prices in real-time based on market demand, competition, and other
factors. This strategy is common in industries where demand can vary significantly in short periods.
Example: Airlines and hotels use dynamic pricing to adjust the prices of flights and rooms based on
demand.

Pricing Strategy Examples

Streaming Services: Netflix, Amazon Prime Video, and Hulu use competitive or market-based pricing,
setting similar subscription rates to attract consumers without engaging in a price war.
Salesforce: Initially, Salesforce could set high prices due to its novel cloud-based CRM solution, later
reducing prices to broaden its market.
Dollar Shave Club: Employed economy pricing by offering razors at a lower cost than traditional stores,
significantly disrupting the market.

Effective pricing is more than just setting the right number; it’s about understanding the market,
competition, and the value your product offers to consumers. The above strategies and examples provide
a glimpse into the complex considerations involved in pricing software products.
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APP TEARDOWN: Detailed analysis and critique of apps like Uber, Flipkart, Zomato, Udemy, and
Paytm.
Uber: Revolutionizing Urban Mobility
Business Model
Uber's business model is a platform-based, two-sided marketplace that connects riders with drivers. By
leveraging technology, Uber offers a seamless and efficient ride-hailing service, disrupting traditional taxi
services. The company earns revenue through service fees charged on each ride, which is a percentage
of the fare.
User Experience Design
Strengths:

• Intuitive Interface: Uber's app design is centered around simplicity and ease of use. The 'where to?'
feature is prominently displayed, making it straightforward for users to request a ride.
• Location Detection: Automatically detecting the user's location eliminates the need for manual
input, speeding up the ride request process.
• Personalization: The app saves frequent destinations, further simplifying the booking process for
regular users.

Areas for Improvement:

• Accessibility: The app's design could be improved to accommodate users unfamiliar with
smartphones or apps, particularly the older generation.
• Color Scheme: Some users find the current color scheme too minimalistic. Introducing more vibrant
colors could enhance user engagement.

Flipkart: E-commerce Giant

Business Model
Flipkart operates on a B2C e-commerce model, providing a platform for businesses to sell directly to
consumers. The company generates revenue through sales commissions, advertising fees, and
subscription services for sellers on its platform.
User Experience Design
Strengths:

• Easy Navigation: Product categories are easily accessible, enhancing the shopping experience.
• Consistent Aesthetic: The app maintains a consistent color scheme and icon style, contributing to a
cohesive user experience.

Areas for Improvement:

• Page Organization: The homepage can appear unorganized compared to competitors, potentially
overwhelming users with too much information.
• Interface Clutter: Reducing clutter and focusing on a more minimalist design could improve user
satisfaction.

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Zomato: Culinary Discovery Platform
Business Model
Zomato's business model encompasses restaurant discovery, table reservations, and food delivery. The
company earns revenue through advertising fees from restaurants, commission on bookings and
deliveries, and subscription services for premium features.
User Experience Design
Strengths:

• Engaging Account Page: Users can create detailed profiles, share reviews, and follow other
foodies, fostering a community of culinary enthusiasts.
• Vibrant Design: The app's use of saturated colors and minimal negative space attracts and retains
user attention.

Areas for Improvement:

• Discoverability of Filters: Making filter options more accessible would enhance the user's ability to
find specific types of cuisine or restaurants.
• Information Overload: Streamlining the presentation of restaurant options could prevent user fatigue
during prolonged use.

Udemy: Lifelong Learning Platform

Business Model
Udemy operates on a marketplace model for education, allowing instructors to create and sell courses to
students. Revenue is generated through course sales, with instructors sharing a portion of the revenue
with Udemy.
User Experience Design
Strengths:

• Simplified Navigation: The app's straightforward layout makes it easy for users to find and enroll in
courses.
• Personalized Recommendations: Suggested courses are tailored to the user's interests and
previous enrollments, enhancing the learning experience.

Areas for Improvement:

• Consistency in Visuals: Ensuring all icons and graphics maintain high resolution would improve the
app's professional appearance.
• Search Functionality: Enhancing the search feature with more precise filters could help users find
specific courses more easily.

Paytm: Financial Services for Every Indian

Business Model
Paytm's model is diverse, encompassing digital payments, financial services, and e-commerce. The
company earns through transaction fees, financial product commissions, and advertising.
User Experience Design
Strengths:

• The critique focuses more on areas of improvement, highlighting Paytm's extensive functionalities.

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Areas for Improvement:

• Menu Simplification: Streamlining the main menu and reducing clutter would improve navigation
and user satisfaction.
• Information Architecture: Developing a more intuitive navigation structure would help users find
features more easily without feeling overwhelmed.
• Design Practices: Adapting mobile-specific design practices over web-centric ones could enhance
usability and user engagement.

Guesstimates
Guesstimates in IT product management involve making educated estimates to solve problems or answer
questions that have no readily available data. These types of questions are common in interviews for
product management roles, testing the candidate's analytical and problem-solving skills, as well as their
ability to think logically and make assumptions.
Guesstimate Questions and Approaches for Solutions
Guesstimate questions can range widely but often revolve around market sizing, product usage,
performance improvement, or operational efficiencies. Here are some examples and approaches to tackle
them:
Example 1: Estimating the Market Size for a New Software
• Question: Estimate the market size for a project management tool targeted at small businesses in
the U.S.
• Approach: Break down the problem into smaller, more manageable parts. Estimate the number of
small businesses in the U.S., identify the percentage likely to need project management software,
consider the average budget for such tools, and multiply these factors together.
• Identify the Target Market: Start by defining what constitutes a small business in the U.S. For
simplicity, assume small businesses are those with fewer than 500 employees.
• Gather Data on the Number of Small Businesses: Research or assume a number based on known
data. For instance, let's say there are 30 million small businesses in the U.S.
• Estimate Adoption Rate: Not all businesses will need a project management tool. Assume 10% of
small businesses are actively looking for such solutions.
• Consider Pricing: Estimate the average annual subscription cost per business. Assume a price
point of $100 per month, equating to $1,200 annually.
• Calculate Market Size: Multiply the number of businesses by the adoption rate and the average
price. For example, 30 million small businesses * 10% adoption rate * $1,200 = $3.6 billion potential
market size.

Example 2: Calculating the Storage Space for an Email Service Provider

• Question: How much storage space is needed to provide an email service to 1 million users,
assuming each user utilizes 1GB on average?
• Approach: The straightforward calculation would be 1 million users multiplied by 1GB each,
equating to 1 million GB or 1,000 TB of storage needed. Considerations for redundancy, backups,
and growth should be factored into the final estimate.
• Determine Average Usage: Confirm the average storage usage per user is indeed 1GB. This could
vary based on the type of users and their email habits.
• Factor in Additional Space for System Use: Systems need extra space for operations, so it’s
realistic to add a 20% overhead on the initial calculation.
• Include Redundancy and Backup: For data integrity, assume a redundancy factor of 2x the original
estimate to account for backups and failovers.
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 • Final Calculation: 1 million users * 1GB per user = 1,000 TB. Adding a 20% system use margin and
2x redundancy, the total estimate would be 1,000 TB * 1.2 * 2 = 2,400 TB.

Example 3: Predicting the Increase in Traffic from a Feature Release

• Question: Estimate the increase in daily active users for a social media app after releasing a highly
requested new feature.
• Approach: Analyze the app's current user engagement metrics to estimate the percentage of active
users. Research similar feature releases in the industry for benchmark increases. Combine these
insights to forecast the potential uplift in daily active users.
• Analyze Current User Engagement: Look at the current daily active users (DAUs) and how
engaged they are with the app. Assume the app has 500,000 DAUs with a 60% engagement rate.
• Research Industry Benchmarks: Find data on similar feature releases in the industry. Assume
similar features have historically increased user engagement by 15%.
• Estimate New Feature Adoption Rate: Not all users will use the new feature immediately. Assume a
50% adoption rate in the first month.
• Calculate the Increase in DAUs: Increase in engagement due to the new feature = 500,000 DAUs *
15% increase = 75,000 additional DAUs. Considering a 50% adoption rate, the increase would be
75,000 * 50% = 37,500.
• Adjust for Long-Term Engagement: Factor in that the initial spike might reduce after the novelty
wears off. Assume a 10% drop-off after the first month, leading to an ongoing increase of
approximately 33,750 DAUs.

Structuring Your Answer

• Clarify the Question: Ensure you understand the question fully and clarify any ambiguous points.
• State Assumptions: Clearly outline any assumptions you're making in your calculations. This could
include user behavior, market trends, or technological constraints.
• Break Down the Problem: Decompose the question into smaller, solvable components. This
structured approach makes complex problems more manageable.
• Perform Calculations: Use logical reasoning and basic arithmetic to calculate each component of
the problem. Be clear and methodical in your approach.
• Summarize Findings: Conclude with a concise summary of your estimations, emphasizing how you
arrived at your final answer.

Tips for Success

• Practice Common Scenarios: Familiarize yourself with common guesstimate questions related to
user behavior, market sizing, and operational scaling.
• Brush Up on Basic Math Skills: Ensure you're comfortable with percentages, ratios, and simple
multiplication and division, as these are often needed.
• Stay Informed: Understanding current trends and metrics in the tech industry can provide valuable
context for your estimations.
• Think Aloud: Show your thought process clearly. Interviewers are interested in how you approach
the problem, not just the final answer.

Guesstimates challenge you to apply a mix of creativity, logic, and industry knowledge. By practicing these
types of questions, you can develop a strong analytical framework that's applicable to a wide range of
product management challenges.

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Metrics in Product Management
Metrics in product management are quantifiable measures that businesses use to track and assess the
performance and success of their products. Understanding these metrics is crucial for making informed
decisions and driving product strategy. Here's a detailed look at each of the specified metrics:
1. Monthly Recurring Revenue (MRR)
Definition: MRR is the predictable revenue a company expects to receive from its customers every month.
It is a key metric for subscription-based models, indicating the financial health and stability of a business.
Calculation: MRR is calculated by summing up all recurring charges from customers within a month. For
businesses with varying subscription tiers, each customer's monthly fee is added together to get the total
MRR.
Example: A SaaS company with 100 customers on a $50/month plan has an MRR of $5,000.
2. Average Revenue Per User (ARPU)
Definition: ARPU measures the average revenue generated per user or account over a specific period,
offering insights into the value each customer brings to the business.
Calculation: ARPU is calculated by dividing the total revenue in a period by the number of users or
accounts during the same period.
Example: If a streaming service generates $10,000 in revenue from 500 subscribers, its ARPU is $20.
3. Customer Lifetime Value (CLTV or LTV)
Definition: CLTV predicts the total revenue a business can expect from a single customer account
throughout their relationship with the company. It helps businesses understand the long-term value of
customers.
Calculation: CLTV = (Average Revenue Per User * Gross Margin per Customer) / Churn Rate
Example: For a customer with an ARPU of $40, a gross margin of 70%, and a churn rate of 10%, the
CLTV would be $280.
4. Customer Acquisition Cost (CAC)
Definition: CAC is the cost associated with convincing a potential customer to buy a product/service,
including marketing and sales expenses. It's crucial for evaluating the efficiency of acquisition strategies.
Calculation: CAC = Total Cost of Sales and Marketing / Number of New Customers Acquired
Example: If a company spends $5,000 on marketing in a month and acquires 50 customers, the CAC is
$100 per customer.
5. Session Duration
Definition: Session duration is the average length of time a user spends on your product during a single
session. It's indicative of user engagement and product stickiness.
Calculation: Session Duration = Total Duration of All Sessions / Total Number of Sessions
Example: If users spend a total of 10,000 minutes on an app across 2,000 sessions, the average session
duration is 5 minutes.
6. Traffic (Paid/Organic)
Definition: This metric distinguishes between users who come to your product through paid advertising
campaigns (paid traffic) and those who find you through unpaid means like search engines, referrals, or
directly (organic traffic).
Example: A blog may receive 1,000 visitors from Google searches (organic) and 500 visitors from
Facebook ads (paid) in a month.
7. Bounce Rate
Definition: Bounce rate represents the percentage of visitors who navigate away from the site after viewing
only one page. It's a measure of engagement and the relevancy of content to the audience.
Calculation: Bounce Rate = (Single-page sessions / Total sessions) * 100
Example: If a website has 1,000 total visits and 700 of these are single-page sessions, the bounce rate is
70%.
These metrics offer a comprehensive view of a product's performance, user engagement, and financial
health, guiding product managers in making data-driven decisions and strategies for improvement.
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Kanban
Definition and Application:
Kanban, originating from the Japanese words for "visual sign" or "card," is implemented through a Kanban
board that visualizes a product team's workflow. This board is divided into categories such as "to do," "in
progress," and "completed," with each task represented by a Kanban card that moves across these
categories as it progresses.
Key Features:

• Visual Workflow Management: The visual nature of Kanban boards allows team members to see
the status of each task at a glance, promoting transparency and communication.
• Process Improvement: It highlights bottlenecks and process gaps, encouraging continuous
improvement.
• Work-In-Progress Limits: Kanban emphasizes limiting the number of tasks in the "in progress"
stage to ensure focus and efficiency.
• Flexibility: Kanban is adaptable to changing priorities and can be integrated with other project
management methodologies.

Benefits:

• Enhances team collaboration and efficiency.

• Improves project visibility and tracking.
• Supports agile and iterative workflows.

Examples:

• A software development team using a Kanban board to manage feature development, bug fixes,
and deployment tasks.
• A marketing team tracking the progress of campaign elements from planning to execution and
analysis.

User Persona Creation Guides

Purpose:
User personas are fictional characters that represent the various needs, goals, and observed behavior
patterns of your target audience. They help in understanding your users and making decisions about
product features, design, and functionality.
Steps to Create User Personas:

• Research: Collect data through user interviews, surveys, and analysis of usage data.
• Segmentation: Identify common characteristics among your users and group them into distinct
personas.
• Detailing: For each persona, define demographic details, goals, needs, pain points, and behavioral
traits.
• Application: Use personas to guide product development, design, and marketing strategies.

Example: For a fitness app, you might create personas like "Fitness Newbie" who needs motivation and
guidance, and "Marathon Runner" who wants advanced training features.

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UX Designing and Prototyping
UX Designing:
Focuses on creating products that provide meaningful and relevant experiences to users. This includes
the design of the entire process of acquiring and integrating the product, including aspects of branding,
design, usability, and function.

Prototyping:

An experimental process where design teams implement ideas into tangible forms from paper to digital.
Prototypes help in refining and validating designs before final development.
Low-Fidelity vs. High-Fidelity Prototyping:

• Low-Fidelity: Simple and quick to produce, allowing for rapid iteration. Examples include paper
sketches or wireframes. They are great for initial ideation but may lack detailed user interaction.
• High-Fidelity: More detailed and closer to the final product, often digital and interactive. Examples
include using design software like Sketch, Figma, or Adobe XD. Suitable for user testing and
stakeholder presentations.

Benefits:

• Facilitates early feedback and iteration.

• Helps in clarifying product features and user flows.
• Reduces development time by identifying issues early on.

Product Metrics (KPIs)

Definition:
Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) for products measure its success, usage, and growth. They help teams
understand how well the product meets business objectives and user needs.
Common Product KPIs:

• User Acquisition: The number of new users adopting the product.

• Engagement: How actively users interact with the product.
• Retention: The rate at which users continue to use the product over time.
• Revenue: Income generated from the product, including subscription fees, purchases, and in-app
transactions.

Application:

Product metrics guide strategic decisions, from feature development to marketing campaigns. They help in
identifying areas for improvement and measuring the impact of changes.
Testing Methodologies
Purpose:
Testing methodologies in product management involve evaluating product features, usability, and
performance to ensure they meet user needs and technical requirements.
Common Testing Types:

• A/B Testing: Comparing two versions of a product feature to determine which performs better.

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 • Usability Testing: Gathering feedback from real users about the product's ease of use and overall
experience.
• Performance Testing: Assessing the speed, responsiveness, and stability of the product under
various conditions.

Benefits:

• Identifies potential issues before full-scale release.

• Improves user satisfaction by focusing on user feedback.
• Supports data-driven decision-making.

Example: An e-commerce website conducting A/B testing on two different checkout page designs to
identify which results in higher conversion rates.

Team Management Frameworks: Scaled Agile Framework (SAFe)

The Scaled Agile Framework (SAFe) is an advanced framework that allows organizations to apply lean-
agile practices at enterprise scale. It provides a guide to work at portfolio, large solution, program, and
team levels. SAFe promotes alignment, collaboration, and delivery across large numbers of agile teams. It
scales from the smallest enterprises to the largest corporations.
Example: A multinational corporation implementing SAFe might start by training teams in Agile principles,
then establish Agile Release Trains (ARTs) to coordinate efforts across teams. This could involve
hundreds of individuals working towards a unified product delivery schedule.
Product Improvement Frameworks
Product improvement frameworks are methodologies that guide teams in enhancing the value and
performance of their products based on feedback, data analysis, and innovation.

• Design Thinking: Empathizes with users to define problems, ideate solutions, prototype, and test.
It's iterative and user-centered, focusing on understanding users deeply to solve their problems
creatively.
• Lean Startup: Builds products in short, iterative cycles called Build-Measure-Learn to quickly test
assumptions and learn what users truly need, reducing waste and increasing product-market fit.

Example: An e-commerce app uses Design Thinking to identify why users abandon their shopping carts.
Through empathy interviews, they might discover that users are frustrated with the checkout process.
Prototyping and testing new checkout flows can lead to significant improvements in completion rates.
Analytics Foundations
Understanding analytics is critical for product managers to make informed decisions. This involves
collecting, processing, and analyzing data to understand how users interact with products, market trends,
and business performance.

• Consumer Behavior Analysis: Using data to understand how consumers interact with products and
what drives their decisions.
• Market Trend Analysis: Identifying patterns in market data to predict future movements.
• Product Analytics: Measuring product usage, feature adoption, and performance to inform
development priorities.

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Example: A streaming service uses analytics to understand which genres are most popular in different
regions. They analyze viewing patterns, subscriber feedback, and market trends to decide which new
content to produce or acquire.
Trending Tech: Generative AI and Web 3.0
• Generative AI refers to AI algorithms capable of creating content, such as text, images, and videos,
that resemble human-generated content. This includes technologies like GPT (for text) and DALL·E
(for images). Businesses are using Generative AI for content creation, personalized customer
experiences, and more.

Example: An advertising agency uses Generative AI to create customized ad copy and images for diverse
market segments, significantly reducing the time and cost of content creation.

• Web 3.0 is the next evolution of the internet, characterized by decentralized networks, blockchain
technology, and enhanced user privacy and control. It includes cryptocurrencies, NFTs,
decentralized finance (DeFi), and decentralized apps (dApps).

Example: A startup builds a decentralized social media platform on Web 3.0 technology, allowing users to
control their data, earn cryptocurrency for contributions, and interact in a censorship-resistant
environment.
Product Analytics Tools and Techniques
Product analytics plays a critical role in understanding how users interact with a product, identifying areas
for improvement, and guiding product development. Various tools and methodologies are employed to
analyze product performance, user engagement, and optimization strategies. Here's an overview:
Tools:
• Google Analytics: A widely used tool for tracking website traffic, user behavior, and engagement
metrics. It helps in understanding how users find and use a web product, providing insights into
bounce rates, session duration, and conversion rates.
• Mixpanel: Offers detailed analysis of user actions on websites and mobile apps. Unlike Google
Analytics, which is session-based, Mixpanel focuses on event tracking, allowing for a deeper
understanding of specific actions users take within a product.
• Amplitude: Similar to Mixpanel, Amplitude provides advanced user segmentation and real-time
analytics. It's known for its user journey mapping capabilities, helping teams to see how users
navigate through a product and where they drop off.
• Heap: Automatically captures all user interactions on websites and apps without needing to define
events upfront. This allows for a comprehensive dataset from which insights can be drawn at any
time.
• Tableau/Power BI: These tools are used for visualizing data and creating interactive dashboards.
They're powerful for analyzing large datasets and sharing insights across teams.

Methodologies:
• A/B Testing: Comparing two versions of a product feature to see which one performs better. It's a
direct way to test hypotheses about product improvements.
• Cohort Analysis: Segmenting users into cohorts based on their acquisition date or other
characteristics and observing their behavior over time. This is useful for understanding user
retention and lifecycle.
• Funnel Analysis: Mapping out the steps that users take towards a desired action (like making a
purchase) and identifying where users drop off. This helps in optimizing the user journey.

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 • Heatmaps: Visual representations of where users click, scroll, and move on a page. Tools like
Hotjar or Crazy Egg provide heatmaps that help understand user engagement on a granular level.

Integrating Analytics with Product Management Practices

Integrating analytics into product management involves using data-driven insights to inform decision-
making processes, prioritize features, and enhance product development. Here are strategies for effective
integration:

• Embed Analytics into the Product Lifecycle: From ideation to launch and beyond, analytics should
inform each stage. Initial data can validate hypotheses, while post-launch data measures success
against KPIs.
• Cross-functional Data Accessibility: Ensure that not just product managers but also designers,
developers, and marketers have access to analytics insights. This facilitates a unified approach to
using data for decision-making.
• Iterative Testing and Learning: Use A/B testing and user feedback loops as continuous
mechanisms for improvement. Insights from analytics should guide the hypotheses for tests.
• Define Key Metrics: Clearly define what success looks like for your product. Use analytics to track
these KPIs closely, adjusting your strategy based on performance.
• Customer Journey Analytics: Leverage tools that map user journeys to understand the paths to
conversion or drop-off. This holistic view helps in optimizing user experience and product offerings.

App Critique Methodologies

Critiquing an app involves systematically evaluating its usability, design, functionality, and overall user
experience. The objectives are to identify strengths and areas for improvement, enhancing the product's
market fit and user satisfaction. Here are steps and methodologies for critiquing apps:

• Objective Setting: Define what you aim to achieve with the critique. Are you focusing on usability,
aesthetics, functionality, or all aspects?
• User Personas and Scenarios: Create or review user personas and scenarios that the app is
designed for. This helps in evaluating the app from the perspective of its intended users.
• Heuristic Evaluation: Use established usability principles (heuristics) to identify usability problems in
the user interface design. Nielsen’s 10 usability heuristics are a commonly used framework.
• Competitive Analysis: Compare the app with its competitors on various fronts like features,
usability, and design. This helps in identifying unique selling points and areas lagging behind.
• User Testing: Conducting user testing sessions can provide direct feedback from the target
audience. Observing real users interacting with the app can unveil insights not captured by expert
evaluations.
• Accessibility Evaluation: Ensure the app is accessible to users with disabilities by following
guidelines such as the WCAG (Web Content Accessibility Guidelines).

Avoiding Common Mistakes:

• Overlooking the Target Audience: Always critique the app through the lens of its intended users, not
just from a personal viewpoint.
• Ignoring Context: Consider the context in which the app will be used. Features might be more or
less useful depending on the user’s environment and circumstances.
• Focusing Solely on Negatives: While identifying areas for improvement is crucial, recognizing what
works well is equally important for maintaining the app’s strengths.

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Root Cause Analysis (RCA)
Root Cause Analysis (RCA) is a systematic approach used to identify the underlying causes of a problem
or incident to prevent its recurrence. It involves a step-by-step process that starts with identifying the
problem, understanding why the problem occurred, and then implementing solutions to prevent future
occurrences. Let's explore RCA, including its framework, practice questions, and solved examples,
followed by company-specific frameworks like Amazon's Working Backwards, Google's Product
Excellence Framework, and Spotify's Experimentation Framework.
Root Cause Analysis Framework
The RCA process typically involves the following steps:

• Define the Problem: Clearly describe the problem or incident. It's crucial to be specific about what
happened, when it happened, and the impact it had.
• Collect Data: Gather data relevant to the problem. This can include logs, user reports, system
metrics, and any other information that can shed light on the incident.
• Identify Possible Causal Factors: List all possible causes that could have led to the problem. This
stage often involves brainstorming sessions with the team.
• Identify the Root Cause(s): Analyze the causal factors and determine which of them are the root
causes of the problem. Tools like the 5 Whys, Fishbone Diagrams, and Pareto Analysis can be
helpful in this step.
• Recommend and Implement Solutions: Propose solutions to address the root causes. These
solutions should prevent the problem from recurring.
• Monitor the Effectiveness: After implementing the solutions, monitor the situation to ensure that the
problem does not recur. This may involve setting up new metrics or alerts.

Practice Questions
• A company notices an unexpected drop in website traffic. What steps should they take to perform
RCA?
• A manufacturing plant experiences a sudden increase in product defects. How would RCA help in
resolving this issue?

Solved Example
Problem: A company notices that its customer support ticket resolution time has doubled over the past
month.

• Define the Problem: The average resolution time for customer support tickets has increased from
24 hours to 48 hours.
• Collect Data: Data on ticket volume, response times, staffing levels, and any changes in processes
or tools were collected.
• Identify Possible Causal Factors: Increased ticket volume, reduced staffing levels, new software
implementation.
• Identify the Root Cause(s): The root cause was identified as the new software implementation,
which increased the complexity of handling tickets.
• Recommend and Implement Solutions: Provide additional training to staff on the new software,
consider rolling back to the previous software, or streamline the process within the new system.
• Monitor the Effectiveness: After training, the average resolution time returned to 24 hours,
indicating the effectiveness of the solution.

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Company-Specific Frameworks
Amazon's Working Backwards
Amazon's Working Backwards process is customer-centric. It starts with the desired customer experience
and works backward to the current situation. The process involves writing a future press release
announcing the finished product, which helps clarify the product's value proposition to the customer.
Example: When developing a new Kindle, Amazon would start by writing a press release focusing on the
new features that enhance the reading experience, such as improved battery life or a more realistic page-
turn texture. From there, they work backward to identify the technology and processes needed to achieve
these features.
Google's Product Excellence Framework
Google's Product Excellence Framework focuses on creating products that are technologically superior
and offer a seamless user experience. It emphasizes three main areas: desirability (does it meet user
needs?), feasibility (can we build it?), and viability (is it commercially sustainable?).
Example: For Google Maps, this framework ensures the app not only provides accurate navigation but
also integrates features like real-time traffic updates and local place information, making it a
comprehensive solution for users.
Spotify's Experimentation Framework
Spotify uses an Experimentation Framework to innovate and improve its service continually. This involves
A/B testing, where two versions of a feature are tested to see which one performs better in terms of user
engagement or satisfaction.
Example: Spotify might test two different algorithms for music recommendation to see which one results in
longer listening times or more positive feedback from users.

AGILE Framework
The AGILE Framework emphasizes iterative development, where requirements and solutions evolve
through collaboration between self-organizing cross-functional teams. It advocates adaptive planning,
evolutionary development, early delivery, and continual improvement, and it encourages rapid and flexible
response to change. An example of AGILE in practice is the SCRUM methodology, which organizes work
in "sprints" lasting two to four weeks, allowing teams to break down complex projects into manageable
pieces and adjust as needed based on stakeholder feedback.
A/B Testing
A/B testing, also known as split testing, is a method of comparing two versions of a webpage or app
against each other to determine which one performs better. By showing version A to one group and
version B to another, product managers can gather data on user behavior to inform decisions. For
example, if a company wants to increase the conversion rate on a landing page, they might test two
different call-to-action (CTA) buttons to see which one leads to more sign-ups.
Product Roadmap
A Product Roadmap is a strategic document that outlines the vision, direction, priorities, and progress of a
product over time. It serves as a guiding strategic document as well as a plan for executing the product
strategy. A roadmap might detail new features to be developed, improvements to existing features, and
key milestones. It is a dynamic document that evolves as market conditions change or new insights are
gained.
Go-to-market (GTM) Strategy
A GTM strategy is the plan an organization executes to launch a product to market, aiming to reach
market penetration, revenue, and profitability expectations. This includes defining the target customer,
crafting a unique value proposition, deciding on pricing and distribution channels, and planning the
marketing, sales, and customer support strategies. For instance, a software company launching a new

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app might focus its GTM on digital marketing channels, leveraging SEO and social media to reach its
audience.
Product Requirements Document (PRD)
A PRD is a document that communicates what to build, who a product is for, and how it benefits the end
user. It includes detailed requirements and specifications to guide the development team. For example, a
PRD for a mobile application might include user stories, screen mockups, and specific functionalities
expected, such as login capabilities, user profile creation, and data synchronization across devices.
Design Thinking Method
Design Thinking is a problem-solving approach that encourages teams to focus on the people they're
creating for, leading to better products, services, and internal processes. It involves stages such as
Empathize, Define, Ideate, Prototype, and Test. For example, if a team is developing a new e-commerce
website, they might start by empathizing with users to understand their shopping challenges, define the
problem, brainstorm solutions, prototype a solution, and test it with users to gather feedback.
Wireframing, UX/UI Design, and Prototyping
• Wireframing is the process of creating a simple visual guide that represents the skeletal framework
of a digital product. It helps in planning the layout and interaction of an application without the
distraction of design and color.
• UX Design (User Experience Design) focuses on the overall feel of the product and how users
interact with it, aiming to make the user's interaction as simple and efficient as possible.
• UI Design (User Interface Design) involves designing the product's interface with an emphasis on
the look and style.
• Prototyping is the creation of a preliminary model of a product, allowing designers and stakeholders
to explore ideas and test functionalities before final production.

For example, in developing a new mobile app, the team might create wireframes to outline the basic
structure, focus on UX to ensure the app is user-friendly, design the UI to be visually appealing, and build
a prototype to test and refine the app's functionality before launch.
System Design
System Design is the process of defining the architecture, components, modules, interfaces, and data for
a system to satisfy specified requirements. It's crucial in tech interviews and real-world projects, as it
demonstrates a candidate's ability to work with complex systems. Companies like Google, Amazon, and
Facebook often include system design questions in their interview process. A practice example might
involve designing a scalable URL shortening service like bit.ly, requiring considerations of database
schema, API design, data consistency, and scalability.

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 Other Trending Technologies

AR/VR:
Augmented reality (AR) is an interactive experience that combines the real world and
computer-generated content while Virtual reality (VR) is a simulated experience that
employs pose tracking and 3D near-eye displays to give the user an immersive feel of a
virtual world. Both are integral parts of the process of building the Metaverse.
Augmented reality is largely synonymous with mixed reality. The primary value of
augmented reality is the manner in which components of the digital world blend into a
person's perception of the real world, not as a simple display of data, but through the
integration of immersive sensations, which are perceived as natural parts of an
environment. Augmented reality is used to enhance natural environments or situations
and offer perceptually enriched experiences.
Augmented reality (AR) differs from virtual reality (VR) in the sense that in AR part of
the surrounding environment is 'real' and just adding layers of virtual objects to the real
environment. On the other hand, in VR the surrounding environment is completely
virtual, and computer generated.
Applications of virtual reality include entertainment (particularly video games), education
(such as medical or military training) and business (such as virtual meetings). A person
using virtual reality equipment is able to look around the artificial world, move around in
it, and interact with virtual features or items. The effect is commonly created by VR
headsets consisting of a head-mounted display with a small screen in front of the eyes.
Virtual reality typically incorporates auditory and video feedback but may also allow
other types of sensory and force feedback through haptic technology.

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Metaverse:
The metaverse is a concept of an online, 3D, virtual space connecting users in all aspects of
their lives. It would connect to multiple platforms, similar to the internet containing
different websites accessible through a single browser.
The concept was developed in the science-fiction novel Snow Crash by Neal Stephenson.
The metaverse will be driven by augmented reality, with each user controlling a character
or avatar.
Besides supporting gaming or social media, the metaverse will combine economies, digital
identity, decentralized governance, and other applications. Even today, user creation and
ownership of valuable items and currencies help develop a single, united metaverse. All
these features provide blockchain the potential to power this future technology.
While we don't yet have a single, linked metaverse, we have plenty of platforms and
projects similar to the metaverse. Typically, these also incorporate NFTs and other
blockchain elements.

Access points for the metaverse includes general-purpose computers and smartphones,
augmented reality, mixed reality, and virtual reality.

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World Economic Forum to Promote Metaverse-Based Collaboration

The World Economic Forum (WEF) has announced the rollout of its own metaverse
platform, dubbed the Global Collaboration Village. The digital world, designed to look
like the actual town of Davos in which the organization meets once every year, will
supposedly allow for more efficient collaboration between world leaders.
The technology that would power this metaverse representation of Davos would be
provided by Microsoft and its Mesh suite, which extends the functionality of Teams, the
popular business meeting software, to allow users to appear as 3D avatars. Mesh also has
a specially designed app for VR headsets that allows for more interactivity with the
metaverse worlds.
Satya Nadella, CEO of tech giant Microsoft, believes that, while Covid-19 changed the
environment when it comes to meetings, forcing people to resort to video calls for these
purposes, the implementation of more immersive technologies is a “very natural extension
of it.”
Criticisms and Concerns
Privacy: Information privacy is an area of concern for metaverses because related
companies will likely collect users' personal information through interactions and
biometric data from wearable virtual reality devices. Meta Platforms (previously
Facebook) is planning on employing targeted advertising within their metaverse, raising
further worries related to the spread of misinformation and loss of personal privacy.
Addiction and problematic social media use: User addiction and problematic social media
use is another concern. Internet addiction disorder, social media, and video game
addiction can have mental and physical repercussions over a prolonged period of time,
such as depression, anxiety, and various other harms related to having a sedentary
lifestyle such as an increased risk for obesity and cardiovascular disease.
To know more: https://youtu.be/7ODuQMkZWK8

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Cryptocurrency
A cryptocurrency, crypto-currency, or crypto is a digital currency designed to work as a
medium of exchange through a computer network that is not reliant on any central
authority, such as a government or bank, to uphold or maintain it.
Individual coin ownership records are stored in a digital ledger, which is a computerized
database using strong cryptography to secure transaction records, to control the creation
of additional coins, and to verify the transfer of coin ownership. Cryptocurrency does not
exist in physical form (like paper money) and is typically not issued by a central authority.
Cryptocurrencies typically use decentralized control as opposed to a central bank digital
currency (CBDC). When a cryptocurrency is minted or created prior to issuance or issued
by a single issuer, it is generally considered centralized. When implemented with
decentralized control, each cryptocurrency works through distributed ledger technology,
typically a blockchain, that serves as a public financial transaction database.
A cryptocurrency is a tradable digital asset or digital form of money, built on blockchain
technology that only exists online. Cryptocurrencies use encryption to authenticate and
protect transactions, hence their name. There are currently over a thousand different
cryptocurrencies in the world, and their supporters see them as the key to a fairer future
economy. Few popular crypto currencies are:
• Bitcoin
• Ethereum
• Dogecoin
• Litecoin
• Binance coin

How does crypto fit into the metaverse?

Crypto can offer the other key parts required, such as digital proof of ownership, transfer
of value, governance, and accessibility.
If, in the future, we work, socialize, and even purchase virtual items in the metaverse, we
need a secure way of showing ownership. We also need to feel safe transferring these items
and money around the metaverse. Finally, we will also want to play a role in the decision-
making taking place in the metaverse if it is such a large part of our lives.
Many developers use crypto and blockchain as an option. Blockchain provides a
decentralized and transparent way of dealing with the topics.
Blockchain developers also take influence from the video game world. Gamification is
common in Decentralized Finance (DeFi) and Game Fi. The key aspects of blockchain
suited to the metaverse are:
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1. Digital proof of ownership: By owning a wallet with access to your private keys, you can
instantly prove ownership of an activity or an asset on the blockchain. For example, you
could show an exact transcript of your transactions on the blockchain while at work to
show accountability. A wallet is one of the most secure and robust methods for
establishing a digital identity and proof of ownership.
2. Digital collectability: Just as we can establish who owns something, we can also show
that an item is original and unique. For a metaverse looking to incorporate more real-life
activities, this is important. Through NFTs, we can create objects that are 100% unique
and can never be copied exactly or forged. A blockchain can also represent ownership of
physical items.
3. Transfer of value: A metaverse will need a way to transfer value securely that users
trust. In-game currencies in multiplayer games are less secure than crypto on a
blockchain. If users spend large amounts of time in the metaverse and even earn money
there, they will need a reliable currency.
4. Governance: The ability to control the rules of your interaction with the metaverse
should also be important for users. In real life, we can have voting rights in companies and
elect leaders and governments. The metaverse will also need ways to implement fair
governance, and blockchain is already a proven way of doing this.
5. Accessibility: Creating a wallet is open to anyone around the world on public
blockchains. Unlike a bank account, you don't need to pay any money or provide any
details. This makes it one of the most accessible ways to manage finances and an online,
digital identity.
6. Interoperability: Blockchain technology is continuously improving compatibility
between different platforms. Projects like Polka dot (DOT) and Avalanche
(AVAX) allow for creating custom blockchains that can interact with each other. A single
metaverse will need to connect multiple projects, and blockchain technology already has
solutions for this.
To know more: https://youtu.be/8NgVGnX4KOw

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NFT
Non-fungible tokens or NFTs are cryptographic assets on a blockchain with unique
identification codes and metadata that distinguish them from each other. Unlike
cryptocurrencies, they cannot be traded or exchanged at equivalency. This differs from
fungible tokens like cryptocurrencies, which are identical to each other and, therefore, can
be used as a medium for commercial transactions.
The distinct construction of each NFT has the potential for several use cases. For example,
they are an ideal vehicle to digitally represent physical assets like real estate and artwork.
Because they are based on blockchains, NFTs can also be used to remove intermediaries
and connect artists with audiences or for identity management. NFTs can remove
intermediaries, simplify transactions, and create new markets.
Like physical money, cryptocurrencies are fungible i.e., they can be traded or exchanged,
one for another. For example, one Bitcoin is always equal in value to another Bitcoin.
Similarly, a single unit of Ether is always equal to another unit. This fungibility
characteristic makes cryptocurrencies suitable for use as a secure medium of transaction
in the digital economy.
Non-fungible tokens are an evolution over the relatively simple concept of
cryptocurrencies. Modern finance systems consist of sophisticated trading and loan
systems for different asset types, ranging from real estate to lending contracts to artwork.
By enabling digital representations of physical assets, NFTs are a step forward in the
reinvention of this infrastructure.
Advantages of NFT:
Perhaps, the most obvious benefit of NFTs is market efficiency. The conversion of a
physical asset into a digital one streamlines processes and removes intermediaries. NFTs
representing digital or physical artwork on a blockchain remove the need for agents and
allow artists to connect directly with their audiences. Non-fungible tokens are also
excellent for identity management. Consider the case of physical passports that need to be
produced at every entry and exit point. By converting individual passports into NFTs,
each with its own unique identifying characteristics, it is possible to streamline the entry
and exit processes for jurisdictions. Expanding this use case, NFTs can be used for identity
management within the digital realm as well. NFTs can also democratize investing by
fractionalizing physical assets like real estate. It is much easier to divide a digital real
estate asset among multiple owners than a physical one.

To know more: https://youtu.be/NNQLJcJEzv0

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Quantum Computing
Quantum computing is a rapidly emerging technology that harnesses the laws of quantum
mechanics to solve problems too complex for classical computers. At small scales, physical
matter exhibits properties of both particles and waves, and quantum computing leverages
this behavior using specialized hardware. Quantum algorithms are particularly good at
optimization problems.
Quantum computers are believed to be able to quickly solve certain problems that no
classical computer could solve in any feasible amount of time—a feat known as quantum
supremacy.
Most models are based on the quantum bit, or "qubit", which is somewhat analogous to
the bit in classical computation. A qubit can be in a 1 or 0 quantum state, or in a
superposition of the 1 and 0 states. When it is measured, however, it is always 0 or 1; the
probability of either outcome depends on the qubit's quantum state immediately prior to
measurement.
There are currently a number of significant obstacles to constructing useful quantum
computers. It is particularly difficult to maintain qubits' quantum states, as they suffer
from quantum decoherence. Quantum computers therefore require error correction.
In October 2019, Google AI Quantum, with the help of NASA, became the first to claim to
have achieved quantum supremacy by performing calculations on the Sycamore quantum
computer more than 3,000,000 times faster than they could be done on Summit, generally
considered the world's fastest computer.
In December 2020, a group at USTC implemented a type of Boson sampling on 76 photons
with a photonic quantum computer Jiuzhang to demonstrate quantum supremacy. The
authors claim that a classical contemporary supercomputer would require a
computational time of 600 million years to generate the number of samples their quantum
processor can generate in 20 seconds.
More businesses have recently revealed AI/QC programs. For big data, IoT, AI, robots,
and other applications that, according to LG Electronics, all need for processing a lot of
data, the company is looking into QC. In the meantime, HSBC is also considering QC for
fraud detection, risk reduction, and investment portfolio optimization, which typically
involve ML algorithms to process massive volumes of data.

To know more: https://youtu.be/X8MZWCGgIb8

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Edge Computing: Edge computing is a distributed computing paradigm that brings
computation and data storage closer to the sources of data. This is expected to improve
response times and save bandwidth. Internet of things (IoT) is an example of edge
computing. While cloud computing operates on big data, edge computing operates on
"instant data" that is real-time data generated by sensors or users.
Application include computation offloading for real-time applications, such as facial
recognition algorithms, IoT-based power grid systems making energy management more
efficient, cloud gaming, where some aspects of a game could run in the cloud, while the
rendered video is transferred to lightweight clients running on devices such as mobile
phones, VR glasses, etc. Other notable applications include connected cars, autonomous
cars, smart cities, Industry 4.0 (smart industry), and home automation systems.
Ransomware: Ransomware is a type of malware from crypto virology that threatens to
publish the victim's personal data or permanently block access to it unless a ransom is
paid off. While some simple ransomware may lock the system without damaging any files,
more advanced malware uses a technique called crypto viral extortion. It encrypts the
victim's files, making them inaccessible, and demands a ransom payment to decrypt them.
According to industry reports, there were around 623 million ransomware attacks in
2021.
Ransomware attack on AIIMS Delhi servers: A recent ransomware attack on AIIMS, one
of the largest public health institutions in India, highlighted the dangers cyberattacks can
pose to human life. Attackers targeted AIIMS servers with malware that made the servers
dysfunctional. Various services were affected, from patient registration to emergency
services, affecting patients and curtailing hospital operations for over two weeks. This was
in addition to the leak of personal data in large numbers, including information on key
individuals.

Right to Repair: The right to repair refers to proposed government legislation that
would allow consumers the ability to repair and modify their own consumer products (e.g.
electronic, automotive devices or farm vehicles such as tractors), where otherwise the
manufacturer of such products requires the consumer to use only their offered services by
restricting access to tools and components, or software barriers put in place to hinder
independent repair or modification.
Portal Launched: Consumer Affairs Minister Piyush Goyal launched the much awaited
‘Right To Repair’ portal at a public event in New Delhi on the occasion of National
Consumer Day on December 24. On the portal, manufacturers will share the manual of
product details with customers so that they can repair by self, by third parties, rather
than depend on original manufacturers. Initially, mobile phones, electronics, consumer
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durables, automobiles and farming equipment will be covered.

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Social Media Disinformation: Fake news, or misinformation can be created and
shared across social media particularly during significant events that have a big impact on
our society. For example, there was a flurry of fake news relating to Covid-19 during and
in the wake of the pandemic.
Disinformation created on social media is an issue that needs to be resolved with the
consensus of governments and social media companies. However, it is necessary to prevent
information pollution on social media without harming freedom of expression, one of the
indispensable elements of democracy. Otherwise, it may open the way for the bans and be
used as an excuse for the despotic governments for oppression.

ChatGPT: ChatGPT (Chat Generative Pre-Trained Transformer) is a chatbot launched

by OpenAI in November 2022. It is built on top of OpenAI's GPT-3 family of large
language models and is fine-tuned (an approach to transfer learning) with both supervised
and reinforcement learning techniques. It was launched as a prototype on November 30,
2022, and quickly garnered attention for its detailed responses and articulate answers
across many domains of knowledge. Its uneven factual accuracy was identified as a
significant drawback.
Microsoft’s investment: Microsoft has confirmed a third sizeable investment into
American research lab Open AI. While Microsoft didn’t disclose a specific dollar amount,
Semafor pegged the investment at a whopping $10 billion earlier this month. In a
statement, OpenAI called it a “multi-year, multi-billion-dollar investment.”
Stable Diffusion and AI generated media: Stable Diffusion is a deep learning, text-
to-image model released in 2022. It is primarily used to generate detailed images
conditioned on text descriptions, though it can also be applied to other tasks such as
inpainting, out painting, and generating image-to-image translations guided by a text
prompt. Art-generating models like Stable Diffusion have led to incredible outpourings of
creativity, powering apps and even entirely new business models. On the other hand, its
open-source nature lets bad actors use it to create deepfakes at scale — all while artists
protest that it’s profiting off of their work.
Tech monopolies and Antitrust: This has been one of the toughest years in recent
times for Big Tech companies such as Meta, Alphabet and Amazon, which have faced
intense scrutiny from governments around the world. This has coincided with strong
macroeconomic headwinds that have forced them to conduct mass layoffs after two years
of unprecedented hiring.
While European lawmakers have been doing everything, they can ensure these companies
fall in line, India has drawn up or proposed legislation — the IT rules, the draft Digital
Data Protection Bill, and the proposed Digital Competition Act and Digital India Act – to
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regulate data collection and break the monopolies of these companies.

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Fines on Google and others: More than any other regulator, it was the Competition
Commission of India (CCI) that kept Google and its Big Tech peers on their toes. The
competition watchdog imposed two huge penalties, totaling Rs 2,274 crore, on Google
within a week in October. It also imposed fines worth a combined Rs 392-crore on Indian
companies such as MakeMyTrip, GoIbibo and Oyo in October as part of its crackdown on
tech companies.

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