COSMOLOGY

GALAXIES
Galaxy is a group of billions of stars and their planets,
gas and dust that extends over many thousands of light
year
Types of Galaxy
 Spiral- have flat disc with a bulge in the center
and
arms spiraling off of it.
Terms
The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) is a dwarf
galaxy that is close to the Milky Way and it’s
neighbor, Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC).

 Barred Spiral- is a spiral galaxy with a central

bar- shaped structure made of stars.

 Elliptical- have smooth ellipsoidal or spherical

appearance, and they have far less structure than
spiral galaxies do.

 Irregular- a galaxy that does not have distinct

regular shape, unlike a spiral or an elliptical
DOPPLER EFFECT
galaxy do.
-is a phenomenon that is observed whenever the
source of waves is moving with respect to an
observer
- it describes the changes in the frequency of any
sound or light wave produced by a moving source
 Lenticular- are a kind of cross between spirals
with respect to an observer.
and ellipticals. They have the central bulge and
- Christian Johann Doppler first proposed the
disk common to spiral galaxies but no arms.
Doppler Effect (Doppler Shift) in 1842.

HUBBLE CLASSIFICATION SCHEME

Edwin Hubble developed a galaxy classification
scheme consisting of four types: elliptical, spiral,
barred spiral, and irregular. Three of these types
are represented in the “stunning fork” diagram.
 cooling. The CMB represents the heat leftover from the
Big Bang.

How did it formed?

DOPPLER DOPPLER EFFECT IN
DIFFERENT SITUATIONS The universe began 13.8 billion years ago, and the CMB
a.) Source Moving Towards the Observer at Rest dates back to about 400,000 years after the Big Bang.
f’ = f [V / (V – V s )] That's because in the early stages of the universe when it
b.) Source Moving Away from the Observer at was just one-hundred-millionth the size it is today, its
Rest temperature was extreme: 273 million degrees above
absolute zero, according to NASA.

Who discovered it?

Robert Wilson discovered the cosmic microwave

background (CMB) radiation in 1964 along with Arno
Penzias, putting the Big Bang theory on solid footing.

WHAT DOES THE COSMIC MICROWAVE

BACKGROUND TELL US?
The cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation tells
(C) OBSERVER MOVING TOWARDS A us the age and composition of the universe and raises
STATIONARY SOURCE new questions that must be answered. See how the
Cosmic Microwave Background works and can be
detected here.

This "baby picture" of the universe, as NASA calls it,

confirmed Big Bang theory predictions and also showed
hints of cosmic structure that were not seen before.
(D)OBSERVER MOVING AWAY FROM A
STATIONARY SOURCE

f’ = (V-V0)/ V f (same ra sa gigamit sa C but subtract

ra)

DOPPLER EFFECT IN LIGHT

Doppler effect of light can be described as the apparent The CMB is useful to scientists because it helps us learn
change in the frequency of the light observed by the how the early universe was formed. It is at a uniform
observer due to relative motion between the source of temperature with only small fluctuations visible with
light and the observer. precise telescopes.
The cosmic microwave background can help scientists
piece together the history of the universe.
COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND
RADIATION
DARK MATTER AND DARK ENERGY
The cosmic microwave background (CMB) is leftover
radiation from the Big Bang or the time when the Dark matter is an invisible phenomenon that acts on the
universe began. As the theory goes, when the universe visible matter allowing us to notice its existence. It tends
was born it underwent rapid inflation, expansion and to drive the universe together.

Example of dark matter are:

Dim Brown Dwarfs Planet reformation of the universe starting with another Big
Bang. The theory dates back to 1922, with Russian
White Dwarf Planet physicist Alexander Friedmann creating a set of equations
showing that the end of the universe depends on its
Neutrino Stars density.
Ton 618- Super Massive Black Hole

Dark energy is a hypothetical form of energy that WHAT ARE ACTIVE GALAXY?
permeates all of space and produces a negative pressure,
resulting in a repulsive gravitational force. It tends to -active galaxies are the kind of galaxies which have a
drive the universe apart. Quintessence is a dynamic form small core of emission embedded in an otherwise typical
of dark energy that possesses negative pressure, causing galaxy. Compared to the rest of the galaxy, this core may
the universe to expand at an accelerating rate. be highly variable and very bright.

THE FATE OF THE UNIVERSE

BIG FREEZE THEORY Types of active galaxies

The heat death of the universe (also known as the Big QUASAR- is an extremely luminous active galactic
Chill or Heat Death) is a hypothesis on the ultimate fate nucleus, in which a supermassive black hole with mass
of the universe, which suggests the universe will evolve ranging from millions to billions of times the mass of the
to a state of no thermodynamic free energy, and will Sun is surrounded by a gaseous accretion disk.
therefore be unable to sustain processes that increase
entropy. BLAZARS- are a type of active galaxy powered by a
ginormous black hole. They are some of the brightest,
most energetic objects that you can find in the sky, and
many thousands of them have been identified.
The hypothesis of heat death stems from the ideas of
Lord Kelvin who, in the 1850s, took the theory of heat as SEYFERTS GALAXIES- are, along with quasars, one
mechanical energy loss in nature and extrapolated it to of the two largest groups of active galaxies. Indeed,
larger processes on a universal scale. around the 10% of all galaxies are Seyfert galaxies.

BIG RIP THEORY

In physical cosmology, the Big Rip is a theory which RADIO GALAXIES- Most of energy released is in the
describes the ultimate fate of the universe. According to in the radio portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
this theory, everything in the universe, even spacetime
itself will be torn apart by the expansion of the universe Two types of radio galaxies: lobe radio galaxy and core
until distances between particles will become infinite. halo galaxy.
Marcelo Disconzi, the Assistant Professor of
Mathematics at Vanderbilt University in Tennessee (US) Lobe radio galaxy- Energy is released from giant
in collaboration with Physics Professors Thomas Kephart regions called radio lobes, hardly any energy is emitted
and Robert Scherrer proposed the Big Rip theory. from the core. Radio Lobes are roundish clouds of
radiation; not visible.Some lobes can be 10 times the size
BIG CRUNCH THEORY of the Milky Way; can emit 10 times the amount of
energy
The Big Crunch is a hypothetical scenario for the
ultimate fate of the universe, in which the expansion of Core- Halo Radio Galaxy- Most of energy emitted is
the universe eventually reverses and the universe from a small central nucleus, 1 pc across. This is referred
recollapses, ultimately causing the cosmic scale factor to to as the core. Energy also emitted from a halo around the
reach zero, an event potentially followed by a core. Core-halo galaxies can be up to 18mpc across; the
output of radio energy is the equivalent to the Milky Way. gravity. Just like the Solar System, this collection of stars
A large jet of energy is ejected from the center of the must be rotating and flattened as a disk, with the Solar
galaxy System embedded within the disk.

 0 YEARS - Big Bang Theory

 250 MILLION YEARS OLD - Clouds of gas
SPIRAL ARMS AND STAR FORMATION and dark matter begin to collapse under their own
gravity, forming protogalaxies.
SPIRAL ARMS ARE THE REGIONS IN SPIRAL  1 BILLION YEARS OLD - The inner halo and
GALAXIES WHERE STARS ARE PRIMARILY bulge of the Milky Way begin to form from a gas
FORMED. THEY ARE THE MAIN PRODUCTION cloud with low angular momentum.
CENTERS OF YOUNG STARS. THE MORE GAS  2.8 BILLION YEARS OLD - The Milky Way
AND DUST AVAILABLE, THE GREATER THE merges with the so-called Kraken galaxy. This
FRACTION OF THE GALAXY THAT CAN BE collision is considered the largest galactic
INVOLVED IN STAR FORMATION. collision that the Milky Way ever experienced and
likely drastically 4ransformed the appearance of
the Milky Way.

 3.8 BILLION YEARS OLD - The Milky Way
AN EXAMPLE OF THIS CAN BE SEEN IN OUR experiences a stellar 'baby boom' whereby stars
OWN MILKY WAY GALAXY. TWO OF THE SPIRAL were produced 30 times faster than today.
ARMS, SCUTUM-CENTAURUS AND PERSEUS,  4.8 BILLION YEARS OLD - The Milky Way
EMERGE FROM THE ENDS OF THE BAR AND merges with the Gaia- Enceladus galaxy. This is
WRAP AROUND THE BULGE. THESE ARMS HAVE thought to be the last big merger even
A HIGHER CONCENTRATION OF STARS experienced by our Galaxy.
COMPARED TO OTHER ARMS LIKE THE  5 BILLION YEARS OLD - The formation of a
SAGITTARIUS AND OUTER ARMS WHICH HAVE small disk stretches out from the central bulge of
FEWER STARS. the Milky Way. The disk begins to grow 'inside
out' with the central-most region forming first.
Fact The rotation of the disk increases in momentum
causing the gas clouds to follapse along the
STARS FORM IN CLOUDS OF GAS AND DUST rotational axis and forming the relatively flat is
CALLED NEBULAE OR STELLAR NURSERIES. we recognize today.
THESE CLOUDS CAN FORM ANYWHERE  9 BILLION YEARS OLD - The Milky Way disk
BETWEEN A FEW DOZEN TO THOUSANDS OF begins to grow and the outer regions of the disk
STARS. AS PARTICLES OF DUST ARE ATTRACTED continue to form.
TO EACH OTHER, BLOBS OR KNOTS OF GAS AND  9.3 BILLION YEARS OLD-Our sun and solar
DUST BEGIN TO FORM AND SPIN AROUND EACH system begin to form from a dense cloud of
OTHER IT IS MORE LIKELY SAME SA PLANET interstellar gas and dust.
FORMATION.  10 BILLION YEARS OLD - Life on Earth
begins, shortly after the late heavy bombardment.

DISCOVERY AND ORIGIN OF OUR GALAXY  13.6 BILLION YEARS OLD (PRESENT DAY)
- Outer regions of the galactic disk. Continue to
Ancient Greek philosophers proposed that that Milky form and It is currently not fully understood why
Way might be a vast collection of stars, to dim to make stellar formation in the disk is still in an active
out individually. But the first actual proof came when phase.
Galileo Galilei pointed his first rudimentary telescope at
the Milky Way in 1610, and was able to see that the MEASURING THE PROPERTIES OF GALAXIES
Milky Way was made up of countless stars.
GALAXY DISTANCES- Galaxy distances are too far
In 1755, Immanuel Kant proposed that the Milky Way away to employ the parallax technique.
was a large collection of stars held together by mutual
 The method of “standard candles” is used.
  The standard candles are usually Cepheid uses Doppler analysis of the galaxy’s spectral lines to
variables, supergiant stars, planetary nebulas, determine orbital speed and this speed used with the
supernovas, etc. galaxy’s diameter gives the period.

THE HUBBLE LAW Sample Problem A galaxy has a rotation speed of

300,000 m/sec at a distance from its center of 3.08 x
In the 1911, it was discovered that all galaxies (with but a 10^20 m. What is its mass?
few exceptions) were moving away from the Milky Way.

Edwin Hubble found that these radial speeds, calculated

by a Doppler shift analysis and called recessional
velocity, increased with a galaxy’s distance.

From a plot of several galaxies’ known recessional

velocities (V) and distances (D), Edwin Hubble, in 1920, MILKY WAY GALAXY STRUCTURE
discovered a simple formula:V=H x D

Today, this expression is called the Hubble law and H is

called the Hubble constant.Although not completely
agreed upon, H is about 72 km/sec/Mpc (Mpc=
megaparsecs). With H known, one can turn this around
and determine a galaxy’s unknown distance by measuring
its recessional velocity and assuming a value for H.

Sample Problem A galaxy has a recession velocity of The Milky Way's structure is typical of a large spiral
13,000 km/sec. what is its distance in megaparsecs? system. This structure contains four major structural
subdivisions: the nucleus, a central bulge, disk, spiral
MEASURING THE DIAMETER arms, and a massive halo. Some of these components
OF GALAXIES blend into each other.

Astronomers measure a galaxy’s The galactic nucleus makes up a tiny component of the
diameter (d) using a standard Galaxy; it extends roughly 400 light-years from the
geometric formula Milky Way's center. The nucleus is an extreme region
containing a supermassive black hole (Sagittarius A*)
Where A is the angular size of the galaxy on the sky (in and extremely high stellar densities (around 10 million
degrees) and D is the distance to the galaxy stars).
To use the equation, A must be measured and D must be Central Bulge- Surrounding the nucleus is an extended
determined by a standard candle technique or from the bulge of stars that is nearly spherical in shape and that
Hubble law. Sample Problem. A galaxy has an angular consists primarily of Population II stars, though they are
diameter of 0.1 degree. Its distance is 10 megaparsecs. comparatively rich in heavy elements. (For an
What is its diameter? explanation of Population II stars, see Stars and stellar
populations.)
MEASURING THE MASS OF GALAXIES
The disk is a thin distribution of stars and gas orbiting
The mass of a galaxy is determined from the modified
the nucleus of the Galaxy. The disk is shaped like a
form of Kepler’s third law. To use this method, one
pancake. The Milky Way's disk is 100,000 light years
concentrates on some stars or gas on the outer fringes of
across and 1,000 light years thick. The familiar spiral
the galaxy The semi major axis distance used in Kepler’s
arms of the Milky Way are located in the disk.
third law is simply half the galaxy’s pre-determined
diameter. For the orbital period used in the third law, one’
The spiral arms are curved extensions that begin at the  Larger galaxies can also gobble up smaller ones
bulge of a spiral galaxy, giving it a "pinwheel" through proximity and gravitational interactions,
appearance. The spiral arms contain a lot of gas, dust, and pulling material away to fuel their own growth.
young blue stars. The Milky Way is constantly rotating, This is referred to as galactic cannibalism.
so the arms are moving through space. The Sun and the
solar system

go along for the ride. The solar system travels at an

average speed of 515,000 mph (828,000 km/h).

The halo primarily contains individual old stars and

clusters of old stars ("globular clusters"). Hmmm, does
that make it the retirement village of the Galaxy? The
halo also has "dark matter," which is material that we
can't see but can measure its gravitational force. The
Milky Way's halo may be over 130,000 light years across.

The evolution of galaxies- is a complex process that

involves various stages and mechanisms. some of the Measuring The Milky Way
oldest galaxies observed formed when the universe was
only about a billion years old. these galaxies are believed LIGHT TIME- Distance light travels within a specific
to have started growing around pockets of space that period of time.
were slightly denser than their surroundings, an effect
created by cosmic inflation when the universe began. ONE LIGHT SECOND 186,000 miles (300,000
Kilometers)
 Most large galaxies have supermassive black
holes at their centers that pack hundreds of ONE LIGHT-MINUTE 11,160,000 miles (18,000,000
thousands to billions of times the Sun’s mass. It's kilometers) TO EARTH: 8.3 Light – Minutes
still a question whether the black holes came first TO JUPITER: 43.2 Light – Minutes
and galaxies grew around them, or the galaxies
ONE LIGHT- HOUR 671 Million miles (1.08 Billion
came first, and small black holes within them
kilometers)
merged and fed on gas, dust, and stars, eventually
becoming the monsters they are today. TO NEPTUNE: 4.1 Light – Hours
 Many older spiral galaxies develop a central
band-like structure of stars called a bar. These are ONE LIGHT - DAY16.1 Billion miles(25.9 Billion
temporary structures that form when stars, gas, kilometers)
and dust at the base of spiral arms build up to
make a denser region that favors star formation. TO INNER WALL OF OORT CLOUD: 29 Light – Days
 Galaxies can also collide, which doesn't
necessarily mean their stars crash, but collisions ONE LIGHT- YEAR5.8 Trillion miles(9.4 Trillion
can compress gas clouds, spurring new bouts of kilometers)
star formation. Each galaxy deforms in reaction to
TO NEAREST STAR AND EXO PLANET: (Proxima
the gravitational pull of its partner. If colliding
Centauri and Proxima b) 4.25 Light - Years
galaxies don’t have enough momentum to move
past each other, they can merge to form a single 100 LIGHT – YEARS 588 Trillion miles(946 Trillion
larger galaxy. A merged galaxy can look very kilometers)
different from the two that created it. If a large
galaxy merges with a smaller one, gravitational 100,000 LIGHT – YEARs 588 Quadrillion miles (946
ripples can disturb both, throwing gas, dust, and Quadrillion kilometers)
stars outward.
 years. Condor galaxy is a large spiral galaxy that
has two prominent arm that stretch outwards. It is
THE FAMILY OF GALAXIES located 212 million light year away from us.
 The seventh largest known galaxy in the universe
There are 2 trillion galaxies in the universe. It is with the diameter of 463,000 light years. UGC
estimated that there are between 200 billion to 2 trillion 2885 is spiral galaxy, much like our own milky
galaxies in the observable universe. way. It exists in a fairly empty region of space,

with no other galaxies located within the vicnity

of UGC 2885. UCG 2885 grew from the accretion
of vast amounts of hydrogen. It is located 32
million

 1c 1101 is largest known galaxy. It is classified as

a supergiant elliptical galaxy. A galaxy that
contains an abudance of low to medium mass red
and yellow stars. 1c 1101, 40 times larger than
galaxy at 2.5 million light year away and it is
likely contains over 100 trillion stars.  ESO 444-46- The eight largest known galaxy in
 The second largest galaxy known to exist . the universe, it is classified as a supergiant
Hercules A has an estimated diameter of 1.5 elliptical galaxy with a diameter of 400,000 light
million light years like 1c 1101, and it is also years. It is believed to have grown to its current
classified as a supergiant elliptical galaxy. The size by merging and absorbing a multitude of
supermassive black hole at the center of Hercules other galaxies.ESO 444-46 is roughly 640 million
A is currently emitting two gigantic beams of light years away.light years away.
radio waves measured over one million light year  Tadpole galaxy- The ninth largest known galaxy
in length. in the universe, with a diameter of 280,000 light
 The third largest known galaxy in the universe, years. Tadpole galaxy is a spiral galaxy. It is
having a diameter of one million light years, followed by rust string of stars that stretches
roughly ten times the size of the milky way. outwards from the galaxy. It is located 420
A2261-BCG is a supergiant elliptical galaxy and million light years
is estimated to contain over ten trillion stars. It is  The tenth largest known galaxy in the universe,
located three billion light years away from us. nearest galactic neighbot, the Andromeda
Facts : It does not certain a supermassive black Galaxy. It also called Messier 31 or M31, is
hole at its center. thenearest major galaxy to the Milky Way. It is
 Comet Galaxy- The fifth largest known galaxy 2.5 million lightyears away from Earth and is the
and the first on the list that is not an elliptical other major member of the. The Andromeda and
galaxy but a spiral galaxy that measures 600,000 the Milky way will likely merge together.
light years across. It is one of the fastes galaxies Andromeda is the nearest galaxy to the milky way
in the universe, moving at a speed of two million at a distance of 2.5 Million light years,.
miles per hour (3.22 million kilometer per hour).
Comet galaxy is located 3.2 billion light years
away from us.
 Condor Galaxy- The sixth largest known galaxy
in the universe with the diameter of 522,000 light