NAME: .. CLASS: . ..

FIRST TERM: E-LEARNING NOTES

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

CLASS: SS1

SCHEME OF WORK

WEEKS TOPICS

1. Introduction to Biology;(a) Meaning of science and biology (b) Scientific method

(c) Experimental pattern (d) Living and non living things (e) Differences between plants
and animals (f) Levels of organization of life (g) Complexity of multi-cellular organisms.

2. Classification of living things : (a) Binomial nomenclature (b) Kingdom monera (c) Kingdom
protista (d) Kingdom fungi

3. Classification of living things: Kingdom Plantae (b) Kingdom Animalia.

4. The Cell : (a) Cell as a living unit of an organism (b) Forms in which cells exist (c) Cell
structure and functions (d) The cell theory (e) Differences and similarities between
plant and animal cells.

5. Cell and its environment and Some Properties and functions of the cell : (a) Diffusion (b)
Osmosis (c) Plant nutrition (d) Micro and Macro nutrients

6. Some Properties and functions of the cell - Continued: (a) Animal nutrition (b) Balanced
diet (c) Enzymes (d) Food test.

7. Mid – Term Break

8. Some Properties and functions of the cell - Continued: (a) Cellular respiration (b) Excretion
(c) Growth

9. Some Properties and functions of the cell - Continued: (a) Cell reaction to its environment
(b) Movement (c) Reproduction.

10. Tissues and supporting systems : (a) Skeleton and Supporting systems in animals

(i) Biological significance (b) Forms of skeletons (c) Types of skeletons (c) Bones of the
vertebral column (d) Joints (e) Functions of skeleton in animals.
 of the vertebral column (e) Functions of the skeleton in animals.

Revision

Examination.

REFERENCE TEXTS

1. Modern Biology for SSS by Sarojini T. Ramalingam; African First Publishers PLC

2. New System Biology for SSS by Lam Peng Kwan et al; African First Publishers PLC

3. Nelson Functional Biology for SSS by Kola soyibo et al;

4. New Biology for SSS by R.H. Stone et al; Longman

5. Biology for SSS by STAN; HEBN Publishers Plc

6. Comprehensive certificate Biology for SSS by Ambuno Sunday et al; University Press Plc

7. Practical Biology

WEEK 1

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

CLASS: SS1

TOPIC: 1. INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY: BIOLOGY AS AN INQUIRY IN SCIENCE

CONTENT:

Meaning of (a) Science and (b) Biology

Scientific method

Experimental pattern

Living And Non Living things

Differences between plants and animals

Levels of organization

Complexity in multicellular organisms.

Sub – Topic 1: MEANING OF (a) SCIENCE AND (b) BIOLOGY

Science can be defined as a systematic process of making inquiry about the living and non-
living things in our environment. Science is both an organized body of knowledge and a process
of finding out knowledge.

Biology is the branch of science that studies living things. The word ‘biology’ is derived from
two Greek words: ‘bios’ which means life, and ‘logos’ which means study. Biology therefore
means the study of life or of living things.

Biology has several branches, these include

Botany (study of plants)

Zoology (study of animals)

Morphology (study of the external features of living things)

Anatomy (study of internal structure of living things)

Physiology (Study of how living things function)

Ecology (study of the relationships between living things and their environment),

Genetics (Study of how living things inherit characters from their parents) etc.

The prime purpose of science is research, i.e. finding out about things, so biology involves
finding out or making inquiry about living things, their interaction with themselves and with
nature.

EVALUATION

Define the terms (a) Science (b) Biology

State five branches of biology.

Of what use is (a) science (b) biology to man?

Sub – Topic 2: METHOD OF SCIENCE

The method of science involves systematically making inquiries about something under study. It
begins with observation (that is, looking at something carefully with a view to finding an
answer to a question). This involves using all the senses i.e. sight, hearing, touch, feeling,
pressure, taste, etc. and instruments (e.g. ruler, microscope, magnifying lens, weighing balance,
telescopes, barometer, etc.) where necessary.

Observation is followed by a hypothesis i.e. a sensible, reasonable guess which is capable of

being tested or verified.

The hypothesis is tested by an experiment. Experiments usually involve

measurements/counting, as such they have to be carried out as accurately as possible. Scientific
experiments have a control. The control experiment is identical with the experiment proper,
but the factor to be tested is omitted. This gives the investigator a higher degree of confidence
in his result and conclusion.

Results from an experiment are put together and a conclusion (inference/generalization) is

made.

Other scientists may repeat the same experiment and if similar results are obtained then the
generalization is accepted as a theory.

When a theory has been tested extensively, worldwide and found to be consistently true, it
becomes a law e.g. the law of gravity

Sub – Topic 3: EXPERIMENTAL PATTERN

Experiments are designed to eliminate all forms of bias so as to avoid making false conclusions.
To achieve this, only the factor being tested is varied, all other factors that may affect the result
are kept constant. These experiments are known as controlled experiments.

While experimenting, a biologist uses processes of science such as counting, measuring,

classifying, organizing data, communicating, recording and interpreting data.

In recording an experiment/ giving the account of a scientific investigation, the following

pattern is used:
Date of experiment

Aim/purpose of experiment

Apparatus/materials required

Procedure/method used (including control and precautions)

Observations

Inference (deduction from what is already known)

Conclusion.

In biology, experiments are carried out on living things. It may not be possible to get a sample
of test population with identical organisms. This problem can be reduced by using large test
samples and also repeating the experiment many times.

EVALUATION

State and explain the processes involved in making inquiries in science?

In your own words, what are the proper attitudes which should characterize a scientist?

Enumerate the steps specified in giving account of a scientific investigation.

How is bias taken care of in a biological investigation?

SUGGESTED PRACTICAL

Setting up and using of a light microscope.

Objectives of the practical exercise

Students should be able to

Identify the parts and functions of each part of the microscope

Calculate the magnification of a diagram

Draw and label a light microscope (10 – 12cm long)

Observe a chosen specimen using the microscope (cells of an onion bulb)

Note: Quality and Details to be graded in any required diagram

Title (TL)

Size (Sz)

Clarity of lines (CL) – not broken, not wooly

Neatness of Label (NL) – ruled guide lines, horizontal labels `

Details (DL) - depending on the diagram of the specimen

Sub – Topic 4: LIVING AND NON LIVING THINGS

Everything in the world can be classified as either a living thing or non-living thing. Living things
include plants and animals (things that have life) e.g. Man, Monkey, Earthworm, Flies, Mango,
Fresh okra plant, Hibiscus etc. Non-living things do not have life e.g. Stone, Water, Air, Table,
etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

Some features have been found in every living thing ever studied by Biologists, these are;

Living things consist mainly of water and compounds carbon.

They are made up of one or more units called cells

They carry out seven basic life processes namely;

Movement – This is defined as the ability of an organism to change its position. It may be a
total change in position of the body as in the case of animals that move their whole body from
one place to another or a limited change in position as in the case of plants which can only
move parts of their body (e.g. in bending). Living things move in order to look for food, shelter,
mates (reproduction) and to escape from danger. Generally, most animals can walk, swim, or
fly from one place to another but plants can only move parts of themselves in response to
external stimuli. Movement from place to place is also referred to as Locomotion.
Nutrition - This is the ability of an organism to feed. The reason for feeding is to enable living
things to live and carry out life processes like growth, respiration and reproduction. Plants
manufacture their own food through the process of photosynthesis (autotrophic nutrition).
Animals cannot manufacture their own food but depend directly or indirectly on plants for food
(heterotrophic nutrition).

Respiration – This involves the taking in of oxygen in order to burn down (oxidize) food
substances to release energy which is used to carry out all life processes. Carbondioxide is given
off in the process.

Excretion – This is the removal of metabolic waste products from the body. Many chemical
activities go on in an organism and produce waste. These waste products are substances which
the organism does not need and which may poison it if allowed to build up in the body. The
waste products of metabolism include carbondioxide, water, urea, e. t. c.

Irritability or Sensitivity – This is the ability of an organism to perceive and respond to stimuli
(changes in the surrounding). Living things exhibits sensitivity in order to survive in their
environment. The response is often by some form of movement. Stimuli include heat, light,
pain, sounds, chemical substances, e.t.c.

Growth – This is defined as permanent increase in size and mass of an organism especially
while young. Organisms also replace and repair worn or damaged parts of the body throughout
life. The food eaten provides the basis of growth.

Reproduction – This is the ability of a living organism to produce young ones or offsprings. This
ensures continuity of life. Reproduction occurs in two forms.

Asexual reproduction – This involves only one organism producing offsprings from itself.

Sexual reproduction – This involves two organisms coming together to produce offspring(s).

Apart from these seven basic life processes another characteristic of living things is that they all
die. All living things have a definite and limited period of existence, and they pass through five
basic stages of existence;

Birth → Growth → Maturity → Decline (old age) → Death.

EVALUATION

Make a list of five living things and five non-living things.

Briefly discuss the characteristics of living things.

Sub - Topic 5: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

PLANTS ANIMALS

Green plants carry out photosynthesis Animals cannot carry out photosynthesis; they
depend on plants for their food.

Plants do not move from one place to another Animals move from one place to another and
and do not have organs of movement. have organs of movement. They exhibit
locomotion.

Growth is indefinite (continues throughout Growth is definite and occurs uniformly in

life) and apical. every part of the body. It stops when they
become adults.

Plants do not have specialized organs for Animals have specific organs for excretion,
excretion, respiration and coordination. respiration and coordination.

Plants are slow in response to stimuli Animals are fast in their response to stimuli

Excess carbohydrates are stored as starch Excess carbohydrates are stored in form of
glycogen

They have many branches They do not have any branches

Some organisms exist which posses characteristics of both plants and animals an example is
Euglena viridis. Euglena viridis is a microscopic unicellular organism, which lives in water.

The characteristics of Euglena which make it an animal are;

Possession of flagellum used for movement.

Possession of gullet for passage of food and which acts as a reservoir.

Presence of eye spot which enables it respond to light.

Possession of contractile vacuole used for excretion.

Possession of pellicle which makes its body flexible.

It can feed on other organisms (holozoic nutrition) in the absence of sunlight.

The plant characteristics of Euglena are;

Possession of chloroplast which enables it to carry out photosynthesis.

Possession of pyrenoid where starch is stored

It can produce its own food (holophytic or autotrophic nutrition)

EVALUATION

State five differences between plants and animals

Mention two characteristics of Euglena that makes it (a) a plant (b) an animal

Sub – Topic 6: LEVELS OF ORGANISATION OF LIFE

The bodies of living things are highly organized. This organization occurs in levels, with the
simplest structure occurring at the lowest levels (single cells) which interact to build up more
complex structures (multicellular organisms).

The basic levels of organization of life in organisms are; cells, tissues, organs and systems.

Cell: This is the smallest unit of living organism. It is the first and simplest level of organization
of life. Plants and animals are made up of cells. One celled organisms are called unicellular
organisms. They include Amoeba, Plasmodium, Euglena, Paramecium, etc. Organisms made up
of many cells are called multicellular organisms e.g man, mango, trees etc. The single celled
organism can carry out all life processes on its own.

Tissues: This is a group of similar cells which come together to perform a particular function. A
tissue consist of two or more different types of cells aggregating together to perform a specific
function e.g. the mesophyl layer in leaves, xylem tissue in stems, muscles, blood (a liquid tissue)
etc. Organisms which exist at the tissue level include the hydra, jelly fish, sponge etc.

Organ: Is a group of similar tissues which come together to perform a specific function.
Examples in plants are flowers, roots, leaves, seeds, a rhizome, a corm, an onion bulb, a tuber,
etc. Examples in animals are the skin, stomach, heart, brain, liver, eyes, ears, kidney, etc.

System: This is a group of functionally related organs which work together to perform specific
functions. Examples in plants include the shoot system and root system. Examples in animals
include the digestive, nervous, excretory and circulatory systems. Examples in plants are the
transport system, shoot and root system.

Sub – Topic 7: Complex multicellular organisms:

The climax of organization in higher living things is the aggregation of systems to form an
organism. Complex multicellular organisms are composed of several organ systems which work
harmoniously for the benefit of the organism. All animals from Platyhelminthes to Mammals,
and all vascular plants are organized on this level.

Complexity of Organization In Higher Animals

As organisms acquire more layers of cells, they become complex in structure, thus there is an
increase in complexity from unicellular to multicellular organism.

Advantages of Complexity

It leads to cellular differentiation, thus groups of similar cells are differentiated to form tissues
which carry out similar functions

It leads to internal structural specialization in which the tissues become specialized to carry out
specific functions.

There is mutual interdependence between component cells i.e division of labour among the
cells.

Complexity makes higher organisms to be more efficient in carrying out life processes.

Complexity leads to increase in size of organisms.

It makes it possible for organisms to become more resistant to adverse condition within the
environment.
Disadvantages of Complexity

The cells lose their independence and become increasingly dependent on one another’s
activities.

Difficulties in acquisition of materials (such as oxygen and food materials) and removal of waste
products by the millions of cells making up a multicellular organism

Slower rate of diffusion of oxygen or respiratory gas to individual cells.

Slower rate of expulsion of waste products from cells.

Decrease in ability to regenerate

Difficulties in reproduction.

EVALUATION

Mention and explain the levels of organization of life.

State three advantages and disadvantages each, of complexity

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

OBJECTIVE TEST

1. Biology is the study of .

(a) existing things (b) living things (c) living and non- living things (d) non-living things

2. One difference between plants and animals is the ability to

(a) respire (b) reproduce (c) photosynthesize (d) respond

3. Which of the following is not an organ?

(a) Bone (b) Heart (c) Kidney (d) Leaf

4. A collection of cells of the same origin, performing a specific function is called ..

(a) organ (b) organism (c) system (d) tissue

5. The correct sequence of levels of organization is:

(a) Cells→ Organs→ Tissue→ Systems

(b) Cells→ Tissue→ Organs → Systems

(c) Systems→ Tissues→ Organs → Cells

(d) Tissues→ Cells→ Systems → Organs

ESSAY QUESTIONS

Is a virus a living thing or a non-living thing? Give reasons for your answers.

Describe one organism at the tissue level of organization (e.g. Hydra)

WEEK 2:

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

CLASS: SS1

TOPIC: CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

CONTENT: (1) Classification/Taxonomy of living things

(2) Binomial system of nomenclature

(3) Classification and evolution

Sub- Topic 1: CLASSIFICATION (TAXONOMY) OF LIVING THINGS

To classify means to arrange or organize things into groups. Classification of living things
involves placing living things that have certain important features in common into specific
groups which distinguish them from other groups.

The largest group of organisms is the kingdom. The kingdom has the largest variety of
organisms.
The kingdoms are further split into a large number of smaller groups called ‘phyla’ (singular
phylum) for animals and ‘division’ for plants. All members of a phylum or division have certain
features in common. Each phylum or division is broken down into classes. Classes are split into
orders. Orders are split into families. Families are split into genera (singular genus) and genera
into species.

The seven groups used in classification of living things in order of hierarchy are;

Kingdom

Phylum (Animal) or

Division (Plant)

Class

Order

Family

Genus

Species

The species is the basic (i.e. smallest) unit in biological classification. A species is a group of
individuals which can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Example, all human beings belong
to one species and all monkeys belong to a different species, thus human beings and monkeys
cannot interbreed.
 Classification Human Dog Lion

Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia

Phylum Chordata Chordata Chordata

Class Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia

Order Primate Carnivora Carnivora

Family Hominidae Canidae Felidae

Genus Homo Canis Panthera

Species sapiens familiaris leo

EVALUATION

What is taxonomy?

Make a list of the hierarchy of groups used in classification of living things.

Sub- Topic 2: BINOMIAL SYSTEM OF NOMENCLATURE

A Swiss Scientist, Carl Von Linne (1707 – 1778) (Latin – Carolus Linnaeus) introduced the
present system of classification of living things. He also introduced the binomial system of
nomenclature in which an organism is given two names. The first name is the generic name and
always begins with a capital letter while the second name is the specific name (species) and
begins with a small letter. The generic name is common to all the species in a genus e.g. Equus
cabellus (horse), Equus asinus (the donkey), Equus burchelli (common Zebra) are different
species of the same genus.

Examples of Scientific names of some organisms

i) Man - Homo sapiens

ii) Housefly - Musca domestica

iii) Maize - Zea mays

iv) Orange - Citrus sinensis

v) Pawpaw - Carica papaya

EVALUATION

Who introduced the binomial system of nomenclature?

Write the scientific names of the following: (a) Rice plant (b) Domestic cat (c) Monkey

Sub – Topic 3: CLASSIFICATION AND EVOLUTION

As a result of advances in the field of science a five-kingdom system introduced by R.H

Whittaker (1969) has been adopted by some biologists. Most biologist however, prefer to
divide living things into prokaryotids (bacteria and blue-green algae) and eukaryotids (all other
organisms) based on the complexity of cell structure and cell chemistry.

Prokaryotids –Monera: bacteria, blue-green algae

Eukaryotids – Protista: protozoa, unicellular algae

Fungi: yeasts inclusive

Plantae: multicellular plants and multicellular algae

Animalia: multicellular animals

The five kingdom classification is as follows;

kingdom Monera,

kingdom Protista (Protoctista),

kingdom Fungi,

kingdom Plantae and

Kingdom animalia.
Viruses

These are not cells. They are particles made up of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA
(ribonucleic acid) surrounded by a protein coat. The genetic material is composed of a few
genes that code for the proteins that form the coat and other proteins that help it reproduce.

They are very harmful parasites that enter the cells of another organism (host) in order to
multiply.

They do not respond to antibiotics and are constantly changing into new strains.

Kingdom Monera

They are unicellular

The cells are prokaryotic with no organized nucleus and no nuclear membrane, just a loop
of DNA within the cytoplasm.

They do not have complex chromosomes

Cells have no mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and no chloroplasts.

Cell wall does not contain cellulose but polysaccharides and amino acids

No sexual reproduction.

They may be autotrophic or heterotrophic

Examples include bacteria and blue-green algae.

Helicobacter pylori Anatomy of a simple bacterium

Kingdom Protista

The organisms are eukaryotic and unicellular.

Some are heterotrophic, some are autotrophic and some are both

Reproduction is usually asexual by mitosis but some have sexual reproduction by fusion of
gametes.

Movement may be by cilia, flagella or may be amoeboid

The kingdom is divided into the following phyla;

 (a). Phylum protozoa: Examples are Amoeba, Paramecium, Zooflagellates, Plasmodium,
Trypanosoma

(b). Phylum Euglenophyta: Example Euglena

(c). Phylum Chrysophyta: Example diatoms

(d).Phylum Pyrrophyta: Example dinoflagellates

Paramecium Amoeba engulfing a

paramecium

Kingdom Fungi

Some are unicelleluar e.g yeast, many are multicellular e.g rhizopus, mushroom and toadstools .
The body of a fungi is composed of threads/filaments each called a hypha.

All the hyphae of a single organism are collectively called a mycelium.

There are many nuclei in a cell.

All fungi are heterotrophic – They lack chlorophyll. Some are saprophytic, some are parasitic
and some are symbiotic.

Fungi together with bacteria are the principal decomposers in the biosphere

Fungi reproduce by asexual or sexual methods.

Fly Agaric Mushroom

The brightly colored fly agaric mushroom is a deadly poisonous mushroom.

Containing ibotenic acid and a number of other organic poisons, the fly
agaric can cause severe damage to the central nervous system, blood
vessels, kidneys, liver, and muscles. Symptoms, which may not become
apparent for 8 to 12 hours or longer, include nausea, vomiting, and severe
diarrhea and can lead to coma and death.

Structure of Mushroom

EVALUATION

List the five kingdoms of classification of living things.

Give two characteristics each of organisms in each group mentioned above.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

OBJECTIVE TEST

Which of the following groups embraces the rest? (a) Class (b) Kingdom (c) Phylum (d) Species

Which of the following indicates that Euglena is a plant?

Conspicuous eye spot (b) limited movement (c) presence of gullet (d) presence of starch grains

3. Which of the following is not true of rhizopus or mucor? (a) It bears spores in sporangia

(b) It manufactures its own food (c) It has non-septate hyphae

(d) It undergoes asexual reproduction

4. Bacteria cells differ from eukaryotic cells by having (a) cell membrane (b) cell wall

(c) nuclear material (d) nuclear membrane

5. Fungi and bacteria help to (a) decompose materials (b) eliminate waste (c) produce food

(d) produce new species

ESSAY QUESTIONS

State two differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

SUGGESTED PRACTICALS: Make a large well labeled diagram of a mushroom , 8 – 10 cm.

WEEK 3

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

CLASS: SS1

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS:

CONTENT: (1) Kingdom Plantae

 (2) Kingdom Animalia.

Sub – Topic 1: KINGDOM PLANTAE

-They are mainly non-motile

-They are all autotrophic

(1) Division Thallophyta (Algae): e.g. pondweeds, seaweeds, diatoms

They are nearly all aquatic

Some are unicellular e.g. Chlamydomonas and diatoms some are filamentous e.g. spirogyra
while some have flat body called a thallus e.g. seaweeds.

The body is simple in structure. They have no true roots, stems, leaves or specialized
conducting systems.

All have chlorophyll and they photosynthesis. However, some have other pigments which
mask the green colour of chlorophyll e.g. seaweeds may be brown, red, and green in
colour.
 Euglena Spirogyra

(2) Division Embryophyta

(i) Bryophyta e.g. mosses and liverworts.

The cells are differentiated into tissues.

 They lack true roots stems and leaves, but have structures resembling them e.g. a typical
moss has a stalk, small leaves which are one or two cells thick and thread-like rhizoids.

There are no specialized conducting tissues.

They are terrestrial and most live in deep and shady places.

They need moisture for fertilization.

They exhibit asexual reproduction by spores in which there is alteration of generation.

(ii) Tracheophyta-(vascular plants)

(i). Pteridophyta: e.g. ferns

Are more complex in structure than Bryophytes.

They have proper roots, stems and leaves and a well-developed conducting system (i.e they
are vascular green plants).

They are non-flowering and non-seed producing plants.

A large number of spores develop on the under surface of the leaves (or ponds) which are
dispersed by wind.

They need moisture for fertilization.

Nearly all ferns are terrestrial, growing in damp and shady places. Many tropical ferns grow
as epiphytes on palms and other trees.

Most are herbs but a few are small trees.

 Fern

(ii) Spermatophyta: e.g. all seed-bearing plants.

They are multicellular, seed producing plants.

They have true roots, stems and leaves.

They have well developed vascular tissues.

They reproduce sexually and do not need water for fertilization.

They are mainly terrestrial plants.

There are two main sub-divisions namely,

(a) Sub-division Gymnospermae: All cone-bearing plants e.g. cycads, conifers and pines.

They produce seeds in cones (naked seeds).

They do not form flowers and fruits.

All are woody plants and most are trees.

(b) Sub-division Angiospermae: All flowering plants.

The seeds are produced in special structures called flowers.

 Fertilized seeds are enclosed in fruits

They are nearly all terrestrial.

Angiosperms can be further divided into two classes according to the number of seed leaves
(cotyledons). These are:

Dicotyledonous plants (seed have two seed leaves) e.g. Cowpea, groundnut, etc.

Monocotyledonous plants (seeds have one seed leaf) e.g. maize, millet, wheat, etc.

Conifer Pine
Sub – Topic 2: KINGDOM ANIMALIA

Classification of Animals

Types of Invertebrates

P – Porifera (sponges)

C – Coelenterata(Cnidaria)

P – Plathyhelminthes (flat worms)

N – Nemathoda (round worms)

A – Annelida (segmented worms)

M - Mollusca

A - Arthropoda

E – Echinodermata

P – Porifera (Sponges)

Features

They are simple aquatic invertebrates that are motile.

They are attached to rocks, shell or corals

They reproduce both sexually and asexually

They live in colonies

Most are hermaphrodites (i.e possess male and female sex organs)

They are primitive multicellular animals with asymmetrical bodies

Examples

Demosponge, calcareous sponge, hexactinellid, siliceous sponge, Purple and Yellow Tube
Sponge
 Purple and Yellow Tube Sponge
The purple and yellow tube sponge displays one of the many different body
forms typical of sponges. Sponges, considered to be the most primitive of
the multicellular animals, are represented in the fossil record back to the
Cambrian Period, at least 600 million years ago. The interior body cavities of
sponges provide shelter for a variety of small crabs, sea stars, and other
marine invertebrates.

Coelenterata

Features

They are multicellular aquatic organisms

Have radially symmetrical bodies

They reproduce asexually

Have two body layers (diploblastic)

They have tentacles with stinging cells for capturing prey

Examples

Hydra, sea anemone, jelly fish.

 Red Sea Anemone
Sometimes mistaken for plants, sea anemones are true animals that kill prey with their poisonous
tentacles. When a fish contacts them, the tentacles eject dozens of microscopic poisonous darts,
paralyzing the victim. The tentacles then pull the prey into the mouth of the baglike body, which
is basically one large stomach. The red sea anemone, Actinia equina, is a common species,
inhabiting the intertidal zone along the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts of Europe and Africa.
It has 192 tentacles arranged around its mouth in six rings. Marine biologists believe some sea
anemones can live 100 years or longer.

Plathyhelminthes (flat worms)

They consist of three classes

Class i: turbelleria e.g planaria

Class ii: Trematoda e.g liver fluke

Class iii: Cestoda e.g tape worm.

General features

Free living aquatic animals

They are parasitic

They are hermaphrodites and reproduce asexually

They have sac-like flat bodies

Bilaterally symmetrical bodies with definite head and a tail.

Tapeworm
Tapeworms are parasitic worms that infest the intestinal lining and other
organs of vertebrates. Tapeworms, having no mouth or digestive tract, are
able to absorb partially digested material through their body surface.

Nematoda (round worms)

Features

They have round bilaterally symmetrical bodies, with makes it advanced over flat worms.

Have gut that is a straight tube with mouth and anus at opposite end.

Some are parasites (e.g filarial worm causes elephantiasis also called filariasis) in animals while
some are free-living

Some are hermaphrodites while some reproduce sexually

They have three body layers (triploblastic)

Examples

Hook worm, filarial worm, thread worm

 Elephantiasis
The upper legs of this patient with elephantiasis show the typical sign of the
disease, a hardening and thickening of the skin. Elephantiasis results from a
blockage in the lymphatic system generally caused by a parasitic worm.

Anellida (segmented worms)

They consist of three classes

Class i: polychaete e.g sea worm

Class ii: Oligochaete e.g earthworm

Class iii: hirudinean e.g leech

General Features
They posses long cylindrical bodies

Most are marine forms and others in fresh water or damp soil.

Have internal and external segmented bodies which enable the animals to grow bigger.

Their body is partitioned by means of a septa

Alimentary canal has two opening, mouth and anus.

Have a well developed nervous and circulatory system, have nephrida for gaseous exchange
through moist skin.

Earthworm
Earthworms have a segmented, compartmentalized, cylindrical body and
range in length from several centimeters (a few inches) to nearly 3.3 m (11
ft). They have no eyes, ears, or lungs. Earthworms breathe when air that is
present between soil particles diffuses through their thin skins, and they are
forced to the surface if these air pockets fill with rainwater. When a worm
moves, it uses its longitudinal muscles to extend the front of its body into the
soil ahead of it, pulling the back part up behind it. Setae, tiny projections
from each segment of the worm, stick into the surrounding soil to keep the
worm from slipping. The digging action of earthworms helps to aerate and
mix the soil. Earthworms actually consume some of the soil as they dig, and
their fecal deposits, called castings, also help enrich the soil.

Mollusca
 They consist of three classes

Class i: Gastropoda e.g snail

Class ii: Pelecypoda e.g mussel

Class iii: Cephalopoda e.g Octopus

General Features

About half are marine organisms, others live in fresh water and on land

They posses soft unsegmented bodies

Some posses calcareous shells (secreted by the mantle) for protection against physical damage,
predators and drying out period

They posses muscular foot adapted for crawling, burrowing and swimming

They posses tentacles

The anus open into mantle cavity

Octopus
The octopus is an invertebrate animal that lives in the sea. Octopuses have
eight tentacles (arms). Two rows of suckers line each tentacle. Octopuses
use their tentacles to catch crabs and other small animals to eat.
 Giant African Snail
The giant African snail, Achatina fulica, is the largest land mollusk.
Individuals may grow up to 23 centimeters (up to 9 inches) in length and
weigh up to 0.5 kilograms (up to 1.1 pounds). This snail is native to tropical
West Africa, and humans have accidentally spread it to many lands. It has a
ravenous appetite and a taste for many crops and wild plants, making it a
notorious worldwide pest. Control programs have met with little success and
often harm native species. Studies have shown that processed giant African
snails are nutritious as human food and can be cultivated as a protein
source.

Insecta

They consist of four classes

Class i: Crustacea e.g crabs, lobster, prawns

Class ii: Insecta e.g grasshopper, praying mantis, cockroach

Class iii: Arachnida e.g spider, scorpion, mites, ticks

Class iv: Myriapodia e.g millipede and centepedes

General Features
They have segemented bodies

They three body layers (triploblastic)

They have various means of respiration eg gills, trachea, lung-book and body surface

They have jointed appendages

They exhibit moulting (shedding of exoskeleton at intervals to permit growth)

Hermit Crab
Hermit crabs are distinguished from other crabs by the lack of a shell on the
abdomen. As a result, hermit crabs must find empty snail shells to
temporarily inhabit. While walking or feeding, hermit crabs extend their
antennae, claws, and two pairs of walking legs out of the shell opening.
When threatened by predators, hermit crabs quickly withdraw their bodies
back into the protection of the shell. The large claw, the last part of the body
to be withdrawn, often acts as a door, closing off the interior of the shell from
predators. As hermit crabs grow, they must continually find new, larger
shells in which to live.
 Imperial Shrimp
The brilliant-red coloring of the imperial shrimp matches the coloring of the
Spanish-dancer sea slug, on which it lives. The shrimp feeds on plankton and
detritus that get caught in the mucous covering of the host’s skin.

Echinodermata

They have radially symmetrical body

They are slow – moving marine animals living on the sea shore and sea beds

It has no head and brain

They are not segmented.

They are spiny – skinned animals.

They have tube feet used for movement

Examples

Sea urchins, sea cucumber, starfish.

EVALUATION

List the groups in the division embryophyta.

Give two characteristics each, of organisms in each group mentioned above.

OBJECTIVE TEST

1. Another name for vascular plant is .. (a) Angiosperm (b) Gymnosperm (c) Pteridophyte

(d) Tracheophyte

2. Amoeba moves by means of ..(a) cilia (b) flagella (c) pseudopodia (d) seta

3. The dominant phase in the life cycle of the bryophyte is (a) gametangium (b)
gametophyte

(c) prothallus (d) sporophyte

4. Which of these is not a cold blooded animal? (a) Fish (b) Lizard (c) Rat (d) Toad

5. Which of these is the odd one out? (a) Bat (b) Rat (c) Tilapia (d) Whale

ESSAY QUESTIONS

State the two groups of the animal kingdom and their respective phyla.

Enumerate the general characteristics of vertebrates and list the classes.

Make a well labeled diagram of the ventral view of an earthworm.

SUB – TOPIC 3: PHYLYM CHORDATA - VERTEBRATES

Vertebrata is a subphylum of the phylum chordate. The chordates have a notochord, a flexible
rod of tightly packed cells, a tubular nerve chord (dorsal) and gill slit at some stage in their life
history. The back bone or vertebral column replaces the notochord in vertebrates.

GENERAL FEATURES OF VERTEBRATES

Vertebrates are animals with back bone.

All vertebrates have the following features

A well developed central nervous system

Two pairs of limbs

Kidney for eliminating body waste

Well developed sense organs

An internal or external skeleton

A bilaterally symmetrical body divided into head trunk and tail

CLASS OF VERTEBRATES

There are five classes of vertebrates

Pisces

Amphibians

Reptiles

Aves

Mammals.
 TILAPIA FISH
Fishes of the genus Tilapia are popular as both aquarium and food fishes. Some species of tilapia
are mouth brooders, protecting unhatched eggs and newly hatched young by carrying the eggs
and young in their mouths. Usually the female carries the offspring, but in a few species the male
also participates in mouth brooding.

Frog and Toad

Although both amphibians, frogs and toads have several basic anatomical differences between
them. The smooth, moist skin characteristic of frogs covers long legs specialized for jumping and
swimming. (It is these musclebound limbs that give the Edible frog, left, its name.) The skin of
toads like the Green toad, right, is dry and covered by knobby glandular projections often
referred to as “warts.” With relatively short legs, toads lack the jumping ability and range of
frogs.

Indian Gavial
The Indian gavial, found only in the Brahmaputra, Ganges, and Mahamadi rivers of India and the
Koladon River of southeastern Asia, is differentiated from all other species of crocodilians by its
long, narrow snout and weak legs. Growing to a size of 7 m (23 ft), the gavial feeds primarily on
fish.
 Gouldian Finches
Gouldian finches are one of about 153 species of finches found worldwide. The bills of finches
are structurally adapted for shelling seeds, their primary food. A seed wedged in a small groove
on the side of the palate is crushed when the lower portion of the bill is raised up against it. The
tongue then removes and discards the husk, after which the seed is swallowed.
 Clouded Leopard Climbing
The clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) inhabits rain forests of Asia and can be found in Nepal,
Thailand, Indonesia, and Borneo. This beautifully patterned wild cat hunts for birds and
mammals usually in the early morning and late afternoon. Amazing climbers, clouded leopards
spend much of their time in trees, sometimes hanging upside down from branches.

ASSIGNMENT

State five characteristics each of the five classes of vertebrates and an example each class.

SUGGESTED PRACTICALS:

identify each specimen

state which phylum each specimen belong

highlight TWO general features of each specimen

Required specimen (a) lizard (b) house fly/grasshopper (c) earthworm (d) rat (e) bird (f) fish
(g) snail (h) toad

WEEK 4
SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

CLASS: SS1

TOPIC: THE CELL

CONTENT: 1. Cell as a living unit of an organism

Forms in which cells exist

The cell structure and functions

Cell theory

Differences and similarities between plants and animal cells

Sub – Topic 1: CELL AS A LIVING UNIT

The cell is defined as the simplest, the smallest and basic unit of life. It is the structural and
functional unit of a living organism. The cell can carry out all life activities such as feeding,
respiration, movement etc.

Classification of Living Things Based on The Number of Cells

All living things are classified into two major groups depending on the number of cells they
possess. These groups are:

Unicellular or Acellular organism: Organisms which consist of only one cell e.g. Amoeba,
Paramecium, Chlamydomonas and Euglena.

Multicellular Organisms: Organisms which consist of two or more cells, e.g. Hydra, Flowering
plants, Fish, Bird, Man etc.

Sub – Topic 2: FORMS IN WHICH LIVING CELLS EXIST

Living cells exist basically in four forms;

As single and free living organisms: These are organisms which possess only one cell and are
able to live freely on their own. The single cell carries out all life processes such as feeding.
Euglena, etc. Parts of the cell may be specialized to carry out a particular process, for example
Paramecium.

Paramecium is a fresh-water protozoan. It lives in ponds and puddles and feeds mainly

on bacteria. It is often described as having a slipper shape and is about 0.25mm long. It
has a

stiff outer-covering called the pellicle which gives it a fixed shape. Its cytoplasm is divided
into

a clear outer layer called the ectoplasm and a granular inner layer called the endoplasm.

The endoplasm contains several food vacuoles, two contractile vacuoles and two nuclei.

The larger one called the meganucleus and the smaller one the micronucleus. It moves
(swims)

in the water by means of cilia. The cilia are tiny projections of the ectoplasm through the

pellicle. The oral groove and gullet are specialized for feeding, while the contractile
vacuole

is specialized for water regulation.

As a colony: A colony consists of many similar cells which are joined together. E.g. Volvox,
Pandorina, etc. Diagram of volvox

As a filament: This consists of many similar or identical cells joined end to end to form
unbranched filaments. e.g. spirogyra, zygnema, oscillatoria and oedogonium.

Each cell in a colony or filament behaves as an individual. Each carries out life

processes independently of its neighbours.

As a part of a living multicellular organism: In multicellular organism cells which perform the
same function are grouped together to form a tissue, e.g. tissues of the ileum wall, the retina,
and the blood (a tissues which perform a specific function form an organ and a group of
organism working together to perform a specific task form a system.
SUB-TOPIC 3: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

From the general point of view, cell is considered as an idea. The dictionary explains the
meaning as ‘a small room in a prison for one or more persons’ or as ‘a small number of
people.’ When one commits a crime, such a person is put in a police cell while investigation is
going on.

However, in Biology the term cell is a vital subject matter and has a special definition. It is
defined as the smallest, structural and functional unit of life having a nucleus at the centre and
bounded by a cell membrane.

They are two types of cells: Plant and Animal cells. See diagram below

Plant Cell

Plant cells contain a variety of membrane-bound structures called organelles.

These include a nucleus that carries genetic material; mitochondria that
generate energy; ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum that
manufacture proteins; smooth endoplasmic reticulum that manufactures
lipids used for making membranes and storing energy; and a thin lipid
membrane that surrounds the cell. Plant cells also contain chloroplasts that
capture energy from sunlight and a single fluid-filled vacuole that stores
compounds and helps in plant growth. Plant cells are surrounded by a rigid
cell wall that protects the cell and maintains its shape.

Animal Cell

An animal cell typically contains several types of membrane-bound organs,

or organelles. The nucleus directs activities of the cell and carries genetic
information from generation to generation. The mitochondria generate
energy for the cell. Proteins are manufactured by ribosomes, which are
bound to the rough endoplasmic reticulum or float free in the cytoplasm. The
Golgi apparatus modifies, packages, and distributes proteins while
lysosomes store enzymes for digesting food. The entire cell is wrapped in a
lipid membrane that selectively permits materials to pass in and out of the
cytoplasm.

EVALUATION:

Define the term cell.

Mention the two groups in which organisms can be placed based on the number of cells.

State the forms in which living cells exist

Sketch a well labelled diagram of plant and animal cells

SUB-TOPIC 4:THE CELL THEORY

The man who first discovered and described cell in living things is called Robert Hooke in 1665,
he also invented the microscope, but the cell theory was proposed by another man called
Mathias Schleiden, a German Botanist 1838, and Theodor Schwann, a German Zoologist, these
two men postulated the theory known as cell theory in 1839. In 1855, another German
Biologist, Rudolf Virchow stated that all cells comes originated from cells.

The cell theory states that:

All living things are composed of one or more cells

Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living things;

Cell originates from a pre-existing cell; and

Cell contains hereditary materials.

Another name for cell components are cell organelles e.g of an organelle is the nucleus of a cell
as shown below.

Mitochondria
Mitochondria, minute sausage-shaped structures found in the hyaloplasm
(clear cytoplasm) of the cell, are responsible for energy production.
Mitochondria contain enzymes that help convert food material into
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which can be used directly by the cell as an
energy source. Mitochondria tend to be concentrated near cellular structures
that require large inputs of energy, such as the flagellum, which is
responsible for movement in sperm cells and single-celled plants and
animals.

SUB-TOPIC 5: DESCRIPTION AND FUNCTION OF CELL COMPONENTS

1. Cell wall

Description: Non-living, made of cellulose, permeable to water and substance

Functions: Provides rigidity to the cell and gives it a definite shape.

2.Cell membrane

Description: Living and differentially permeable to water and substance.

Function: Allows selective movement of materials in and out of the cell.

3.Cytoplasm:

Description: Semi-fluid mass enclosed within the cell membrane and contain many
organelles.

Functions: The largest and liquid part of the cell in which metabolic reactions occur.

4. Nucleus

Description: Enclosed by a nuclear membrane, and contains chromatin and nucleolus.

Functions: It stores and carries hereditary information from generation to generation. It also
translates genetic information into the kind of protein characteristic of the cell. It controls the
cell’s life processes

Vacuoles

Description: This is the fluid filled spaces in the cytoplasm.

Functions: Help in maintaining turgidity in the plant cell.

Mitochondria

Description: It is a double membrane system, found in all cells. It contains the enzymes for
cellular respiration.
Functions: it carries out metabolism for all life processes. Kreb’s cycle and electron transfer
system take place in the mitochondria.

EVALUATION

State the cell theory.

Who is the first founder of the cell?

List four men who contributed to the discovery of the cell

Describe the nucleus and its functions.

What was the contribution of Felix Dujardin to the cell theory?

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

State Five (5) differences between plant and animal cell.

Outline four similarities between plant and animal cell.

Describe and state the functions of the following cell components or organelles: (a)
Endoplasmic reticulum (b) Ribosome (c) Centrioles, and (d) Chloroplasts

SUGGESTED PRACTICAL:

Observe a spirogyra filament and draw a well labeled diagram of 10 – 12cm.

WEEK 5

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

CLASS: SS1

TOPIC: Cell and its Environment and some properties and functions of cells

CONTENT:

(1) Diffusion

(2) Osmosis
(3) Plant nutrition

(4) Micro and Macro Nutrient

The topic ‘Cell and its Environment’ refers to the activities of the cell in a given environment
or the functions of the cell given a particular condition. Some conditions can be harmful to the
cell while others are helpful for proper functioning of the cell. This is why we discuss the cell
and its environment.

diffusion

Diffusion can take place in liquid and gases, but diffusion is faster in gases than in liquid,
because air and gases as a medium has more spaces to be filled.

Diffusion can be defined as the process by which molecules of substances, such as liquid and
gases move randomly from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration until they are evenly distributed.

It is also a process by which fine particles (molecules) flow in and out of cells of living things,
and it can occur in non-living things or membrane.

SUGGESTED PRACTICALS

Stand at the corner of the classroom, and spray a perfume, after a while the scent of the
perfume will circulate the whole class and every student will testify to the perception. This is
diffusion in gas.

You can also demonstrate diffusion of solid material in liquid medium using potassium
tetraoxomanganate (vii) crystals. i.e. KMnO4

Materials: Distilled water, Beakers, Spatula, and KMnO 4.

RATE OF DIFFUSION

The rate of diffusion is the time taken by molecules of a diffusing substance to be uniformly
distributed in any given area of the diffusing medium.

Some factors may affect (inhibit or facilitate) the rate of diffusion:

State of matter of diffusing molecules

Size of diffusing molecules

Differences in concentration of diffusing molecules and the medium (conc. gradient).

 Temperature of diffusing medium.

IMPOTANCE OF DIFFUSION

In a Biological system, diffusion is essential in the following:

Gaseous exchange in lungs during external respiration.

The movement of carbon iv oxide and Oxygen during photosynthesis and respiration in
plants.

Movement of digestive food from the intestine into the blood circulatory system.

Movement of nutrients, and other metabolic products from the mother through the
placenta to the foetus.

The upward movement of mineral salts and nutrients from the soil through the roots to
other parts of the plant.

EVALUATION

Define the term diffusion.

What is rate of diffusion?

State three importance of diffusion.

Diffusion

Diffusion is the natural tendency of molecules to flow from higher

concentrations to lower concentrations. When the barrier between two
substances is removed (as shown here), the molecules will diffuse
throughout the entire container. While the number of molecules in the
container is the same as it was before the barrier was removed, the
substances are now at lower concentrations. The rate of diffusion depends
on the weight of the molecules—heavy molecules diffuse more slowly than
light molecules.

OSMOSIS

Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a dilute solution into a more concentrated
solution through a semi-permeable membrane. Living organisms has the cell as the semi-
permeable membrane. Since the water molecules are small, the cell is somewhat limited in the
amount of direct control it can impose on their passage across the membrane. In osmosis, the
stronger solution is called hypertonic solution, while the weaker solution is called hypotonic
solution. In osmosis, water molecule move from hypotonic to hypertonic solution, but when the
concentrations are equal, the solution is said to be isotonic.

APPLICATION OF OSMOSIS IN ANIMALS

They include:

Reabsorption of water in kidney tubules,

Entry of water into the cytoplasm of unicellular animals, e.g. Amoeba and Paramecium,

Movement of water in and out of living animal cells,

Absorption of water in the large intestine.

APPLICATION OF OSMOSIS IN PLANTS

They include:

Absorption of water from the soil by the root hairs,

The movement of water in and out of living plant cell,

The movement of water from the root hairs to the cells of the cortex, and

Opening and closing of the stomata by the guard cells in the leaf.

DEMONSTRATION OF OSMOSIS

Using a living membrane or tissue such as yam, pawpaw etc.

By Osmometer; Osmometer can be constructed using a thistle funnel covered with

cellophane.

The cellophane is semi-permeable. The thistle funnel is filled with a strong sugar solution to
a certain level.

It is then lowered into the beaker containing water. After about 30 minutes, it could be seen
that the level of the solution in the thistle funnel has increased due to passage of water
through the cellophane membrane.

This indicates that cellophane membrane is a semi-permeable membrane allowing only

molecules of water to pass through, but preventing the passage of sugar molecules.

This is the demonstration of osmosis using a non-living membrane.

OSMOTIC PRESSURE

This is the minimum pressure that needs to be applied to a solution to prevent the inward
flow of water across a semi-permeable membrane. It is the measure of the tendency of a
solution to take in water by osmosis. It is simply the pressure needed to stop osmosis. The
osmotic pressure that a solution is capable of developing depends on the number or
concentration of its solute molecules. The stronger the solution, the greater the osmotic
pressure.
Osmosis

The experiment shown above demonstrates the process of osmosis. Water flows through a
semipermeable membrane into a sugar solution, diluting the solution. The sugar molecules
cannot pass through the membrane, so the water outside remains pure.

IMPORTANCE OF OSMOSIS

Osmosis regulates the concentrations of salt and water of the blood and other body fluid in
animals.
It maintains the cell shape through turgidity and plasmolysis if need be.
It enables the absorption of water molecules from the soil solution to the plants through the
root hair.
Movement of water molecules within the plant from the root to the leaves.
EVALUATION

Define the term osmosis.

Write two application of osmosis each in plant and animals.
What is osmotic pressure?
Enumerate three importance of osmosis.

OBJECTIVE TEST:
One of these is not a factor that affects diffusion. (a) State of the matter (b) pressure of the
substance (c) Size of molecules (d) Temperature (e) Concentration gradient.

When two solutions has equal concentration, it is said to be -------------- (a) isometric solution (b)
hypertonic (c) hypotonic (d) isotonic (e) isobarism.

ASSIGNMENT

Write short notes on the following (a) Haemolysis (b) plasmolysis (c) turgidity (d) endocytosis
(e) exocytosis (f) pinocytosis (g) Phygocytosis.

What is turgor pressure?

SUB TOPIC 3: NUTRITION

Nutrition can be defined as the totality of the processes by which a living thing obtains, and
uses food. We have two types of nutrition; plant and animal nutrition.

PLANT NUTRITION

In plant nutrition, we have photosynthesis and chemosynthesis. The later is a process through
which non-green plants use either parasitic or saprophytic modes of nutrition to obtain their
food. It can occur in colourless autotrophic bacteria.

Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants make use of raw materials such as
carbon (iv) oxide and water to produce sugar and Oxygen in presence of sun light or solar
energy and chlorophyll.

EQUATION FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

Light Reaction

Light energy is captured by chlorophyll

The energy splits water into hydrogen (H +) and hydroxyl (OH-) ions. The process is called
photolysis of water and it is the first step in photosynthesis.

4H2O 4H+ + 4(OH-) + ATP

The hydroxyl part is reconverted to water and Oxygen is given off as a by-product.
4(OH) 2H2O + O2

The compound (NADH) coenzyme is reduced by hydrogen ion and ATP is formed.

With the energy provided by ATP, the reduced compound (NADH) brings about the assimilation
of carbon (iv) oxide through series of small steps , each controlled by a specific enzyme to form
sugar or starch.

CO2 + 2H2 CH2O + H2O

The overall reaction is below:

CO2 + 2H2O CH2O + H2O + O2

Significance of Photosynthesis

All living things are supported by the by-products of photosynthesis. For example all animals
and non-green plants obtain their energy from green plants.

It brings about the purification of the atmosphere by removing excess carbon (iv) oxide (carbon
iv oxide)

Materials Necessary for Photosynthesis

These materials are divided into two basic parts: (1) External conditions and (2) Internal
conditions.

External condition:

Water

Light

Carbon (iv) oxide.

Internal condition:

Mineral salts

Chlorophyll

Enzymes.

Some Factors Affecting Photosynthesis:

They include;

Temperature,

Light intensity,

Carbon (iv) oxide,

Amount of soil water/ moisture

EVALUATION

What is nutrition?

Define photosynthesis.

Explain what happens in light and dark reaction stages of photosynthesis using equations.

List materials necessary for photosynthesis in the order of external and internal conditions.

Outline some factors that affects photosynthesis.

Micro elements are also known as minor or Trace elements or Micronutrients. These are
elements required by plants in very tiny or very little amount. Although they are needed in
trace amount, it leads to some deficiency when not available at all.

Some micronutrients include; Boron (B), Cobalt (Co), Copper (Cu), Manganese (Mn), Silicon (Si),
Zinc (Zn), Chlorine (Cl).

On other hand, Macro or Major or Macronutrients refer to elements that are required by plant
in large amount. Examples are the seven major elements which include Nitrogen (N), Potassium
(K), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Iron (Fe), Phosphorus (P), Sulphur (S).

SUB TOPIC 4: MICRO-NUTRIENTS

Elememts Uses/Importance to Plants Effects of Deficiency

Boron (B) Transport of Calcium and sugar Shoot goes brown

Cobalt (Co) For action of some enzymes Poor growth

Copper (Cu) For respiratory enzymes Poor growth

Manganese(Mn) Activation of some enzymes Shoots die back

Boron (B) Transport of Calcium and sugar Shoot goes brown

Silicon (Si) Cell wall formation, particularly in grasses May affect growth

Zinc (Zn) Activation of some enzymes Poor leaf formation

Chlorine (Cl) For Oxygen release during photosynthesis Plant wilts and chlorophyll
and for growth and development necrosis and reduce growth.

MACRO-NUTRIENTS

Nitrogen (N) Formation of amino acids, protein and Poor growth,

nucleic acids. Hormone synthesis. underdeveloped

Potassium (K) Formation of amino acids, protein and cell Death of plant, yellow leaf at
membranes, crop maturation. edges.

Calcium (Ca) Development of the cell wall at the growing Poor growth, particularly of
points. Activate some enzymes the root.

Magnesium Part of the chlorophyll molecule Leaves go yellow.

(Mg)

Iron (Fe) Needed for the synthesis of chlorophyll Leaves go yellow.

molecule

Phosphorus Formation of energy storage compound Poor growth leaves go dark

(P) green.

Sulphur (S) Needed for protein formation Leaves go yellow, stunted

growth.

EVALUATION

Define the terms micro and macronutrients

List Four (4) each of micro and micro nutrients

Write two (2) importance each of macro and micro nutrients

Outline two (2) each of the effects of deficiency of micro and macro nutrients.
SUGGESTED WEEKEND PRACTICALS

Carry out an experiment to demonstrate osmosis using living membrane.

WEEK 6.

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

CLASS: SS1

TOPIC: SOME PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL (continued)

CONTENT:

Animal nutrition
Balanced diet

Heterotrophic Nutrition

Sub- Topic 1: Animal Nutrition

All living things feed in order to obtain energy for their daily activities and also to carry out their
metabolic processes. Plants can manufacture their own food (i.e. make complex chemical
compounds) from simple raw materials (CO 2 and H2O) through the process of photosynthesis.
Plants need minerals to make some of the complex compounds and these are obtained from
the soil as mineral ions. Animals however cannot manufacture their own food, they depend
directly or indirectly on plants. Nutrients that animals require are present in their diet.
Hamburger and Fries

One of the meals most associated with the United States is a hamburger and
french fries. This burger and fries, a daily special, is accompanied by baked
beans and coleslaw.

Food Substances

All food taken in by animals can be divided into six groups of food nutrients namely
Carbohydrates, Protein, Fats, Vitamins, Minerals, and Water. Fibre/roughage is also an
important component of a diet but it is not a nutrient. All these are needed for a balanced diet,
for humans.

Carbohydrates, Protein, Fat & oil, and Water are primary food substances and are necessary for
the maintenance of life. Minerals salts and Vitamins are welfare food substances and are
essential for the well being of an individual.

Types of Food Substances

CARBOHYDRATES
These contain the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O). The ratio of hydrogen to
oxygen is 2:1. Carbohydrates are represented by the formula Cx (H 2O)y. The major sources of
carbohydrate are Sugar (e.g. glucose, maltose) and starches (e.g. yam, maize, rice).
Types of Carbohydrates

1) Monosaccharides / Simple sugars: These are made up of only one unit of simple sugar e.g.

Hexose sugars: These consist of six carbon atoms arranged into a ring e.g. glucose, fructose and
galactose. They make up the most important energy storage molecules in an organism. Their
chemical formula is C6H12O6
Pentose sugars: These consist of five carbon atoms e.g. ribose and de-oxyribose. They are used
in the formation of nucleic acids.

2) Disaccharides / Complex sugars: These are formed by the condensation (i.e. chemical
bonding of two molecules) of two simple sugar molecules. They are represented by the formula
C12H22O11 .

Examples are:

Maltose (glucose + glucose – H2O) found in malted cereals and spouting grains.
Lactose (glucose + galactose – H2O) found in milk.
Sucrose (glucose + fructose – H2O) found in sugar cane stems, ripe sweet fruits, sugar – beet
and carrot.
NB All sugars are sweet and soluble and provide energy in a ready-to-use form.

3) Polysaccharides: These are formed by the condensation of hundreds of simple sugar

molecules. They are represented by the general formula

(C6 H10O5) n where n represents a large number. Examples include starch, cellulose, glycogen
(animal starch). Starch and glycogen are insoluble and do not taste sweet.

NB Condensation is a reaction in which two or more molecules join to form a large

molecules with the removal of a molecule of water (H2O) or some other simple molecule.

Improtance of Carbohydrates

They provide us with energy.

It provides heat during its oxidation which is used in maintaining body temperature.
It is used in building the exoskeleton of arthropods.
PROTEIN
Proteins are complex molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen (N) many
also have sulfur (S). They are long – chain molecules made up of smaller molecules called
amino–acid. There are 25 types of amino acids and these occur in different numbers and order
in different types of protein. Thus one protein is different from the other. Each individual amino
acid joins the chain by means of a peptide bond.

During digestion the breakdown of protein occur in the following sequence;

Protein → Proteoses → Peptones → Polypeptides → Amino Acids.

Examples of Proteins include:

Soluble proteins e.g. haemoglobin (in blood), enzymes (in water/cytoplasm), antibodies, and
some hormones (e.g. insulin).
Insoluble proteins e.g. keratin (a fibrous protein found in skin and hair), collagen (found in
bones and cartilage), myosin and actin (found in muscle cell). Sources of protein include (a)
animal sources such as fish, meat, milk, egg and cheese. (b) Plant sources such as beans,
groundnut and soya beans etc.

Cooking Meat

Chefs prepare meat for cooking in a restaurant kitchen in Buenos Aires,

Argentina. Cooking methods depend on the cut of meat: Tender meat may
be easily roasted or grilled, while tougher cuts may require stewing or
boiling.
Protein is used for making body building substances which are necessary for building new cells
and replacing old ones.
Essential for the repair of cells and worn- out tissues.
Essential for formation of enzymes
Essential for formation of hormones
Essential for formation of antibodies
Essential for formation of heamoglobin etc.
Essential components of cell membranes
It may be required to provide energy.

FATS AND OILS

These are also called lipids and are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Each fat
molecule is made up of one molecule of glycerol attached to 3 fatty acids. There are different
types of fatty acids and these form different fats with different properties. At room
temperature fats are solid while oils are liquid. Lipids are macromolecules and have to be
broken down into fatty acids and glycerol before they can be absorbed into the body. Sources
of fats include margarine, butter, cheese, fatty meat, melon, groundnuts, palm fruits, castor oil
seeds, lard etc.

IMPORTANCE

Fats and oil are used for energy storage in the body. They provide more energy to the body
than carbohydrate when metabolized.
They are solvents for fat soluble vitamins and also for hormones.
They are important components of cell membranes.
They help in maintaining the body temperature / for thermal insulation in the body. In cold
countries, the fat layers under the skins of mammals act as insulators and prevent loss of heat
from their bodies.
Fats give buoyancy to marine animals e.g. whales have a thick layer of blubber.

MINERAL SALT
These regulate the metabolic activities within the body. They are also important components of
enzymes, pigments and structural parts.

The major source of mineral salts is the diet. Examples of minerals include sodium, potassium,
calcium, chlorine, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, copper, cobalt, fluorine and manganese.

Sodium calcium and phosphorus are needed in large quantities in the body while some others
like iron and iodine are only needed in small quantities.

A lack of minerals in the diet results to ill health and development of symptoms of deficiency
diseases.
SOURCES, FUNCTIONS AND DEFICIENCY SYMTOMS OF SOME MINERALS

Mineral Function Deficiency Sources / Daily need

symptom

Iron Formation of Tiredness, lack of Liver, meat, cocoa,

haemoglobin in red energy (Anaemia) eggs, green
blood cells; myoglobin vegetables (10mg)
in muscle cells and
enzymes involved in
cell respiration.

Calcium Strengthens bones and Weak, brittle bones Milk, fish, green
teeth; needed for and teeth (Rickets) vegetables (1g)
blood clotting, proper
Muscle weakness
functioning of heart
and cramps.
and nervous system,
and normal
contraction of
muscles.

Sodium Important component Dehydration Salt, natural foods

of blood plasma; muscle cramps, especially meat, milk
maintains correct kidney failure. and eggs
osmotic pressure of
(5-8g)
body fluids; needed in
transmission of
impulses in nerves,
sensory cells and
muscles and for
normal cell membrane
permeability.

Phosphorus Involved in transfer of Rickets Fish, shell-

energy, required for fish,eggs,milk and
most chemical cheese.(1.5g)
reactions in the body ;
essential component
of DNA and RNA;
major component of
Mineral Function Deficiency Sources / Daily need
symptom

bones & teeth.

VITAMINS
These are organic compounds required by man and other animals in only small quantities for
normal growth and healthy development. They are biocatalysts (they promote chemical
reactions in the body).

Examples include vitamins A, D, E and K which are water soluble. The main sources are fruits,
eggs, milk, palm oil, vegetables and animal organs. Inadequacy or lack of these vitamins leads to
nutritional deficiency diseases and ill health.

SOURCES, FUNCTIONS AND DEFICIENCY SYMTOMS OF SOME VITAMINS

Vitamin Function Deficiency Sources

Symptom

(1) Vitamin A (i) For normal growth of body (i) Skin becomes Fish – liver, oil, egg
cells and skin flaky. yolk, green and
(Retinol)
yellow vegetables,
(ii) For proper vision of the eye (ii) Night blindness
fruits.
in dim light.
(iii) Xerophthalmia

(2) Vitamin D (i) ricket in children

Fish, milk, egg,
liver, butter,
(Calciferol) (i) For strong bone and teeth (ii) Softening of
synthesized in the
formation and development. bones in adults
skin when exposed
(osteomalacia).
(ii) It increases the absorption of to sunlight.
calcium and phosphorus in the
intestine.

(3) Vitamin E (i) Promotion of fertility in (i) Sterility and Leafy green
animals premature vegetables, seeds,
(tocopherol)
abortion. egg, milk, liver.
(ii) Protects fatty acids and cell
membrane from oxidation.
Vitamin Function Deficiency Sources
Symptom

(4) Vitamin k (i) Aids blood clotting. Slow clotting of Liver fresh green
blood leading to vegetables, made
(phylloquinone)
severe bleeding by intestinal
from cuts bacteria.

(Haemorrhages).

(5) B1 (i) Needed for formation of co- (i) Reduced growth. Yeast, rice bran,
enzymes involved in cellular beans, groundnut,
(thiamine) (ii) Beriberi (a
respiration. liver.
disease of the
(ii) For normal growth. nervous system).

(iii) Proper functioning of heart

and nervous system.

(6) B2 (i) For formation of co-enzymes (i) Slow growth. Eggs, liver, kidney,
involved in cellular respiration yeast, leafy
(Riboflavin) (ii) Sores in skin
vegetables.
(ii) For growth, healthy skin and (dermatitis) and
proper functioning of the eye. around the mouth.

(8) B5 (i) For formation of co-enzymes Disorder of nervous Yeast, eggs, rice
in cellular respiration. system and gut. bran.
(pantothenic acid
or Folic acid) (ii) For formation of red blood Anaemia
cells.
Leafy vegetables,
liver.

(9) Vitamin C (i) For maintenance of (i) Scurvy Fresh citrus fruits,
connective tissues, bones and pawpaw, guava,
(Ascorbic acid) (ii) Wounds heal
dentine green vegetables.
slowly.
(ii) Helps to resist inflection
Apples

The apple tree is widely cultivated throughout temperate regions of the

world for its juicy, edible fruit. The many varieties of apples have been
popular for centuries and growers have selectively bred certain superior wild
varieties for domestication and mass production.

WATER
This is composed of hydrogen and oxygen and makes up two-thirds (70%) of the body mass of a
human being.

Water is taken in when we eat or drink. Sources include metabolic water from food, water from
rivers, rain, ponds, springs, etc.

IMPORTANCE

It is required for metabolic activities in the body. It makes up a large part of the protoplasm,
thus it is the medium in which chemicals reaction take place in the body.
It transfers digested food substances, excretory products (urine & sweat) and hormones.
It plays an important role in the regulation of body temperature (sweat cools us down)
It helps to maintain the osmotic content of the body tissues.
It is an important solvent for food substances during digestion.
It constitutes a greater part of the blood.
It is the main component of plants and animals.
Daily intake of water must equal the loss in urine, faeces, sweat and breath to keep healthy.

ROUGHAGES / FIBRE
This is indigestible fibrous materials derived mainly from vegetables, fruits and seed coats
(of carbohydrates and proteinous seed).
 Fibre adds bulk to food thus stimulating the movement of the bowel. It passes down the
entire gut from mouth to anus and does not provide any energy.

Sources include bran cereals, cabbage, sweet corn, celery, etc.

Papaya Fruit

A view of the interior of the papaya fruit shows the pulp and seeds. This
edible fruit, capable of growing as large as 9 kg (20 lb), is widely cultivated in
the tropics. The latex of the fruit contains a substance called papain, which
can be extracted and used to tenderize meat.

IMPORTANCE

Fibre helps the movement of food in the alimentary canal by peristalsis so preventing
constipation.
Fibre absorbs poisonous waste from bacteria in the gut.
Many doctors believe a high fibre diet lowers the concentration of cholesterol in the blood.
Fibre reduces the risk of heart diseases and bowel cancer.

SUB-TOPIC 2: BALANCED DIET

The intake of a variety of food in the right quantity and proportion that provides the body with
all the nutrients and energy needed to sustain the body and ensure good health and growth is
referred to as a balanced diet.

A balanced diet must contain the seven food substances i.e Carbohydrates (60%), Proteins
(15%), Fats (15%), Vitamins (10%), Minerals,Water and Fibre.

ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
Even at rest energy is required for basic functions such as heart beats, working of the lungs and
keeping body temperature constant. Also chemical reactions in the body such as those involved
in growth & repair are occurring and these need energy. The energy required for these body
functions is called the basal metallic rate.

USDA Food Pyramid

The United States Department of Agriculture Food Pyramid provides a

practical visual guide to healthful eating, indicating the recommended daily
portions of the basic food groups.

(BMR). BMR varies from person to person; an adult needs 7000kg per day, even at rest this
energy is still required.

THE IMPORTANCE OF A BALANCED DIET

It is required for normal healthy living.

It gives us resistance to diseases.
It provides energy required for normal activities.
It prevents malnutrition / deficiency diseases e.g. a lack of protein in the diet can cause
kwashiorkor and marasmus in children.

EVALUATION

Name the constituent element, four food sources and three functions of each of the following
 (i) Carbohydrates (ii) Protein (iii) Lipid
List the sources and functions of four vitamins and minerals.
State one deficiency disease/condition associated with each type of nutrient mentioned in 1
and 2 above
Define the terms: (a) balanced diet (b) BMR
Mention three importance of taking a balanced diet

OBJECTIVE TEST

1.During which of the following processes is food for animals produced? (a) Digestion (b)
Photosynthesis (c) Respiration (d) Transpiration

2. Which of the following is the odd one out? (a) Calcium (b) Calciferol (c) Iron (d) Manganese

3. The deficiency of vitamin D leads to (a) pellagra (b) polio (c) rickets (d) scurvy

4. Which of the following food substances turns bright red when warmed with Sudan III
solution? (a) Fat (b) Protein (c) Reducing sugar (d) Starch

5. The arrangements below are steps in protein digestion. Which is the correct sequence?

I. Amino acid II. Peptone III. Polypeptide IV. Protein

(a) I→ II→ III→ IV (b) II→ III→ I → IV

(c) II→ IV → I→ III (d) IV → III→ II→ I

Sub- Topic 3: HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

This is the type of nutrition in which the organism feeds on complex organic molecules. There
are different forms of heterotrophic nutrition.

Types of Heterotrophic Nutrition

Holozoic Nutrition: In this type of nutrition an organism feeds on complex organic materials,
usually in solid form. These materials require ingestion, digestion and absorption before
assimilation into the body.

Animals that practice holozoic nutrition include herbivores, carnivores and omnivores.

Parasitic Nutrition: In this form of nutrition, one organism (the parasite) lives in or on another
organism (the host) causing harm/death to the host. Parasites may be plants or animals.
Parasitic plants attach themselves to the host by means of suckers and send special absorbing
organs called haustoria into the tissues of the host’s stem where they absorb water, mineral
salts and food substances. Examples are the dodder plant, cassytha and mistletoe (a partial
parasite).

Mistletoe Corn smut

Parasitic animals which live outside the host (ectoparasites) have mouth parts that are modified
for piercing or boring into the skin of animals or epidermal layer of plants and suck the body
fluid of the host. Examples are ticks, aphids, lice, etc. parasitic animals which live within the
host (endoparasites) possess attachment organs such as suckers with which they fasten
themselves onto the walls of the host’s gut and suck already digested food. Examples are
tapeworm, liverfluke, plasmodium and hookworm.
Tsetse fly; an ectoparasite Chigger; an ectoparasite

Plasmodium; an endoparasie Tapeworm; an endoparasite

Saprophytic Nutrition: This is a form of nutrition in which an organism feeds on dead and
decaying organic matter. Examples are Rhizopus, mushroom, mucor, toadstool and bacteria.
These organisms have rhizoids through which they secrete enzymes into the substrate
extracellularly. The digested portion is then absorbed into the body of the saprophyte.

Sub – Topic 3: Feeding Mechanisms In Holozoic Organisms

All animals obtain their food directly from plants or by feeding on other animals. Their
nutritional requirements are obtained from ingested food. Various organisms obtain and ingest
their food in different ways; this is referred to as their feeding mechanism. The feeding
mechanism of an organism depends on the organism’s mode of nutrition and the type of food
on which it feeds.

The ingested food is broken down into simple, soluble and diffusible substances through the
process of digestion. The digested food is then absorbed into the fluids of the organism and
transported to the body cells where it is assimilated (i.e. used). Undigested food is egested from
the body.

Feeding mechanism in holozoic organisms include the following;

Use of pseudopodia to engulf food e.g. in Amoeba

Beating movement of cilia to move food into the oral groove e.g. Paramecium.

Sweeping movement of flagella to move food into the mouth e.g. in Euglena.

Use of tentacles e.g. Hydra.

Filter feeding e.g. Mosquito larvae, whales, oysters, etc.

Fluid feeding e.g. Insects, hummingbirds, etc.

Saprophytic feeding e.g. mushroom, rhizopus, etc.

vii. Parasitic feeding e.g. Dodder plant, Mistletoe, liver fluke, lice, guinea worm,

tapeworm, etc.

EVALUATION

What are heterotrophs?

Give and explain two forms of heterotrophic nutrition

Mention two forms of feeding mechanism in holozoic organisms

Briefly describe the modification of the mouth parts of a grasshopper to its mode of feeding.

Sub – Topic 5: ENZYMES

An enzyme is an organic catalyst. A catalyst is a substance which brings about or greatly speeds
up a chemical reaction and it is not used up or changed during the reaction. Enzymes speed up
metabolic reactions in living cells without changing their composition in the

process. Enzymes are protein molecules and are manufactured by an organisms own cells.
Structure and function of an enzyme

TYPES OF ENZYMES

Enzymes are classified based on the nature of chemical changes brought about on a substrate.
Example;

Hydrolases: These bring about the decomposition of a substrate by the addition of water
molecules to it. This process is called hydrolysis. However, they can also bring about a reverse
reaction in which complex substance are synthesized from simple substances by the removal of
water (condensation). Most digestive enzymes are hydrolysis enzymes.

E.g. Starch Glucose

Oxido – reductase: These bring about oxidation of a substrate by the addition of oxygen or
removal of hydrogen. This reaction is usually accompanied by the reduction of another
substance. Most respiratory enzymes such as dehydrogenases, oxidases and catalases belong to
this group.
Transferases: These catalyse reversible reactions
Isomerases: These usually change the spatial configuration of a molecule in a living cell. They
work on isomers.
Lyases: These catalyse the breaking up of bonds by elimination or addition reactions.
Ligases: These catalyse the joining of two molecules with accompanying hydrolysis of a high
energy bond.

CHARACTERISTICS
They are proteins in nature.
They are soluble
Some enzymes require the presence of non-proteinous molecules called co-enzymes to activate
them.
Enzymes are specific in action e.g. amylases will only act on starch.
Enzymes are organic catalysts i.e. they speed up chemical reactions in the body but are
unchanged at the end of the reaction.
They are affected by the acidity or alkalinity of their surrounding and will only work in specific
pH medium.
They have a specific temperature range above or below which they become denatured/
inactive. They work best between 35 to 40ºc.
Enzymes can be inactivated by inhibitors like cyanide and mercury.
They are usually involved in reversible reactions.
(10)Enzymes act in small quantities and catalyses large amount of substrate.

(11)They can function outside organisms producing them.

EVALUATION

1. What is an enzyme?

2. What are the functions of enzymes?

3. Enumerate five characteristics of enzymes.

OBJECTIVE TEST
amylase
1. In the enzymatic reaction, Starch Sugar , Starch is referred to as the

(a) enzyme (b) product (c) reaction mixture (d) substrate

2. In a mammalian tooth, the pulp cavity contains

(a) blood vessels (b) cement (c) enamel (d) pulp

3. The kind of teeth used for tearing food material is

(a) canine (b) incisor (c) molar (d) premolar

4. Dead plants and animals are decomposed by bacteria and fungi into

(a) ammonia (b) amino acids (c) nitrates (d) nitrites

5. The substance required to move food along the intestine is

(a) Carbohydrates (b) Fats and oil (c) Protein (d) Fibre

SUGGESTED WEEKEND PRACTICALS

FOOD TESTS

The materials / nutrients present in food can be identified using various types of tests. These
are:

(1) Test for carbohydrates

(a) To test for simple sugar e.g. glucose and fructose.

Put a small quantity of glucose solution in a test tube.

Add an equal amount of benedict solution.

Boil the mixture for 4 - 6 minutes. A bricks-red or orange precipitate indicates the presence
glucose.

(b) To test for complex sugar e.g. sucrose, maltose or lactose

Put a small quantity of the sucrose solution in a test-tube

Add a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid to the solution, (This hydrolyses the complex sugar
to simple sugar)

Place the test-tube in a boiling water bath for a few minutes.

Add a few drops of dilute caustic soda (to neutralize the excess acid).

Add an equal amount of feeling’s solution and place the test-tube in a boiling bath. An orange-
red precipitate / yellow precipitate indicate the presence of sucrose.

( c) To test for starch

-Boil a sample of the starch material (e.g. yam / rice)

-Add a few drops of dilute iodine solution to it. A blue-black colouration indicates

the presence of starch.

(2) To test for proteins

(a) Biuret test

-Take a small quantity of fresh milk, egg white solution or malt extract in a test-tube.

-Add a few drops of water and 1cm³ of dilute sodium hydroxide.

-Carefully add 1% of copper II sulphate solution in drops. Shake the mixture thoroughly after
each drop.

-A violet, purple, violet colour indicates the presence of protein

-A pink colour indicates the presence of peptones.

(b) Millon’s test

-Put 3cm³ of egg white / colloidal solution of a protein into a test-tube

-Add 3cm³ of millon’s reagent and warm the mixture in a water bath for a few minutes.

-A deep red colour or precipitate shows the presence of protein.

(c) Xanthoproteic test

-Put 2cm³ of egg white or milk solution in a test-tube.

-Carefully add about 1cm³ concentrated trioxonitrate (v) acids. A white precipitate forms which
turns yellow on heating.

-Cool the contents and add about 3cm³ of ammonium hydroxide solution. Heat the solution and
allow it to cool. The colour of the precipitate deepens to orange indicating the presence of
protein.

(3) To test for fats and oils

(a) Translucent mark test

Drop oil on a spot, on a piece of paper or rub the surface of a fatty food against the surface of a
piece of white paper. A translucent mark shows the presence of fat.

(b) Sudan III test

-Add a few drops of sudan (iii) solution to some oil in a test-tube. A red colouration is obtained

-Boil the solution. A black precipitate is formed.

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Distinguish between autotrophic and heterotrophic modes of nutrition

2. Describe the symbiotic mode of nutrition

3. Mention three insectivorous plants and discuss one.

WEEK 7: MID – TERM BREAK

WEEK 8

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

CLASS: SS1
DATE--------------------

TOPIC : MAMMALIAN TEETH

CONTENT:

Types of Teeth

Dental formula

Structure of a Tooth

Dental care

The type of teeth possessed by a mammal is related to the type of food it eats. The number,
arrangement and conformation of teeth in an organism are referred to as its dentition. When all
the teeth are the same shape and size as in fishes, amphibians and reptiles it is called homodont
dentition. When they differ in shape as in dogs, man and rabbits it is heterodont dentition.
Mammals usually have four different types of teeth namely the incisors, canines, premolars and
molars. Man has two sets of teeth during his lifetime; the milk teeth when young and the
permanent teeth when mature. There are 20 milk teeth and 32 permanent teeth.

Types of Teeth

Incisors – These are flattened, chisel-like with a sharp edge for cutting and holding onto the
food/prey. They are located in the front of the jaw.

Canines – These have sharp, pointed tips and are used for tearing flesh. They are next to the
incisors.

Premolars – These have broad ridged surfaces called cusps. They are used for grinding and
chewing food. They are located towards the back of the jaw.

Molars – These also have broad, ridged surfaces and are used for chewing and grinding food.
They are found at the extreme back of the jaws.

Adult teeth
Dental Formula

This refers to the number, type and arrangement of teeth in one half of each jaw.

Example in;

Man; I 2/2 ; C 1/1 ; PM 2/2 ; M 3/3

Dog; I 3/3 ; C I/I ; PM 4/4 ; M 2/3

Rabbit; I 2/1 ; C 0/0 ; PM 3/2 ; M 3/3

Structure of a Tooth

A typical tooth has three parts; the crown, the neck and the root. The crown is the part above the
gum. The root is embedded in the jaw and the neck is the part on the same level with the gum, it
is the narrow junction between the crown and root.

The incisors and canines have one root each while the premolars and molars have two or three
roots each.
 A TYPICAL TOOTH

In the centre of the tooth is a pulp cavity which contains blood vessels and nerves that make
extremely sensitive to heat, cold and pain. The dentine, a hard bone-like material, encloses the
pulp. The enamel, a white, hard material covers the dentine, protecting it and the pulp within. At
the root region a thin layer of cement covers the dentine. The cement is surrounded by the
periodontal membrane, a fibrous tissue that fixes the tooth into the jaw bone.

The tooth is not rigidly fixed but can move slightly while biting and chewing. A hole at the tip of
each root allows blood vessels and nerves of the pulp to be connected to those of bones and
gums. This ensures a continuous flow of of blood supply to the tooth and keeps the tooth alive.
However, the supply of blood is not sufficient for the tooth to grow. This type of teeth is known
as closed teeth.

Dental care
Tooth decay caused by bacteria and fermentation of carbohydrates that get stuck in the teeth can
be prevented by;

Practicing regular oral hygiene

Eating balanced diet containing enough vitamin, phosphorus and calcium.

Eating hard, fibrous fruits after each meal.

Avoiding sweet food, very hot and very cold.

Visiting a dentist regularly.

EVALUATION

Define the terms (a) dentition (b) dental formula

Make a large well labeled drawing of a tooth.

State four ways of caring for your teeth

Name four types of teeth in mammals or human.

What is heterodont dentition?

The two sets of teeth are --------- and --------.

What type of feeding found in hydra?

Discuss briefly feeding in protozoa.

OBJECTIVE TEST

Which of the following mammalian structures is structurally adapted for grinding flesh (a)
Canine (b) Incisor (c) Molar (d) Diastema (e) Carnassial tooth.

Hydra catches food with the aid of the ---------- (a) tentacle (b) cilia (c) pseudopodia (d)
nematocysts (e) plasmagel.

One of these is not a fluid feeders (a) oyster (b) mosquito (c) bees (d) house fly (e) tsetse fly.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Study the various mouth parts of insects in page 288 of your Modern Biology text book.
WEEKEND PRACTICAL

Dissect a small mammal and observe the alimentary carnal.

WEEK 11: REVISION

WEEK I2: EXAMINATION