3-Problem solving

Problem solving can be defined as "the cognitive process through which information is used to
reach a goal that is blocked by some kind of obstacle”. Problem solving is the "higher - order
cognitive process that requires the modulation & control of more routine or fundamental
skills".(Goldstein & Levin,1987)
Problem solving is the process of identifying, analyzing, & resolving issues or obstacles to
achieve a desired outcome. It involves systematically evaluating different solutions & selecting
the most effective one to address the problem at hand.

Problem-Solving process
Lahey's problem-solving process emphasizes the importance of systematic thinking, goal-setting,
creativity, & reflection. It provides a structured framework for approaching problems & making
informed decisions to address them effectively.
Benjamin Lahey, a prominent psychologist, outlined a problem-solving process that is often used
in cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT). This process involves several steps:

1. Identify the Problem:

Clearly define the problem or issue that needs to be addressed. Before we can solve a problem,
we must be able to define it in clear & specific terms. It is crucial to have a clear understanding
of what needs to be solved.

2. Define Goals:
Determine what you want to achieve by solving the problem. Setting specific, achievable goals
helps guide the problem-solving process.

3. Generate Solutions:
Brainstorm various possible solutions to the problem. Encourage creativity & think of as many
options as possible, even if they seem unconventional.

4. Evaluate Solutions:
Assess the pros and cons of each potential solution. Consider factors such as feasibility,
effectiveness, potential consequences, & alignment with your goals.

5. Choose a Solution:
Select the best solution based on the evaluation. Consider which option is most likely to address
the problem effectively while also aligning with your goals & values.

6. Implement the Solution:

Put the chosen solution into action. Take concrete steps to implement the solution & make any
necessary adjustments along the way.

7. Evaluate the Outcome:

Assess the effectiveness of the implemented solution. Monitor progress toward your goals &
make any additional changes if needed.
8. Reflect:
Reflect on the problem-solving process & outcomes. Consider what was learned from the
experience and how it can be applied to future challenges.

Cognitive Strategies for problem Solving

Benjamin Lahey, discusses three general types of cognitive strategies for problem-solving:

1. Algorithmic Strategies:
These are systematic, step-by-step procedures for solving problems. Algorithms guarantee a
solution if followed correctly and are typically used for well-defined problems with clear steps to
reach a solution.
Computers generally use algorithms, because they can quickly consider the many alternatives
required by complex algorithms.

Main features of algorithmic strategies include:

1-Sequential Steps:
Algorithms consist of a series of sequential steps that guide problem-solving from the initial
problem to the final solution. Each step builds upon the previous one, leading toward the desired
outcome.

2-Precise Instructions:
Algorithms provide precise instructions for performing each step of the problem-solving process.
These instructions are unambiguous and clearly define what actions to take at each stage.

3-Deterministic Outcome:
Algorithmic strategies guarantee a solution when followed correctly. Given the same input, an
algorithm will always produce the same output, making the process predictable & reliable.

4-Applicability to Well-Defined Problems:

Algorithmic strategies are most suitable for solving well-defined problems that have clear
objectives, known constraints, & a finite set of possible solutions.
Examples include mathematical problems, logical puzzles,& certain engineering tasks.

5-Efficiency & Accuracy:

Algorithmic approaches are often designed to optimize efficiency & accuracy in problem-
solving. By breaking down complex problems into manageable steps, algorithms enable
systematic & precise problem-solving processes.

Types of algorithms
In the problem-solving process, "algorithms" are step-by-step methods or rules used to solve
problems. There are different types of algorithms depending on the nature of the problem. Here
are a few common types with examples:
1. Brute Force Algorithm:
This method tries "every possible solution" until the correct one is found.
Example: If you lose your keys, you might search "every room" in your house until you find
them. This is a brute force approach because you are trying all options without a specific
strategy.

2. Divide and Conquer Algorithm:

This breaks a big problem into smaller, more manageable parts, solves each part, & then
combines the solutions.
Example: If you are sorting a large list of numbers, you might divide the list into smaller groups,
sort each group, & then combine them in the correct order. The "Merge Sort" algorithm is a good
example of this.

3. Greedy Algorithm:
This algorithm makes the best choice at each step, aiming for an optimal solution but without
considering the overall problem.
Example: Imagine you are trying to collect the most coins in a game. A greedy strategy would be
to always pick the "largest coin" available at each step, hoping that will give you the maximum
total.

4. Backtracking Algorithm:
This method tries a solution &, if it doesn't work, goes "back" & tries a different path.
Example: If you are solving a maze, you might move forward until you hit a dead end. Then you
go "back to the last junction" & try a new direction.

5. Dynamic Programming Algorithm:

This solves complex problems by breaking them down into simpler, overlapping sub-problems &
solving each one only once, storing the solution.
Example: If you want to find the "shortest path" in a network, dynamic programming would help
by calculating the shortest path to each node once & using that information to solve the whole
problem efficiently.

These algorithms can be applied in everyday tasks, like searching, sorting, & decision-making, &
in more complex processes like coding & computer science.

2. Heuristic Strategies:
These are flexible, trial-and-error methods that rely on rules of thumb or intuition to reach a
solution. Heuristics in problem-solving are mental shortcuts or simple strategies that help people
make quick, efficient decisions or solve problems, often without a guarantee of an optimal. They
rely on "experience"& "intuition" rather than strict logic or systematic algorithms. While
heuristics are not foolproof, they are useful in complex or uncertain situations where finding the
exact solution is difficult or time-consuming.
Example:
Imagine you’re shopping for groceries & want to buy the healthiest cereal. Instead of reading all
the ingredients & nutritional information, you might use a "heuristic" like “choose the one with
the least sugar,” which is a quicker way to narrow down your options without analyzing
everything.

Types of Heuristics in Problem-Solving:

1. Trial and Error:

You try different solutions until you find one that works.
Example: If your phone isn’t working, you might try turning it off, restarting it, or checking the
battery until it works.

2. Rule of Thumb:
A general principle or a commonly accepted guideline helps you solve problems based on
previous experience.
Example: “Measure twice, cut once” is a rule of thumb used by carpenters to avoid mistakes. In
life, we often use simple guidelines like this to make decisions quickly.

3. Working Backward:
Start from the desired solution & work your way backward to the current state.
Example: If you are trying to solve a maze, starting from the exit & working your way back to
the entrance might be easier.

4. Means-End Analysis:
Break down the problem by setting small goals or “ends” to achieve along the way toward
solving the overall problem.
Example: If you’re planning a long trip, you break it down into smaller tasks like booking
flights, packing, and arranging accommodations.

5. Availability Heuristic:
You make decisions based on information that is most easily available or comes to mind quickly.
Example: If you recently heard about a plane crash, you might overestimate the danger of flying,
even though statistically, it’s very safe.

6. Representativeness Heuristic:
You judge a situation based on how similar it is to something else or a stereotype you are
familiar with.
Example: If someone is quiet & wears glasses, you might assume they are a librarian, even if
that’s not accurate.

7. Satisficing Heuristic:
This heuristic involves accepting a satisfactory or "good enough" solution rather than searching
for the optimal solution. It prioritizes efficiency over maximizing outcomes and is commonly
used when resources or time are limited.
Example: when choosing a restaurant, someone might select the first one that meets their basic
criteria rather than spending hours searching for the absolute best option.

3. Analogy:
An analogy is a comparison between two things, typically for the purpose of explanation or
clarification. It highlights similarities between the two things in order to illustrate a point, convey
an idea, or make a complex concept more understandable.
They encourage creative thinking & enable individuals to approach problems from different
perspectives, leading to more effective & innovative solutions.
An example of analogy in problem-solving could be solving a difficult math problem by
comparing it to a simpler, more familiar problem.

For instance, if you're trying to solve a complex algebraic equation, you might analogize it to a
simpler equation that you've previously solved. By recognizing similarities in the structure or
operations involved, you can apply similar problem-solving techniques to arrive at a solution.
This analogy helps break down the complex problem into more manageable parts & guides your
approach towards finding the solution.

Functions in problem solving:

An analogy in problem-solving serves several functions:

1. Pattern Recognition:
Analogies help in recognizing patterns or similarities between different situations or concepts.
By identifying commonalities, it becomes easier to understand the underlying structure of a
problem and find relevant solutions.

2. Transfer of Knowledge:
Analogies allow for the transfer of knowledge or methods from one domain to another. By
applying principles or strategies that have been successful in one context to a different but
analogous situation, problem-solvers can leverage existing expertise to address new challenges.

3. Idea Generation:
Analogies stimulate creativity & idea generation by prompting individuals to think beyond the
constraints of the immediate problem.

4. Problem Framing:
Analogies assist in reframing or restructuring problems by providing alternative perspectives. By
viewing a problem through the lens of an analogy, problem-solvers can uncover new angles,
uncover hidden assumptions, or redefine the problem statement itself.

5. Simplification:
Analogies simplify complex problems by relating them to more familiar or understandable
concepts. This simplification process can make it easier to grasp the essence of a problem &
devise manageable solutions.