MINERALS

 the building blocks of rocks, and therefore are the building blocks of
our planet's structure
 formed naturally by geological processes
 A mineral is a homogenous solid that can be made of a single native
element or more usually a compound.
 Minerals make up Earth's rocks and sand and are an important
component of soils.

*Mineralogy is the scientific study of minerals.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS

 Minerals Are Natural

- You must find minerals in nature; substances concocted in
laboratories don't qualify.
- Substances called mineraloids may look like minerals but aren't
because they don't satisfy all the requirements for being so.
- Not all naturally occurring crystals are minerals either; opal and
amber, the sap of ancient trees, are not minerals.

 Minerals Are Inorganic

- Minerals don't belong to any class of organic compounds, which
include substances such as carbohydrates and proteins made by
living things.
- A few minerals, such as pearls and the shells of some creatures, do
originate from organic processes.
- Inorganic substances can also contain carbon, but the carbon
typically bonds with elements other than hydrogen.

 Minerals Are Solids

- Minerals can be crystalline or amorphous; they don't have to be

liquids or gases.
- Ions, which are charged atoms, bond together to form minerals,
which gives them a solid structure.
- Solids have a clearly defined volume and shape and normally
cannot be compressed any further.

 Definite Chemical Composition

- Each mineral has its own specific combination of atoms that cannot
be found in any other mineral. Some minerals, such as gold, silver,
copper, and diamond, have only one type of element in them. The
largest group of minerals contains some form of silicate.

 Minerals Are Crystalline Structure

- Minerals form crystals that contain repeated arrangements of atoms

or ions. Magma or lava, the hot, molten rock that comes from
 volcanoes, can crystallize to form minerals. Crystals also form in the
oceans when water deposits solutes in a certain area.

COMPOSITION OF MINERALS

 Minerals are grouped by their chemical composition.

 Silicates, oxides, sulfates, sulfides, carbonates, native elements, and

halides are all major mineral groups.

There are 7 compositions of minerals:

Silicates- The two most prevalent elements in the crust of the planet,
silicon (Si) and oxygen (O), are both found in silicate minerals. Silicates
make up more than 90% of the common rock-forming minerals.

Oxides- Oxide minerals are made up of oxygen and one or more metals

Sulfates- Sulfate minerals contain sulfur and oxygen (SO 4) combined with
other elements.

Sulfides-Sulfide minerals contain sulfur and metal.

Carbonates- Carbonate minerals contain carbonate (CO3), a combination

of carbon and oxygen, combined with other elements.

Native Elements- Native elements are minerals that form as individual

elements. Gold and copper are examples of metallic native elements.

Halides- Halides include such elements as chlorine and fluorine. Common

halide minerals include halite and fluorite.

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF MINERALS

 Mineralogy is a branch of geology that studies the chemistry, crystal

structure, and physical properties of minerals.
 The chemistry determines the crystal structure, which determines the
physical properties. Understanding crystals, their formation, and
properties is an essential part of understanding mineralogy, not only
assisting in the identification and study of minerals, but also
enhancing your aesthetic appreciation for the diverse world of crystals
and greatly assisting in your personal collecting.
 Minerals form naturally as crystals, and each mineral crystal has an
orderly three-dimensional pattern of atoms that repeats itself.
 The larger the crystal "grows," the more it repeats itself.
 External flat surfaces of the growing crystal, called faces, join together
to form varying shapes.
 The internal structure of the atoms is mirrored in the shape of the
resulting crystals, which can be a cube, a hexagon, or any other
number of shapes.
 Crystals are visible in a variety of shapes and sizes.
 Some crystals are so small that they can only be seen with a
magnifying glass or, in some cases, a microscope.
 Crystals have also been known to grow extremely large (such as the
Selenite crystals discovered in Mexico's Cave of the Crystals) The
largest Selenite crystal in this cave is one of the largest natural
crystals in the world, measuring 39' in length, 13 feet in diameter, and
weighing 55 tons.
 There are numerous crystal shapes, and when all of the variations are
factored in, the number of crystal shapes is seemingly endless. But
every crystal shape and variation has its root in one of six crystal
systems: Isometric (or cubic), hexagonal, tetragonal, orthorhombic,
monoclinic, and triclinic.

1. ISOMETRIC/CUBIC
- The simplest crystal system, having 3 axes
of the same length and all axes intersect
at 90 degrees to each other

Minerals that have a Cubic/Isometric

crystal structure include: Halite, Galena,
Fluorite, Pyrite, Magnetite, Diamond, Garnets and Sphalerite.

2. HEXAGONAL
- Five of the six crystal systems have 4
sides and 3 axes.
- The one exception is the Hexagonal crystal
system which has 4 axes, 3 of equal length
that intersect at 60° and a 4th longer axis
that intersects the shorter 3 axes at 90°,
which gives these crystals 6 sides.

Minerals that have a Hexagonal crystal structure include:

Aquamarine, Emerald, Quartz varieties, Tourmaline, Calcite,
Corundum, Hematite and Ice.

3. TETRAGONAL
- similar to the Isometric/Cubic crystal
system in that all 3 axes intersect at 90°,
but only two of the axes are of equal
length whereas the 3rd axis is either
longer or shorter than the other two.
 Minerals that have a Tetragonal crystal structure include:
Apophyllite, Cassiterite, Rutile, Scheelite, Wulfenite, Powellite, Anatase,
Chalcopyrite and Zircon.

4. ORTHORHOMBIC
- all 3 axes intersect at 90°.
- all 3 axes are unequal lengths.

Minerals that have an Orthorhombic

crystal structure include: Celestite,
Aragonite, Barite, Cerussite,
Hemimorphite, Stilbite, Sulfur and Topaz.

5. MONOCLONIC

- only 2 of the 3 axes intersect at 90°

while the 3rd axis intersects at an angle
other than 90°.
- all 3 axes are unequal lengths.

6. TRICLINIC
- In the Triclinic crystal system all three
axes are unequal lengths and none of the
3 axes intersect at 90°.

Minerals that have a Triclinic crystal

structure include: Kyanite, Amazonite,
Labradorite, Rhodonite, Albite, Gyrolite, Okenite and Turquoise.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

1. HARDNESS

 Refers to the resistance of a solid

matter from being scratched or the
 resistance to various kinds of permanent shape changes when force is
exerted.
 Scratch is the resistance to fracture due primarily to friction from a
sharp object.
 Minerals may be arranged in accordance with scratch test results with
this basic idea: “A stronger mineral may not be scratched by another
mineral”.
 In 1812, the German mineralogist Friedrich Mohs created a way to
characterize the scratch resistance of minerals. He came up with the
Mohs scale of mineral hardness. This scale is based on the ability of a
sample of a mineral to visibly scratch another mineral sample.

2. COLOR
 one of the most obvious physical characteristics of a mineral.
 Most minerals have a distinct color while others are variable in color.

Mineral Color
Diamond Transparent
Corundum Naturally transparent but may have
different colors due to the presence of
impurities.
Topaz Varies in color from crystal color to
baby blue.
Quartz Varies in color; may be transparent
and colorless
Feldspar Has a milky color and a variety of
other colors.
Apatite Blue-green and turquoise
Fluorite May have a lime green color and other
varieties
Calcite May be white in color and other
varieties
Gypsum May be white in color and may have
other variants
Talc May vary in color such as white to
gray, blue and green

3. CRYSTAL SHAPE
 Minerals may have a range of crystal shapes.
 The crystal shape of minerals provides an idea as to the composition
of minerals.
 There are minerals with no definite structure and are called
amorphous.
Shape Cube Octahedro Rhombohedr Six-sided Six-sided
n on prism platy
center with
six-side
pyramids
on both
ends

Minerals Halite, pyrite Fluorite, Calcite, Quartz, Lepidolite,

that can Diamond Rhodochrosit Amethyst mica
form this e
shape

4. LUSTER
 refers to the property of minerals to reflect or refract light. Refraction
is the bending of light as it passes through two mediums (e.g..water
air).
 Minerals that contain traces of metals exhibit luster or shine. Some of
the terms used to describe luster include the following: resinous,
vitreous, brilliant, dull, and silky.

5. STREAK
 the property of minerals
characterized by the color of the
fine powder of a mineral taken
from a streak plate or at the back
of unglazed porcelain.
 There are minerals with streaks
that are similar in their color, and
others have different streaks.
 Gold produces a similar streak
and color—metallic yellow. Pyrite, on the other hand, yields a streak of
greenish black.

6. CLEAVAGE
 the tendency for a mineral to break into smooth planes.
 governed by the internal structure of the mineral, because breakages
occur along weak planes between atoms.
 It is a very good indicator of a mineral’s identity for this reason.

7. EFFERVESCENCE
 Minerals with carbonate, or CO3, in them will dissolve and produce
bubbles when a solution of diluted hydrochloric acid (typically 5-10%
HCL) is poured on them.
 known to geologists as the acid test, and it can be of great diagnostic
help in identifying carbonate minerals.

COMMON ROCK-FORMING MINERALS

1. QUARTZ

 one of the most prevalent minerals in the crust of the Earth.

 A specific chemical compound (silicon dioxide, or silica, SiO2) with a

particular crystalline form is known as quartz as a mineral (hexagonal).

 All types of rock, including igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary,

contain it.

 Quartz resists weathering both chemically and physically.

 The resistant quartz grains are concentrated in the soil, rivers, and
beaches when quartz-bearing rocks are weathered and eroded.

2. FELDSPAR
 The majority of terrestrial rocks are composed of this mineral group,
which makes up the majority of the earth's crust.
 The majority of deposits also contain potassium feldspar, mixed
feldspars, and sodium feldspar.
 Due to their high alumina and alkali contents, feldspars are
predominantly used in industrial applications.
 The name "feldspar" refers to a wide variety of substances.
 The majority of the items we use on a daily basis are made of feldspar,
including the glass we use for drinking, protection, insulation,
bathroom floor tiles, shower stalls, and dinnerware. We use feldspar on
a daily basis.

3. MICA
 A set of minerals with comparable physical and chemical properties
are referred to as mica.
 Since they all form in different layers, they are all silicate minerals
known as sheet silicates.
 Micas are relatively soft and light, and their sheets and flakes are
adaptable. Mica resists heat and doesn't conduct electricity.

4. AMPHIBOLE
 a metamorphic rock that is black, heavy, and primarily made of the
mineral amphibole.
 There is extremely little to no quartz in amphibolites.
 The term "amphibole" describes a collection of minerals rather than a
single mineral.
 Although some belong to the orthorhombic crystal system, the
majority are monoclinic.

5. OLIVINE
 one of the most widespread minerals on earth and a key component in
the formation of rocks.
 Despite this, rare and stylish specimens and enormous crystals are
sought after.
 Even though tiny and microscopic grains of this mineral have been
found all over the world, only a few sites produce substantial
specimens of it.
 also found in meteorites, and large granules have been hypothesized
in many of them.

ORES AND MINERALS

ROCK
 hard, naturally occurring mineral material which consist of a single mineral or
of several minerals that are held together by a cement-like mineral matrix.
MINERAL
 element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline and that has been
formed as a result of geological processes.
ORE
 natural rock or sediment that contains one or more valuable minerals,
typically containing metals, that can be mined, treated and sold at a profit.
 naturally-occurring materials that can be profitably mined.
 mineral or rock or metallic or nonmetallic

Basis in Considering a Rock or a Mineral as an Ore:

 Ore is a mineral from which metal can be extracted profitably and
conveniently.
 Based on profitability, without economic loss, conveniency minerals are
chosen as an ore.

Processes in Locating Ores

1. Hydrothermal fluid circulation
 the most common type of ore mineral deposition process.
 Cold seawater is drawn down, heated, and forced to circulate through an
extensive system of cracks above bodies of molten rock. The hot water
dissolves some of the minerals in the rock, and carries them up to the ocean
floor. Gold, silver and copper can be produced from this process.
2. Metamorphic processes
 leads to the alteration and recrystallization of minerals. It helps form
graphite, marble and asbestos.
3. Magmatic processes
 process that affects the melting or crystallization of a magma. This includes
partial melting of rocks of different composition under different conditions of
temperature and pressure.
4. Kimberlite magma
 special magma deep within the mantle which is the source of diamonds.
5. Chemical sedimentary processes
 forms deposits from the precipitation of saltwater minerals like halite,
gypsum and limestone.
6. Action of currents
 flowing surface water causes selective sifting of sediments leaving heavier
minerals called Placer deposits like gold, platinum, zircon and diamonds.
7. Chemical weathering
 Process where rocks exposed to oxygen and water undergo chemical changes
and alters them into other minerals. Example is laterite in iron, nickel and
aluminum.

Steps in Mining Ores

1. Prospecting / exploration
 Looking for the ore body – a deposit that can yield a large amount of the
required ore mineral.
2. Drilling
 Extracting a part of the ore to determine the resulting ore, its quality, and the
number of ore minerals (grade).

3. Modeling
 Determining the ore’s size, shape, and grade distribution throughout the
deposit to apply appropriate mining methods, blast and dig pattern designs,
safety precautions, and efficiency and processing methods.
4. Identifying and assessing the potential impacts
 Considering the social and environmental aspects and finding ways of the
mitigating any consequence of the mining operation, with the purpose of
bringing the area back as close to its original state as possible..
5. Designing and constructing the mine
 Creating the appropriate mine and operational design, and proceeding with
the construction with the necessary permits from the government and local
communities.
6. Ore Extraction
 Separation of high-grade ores from the rest of the deposit.
7.Milling
 Crushing and concentration of ores; waste materials (tailings) are released.
8. Mine site decommissioning
 Closure of the depleted mine; the mine site is cleaned up and reclaimed or
rehabilitated for other purposes.

Extraction Methods of Ore Minerals

1. Underground mining
 access deeper reserves, underground mining is more costly but more
common.
2. Surface (open pit) mining
 Shallower and less valued deposits are often mined using surface methods.
3. Placer mining
 separate precious metals from sediments in river channels, beach sands, or
other habitats, placer mining is utilized.
4. In-situ mining
 involves dissolving the mineral deposit in place and processing it at the
surface without transferring rock from the subsurface. It is mostly used to
extract uranium.
NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
Natural
 existing in or caused by nature.
 not made or caused by humankind.

Resources
 a stock or supply of money, materials, staff, and other assets that can be
drawn on by a person or organization in order to function effectively.

Management
  the process of dealing with or controlling things or people.

Natural Resources Management

  also known as NRM.
  refers to the sustainable utilization of natural resources.
  it affects the land, water, air, minerals, forests, fisheries, wild flora, and
fauna. These resources provide the ecosystem services that provide better
quality to
 human life in the form of both consumptive and public-good services.

Existing Laws
REPUBLIC ACT 9003 ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ACT OF
2000
 It states that mineral resources are owned by the State and the exploration,
 development, utilization, and processing thereof shall be under its full control
and
 supervision.

REPUBLIC ACT 9275 PHILIPPINE CLEAN WATER ACT OF 2004

 The law aims to protect the country's water bodies from pollution from
 land-based sources. It provides for comprehensive and integrated strategy to
 prevent and minimize pollution through a multi-sectoral and participatory
approach involving all the stakeholders.
REPUBLIC ACT 8749 PHILIPPINE CLEAN AIR ACT OF 1999
 The law aims to achieve and maintain clean air that meets the National Air
 Quality guideline values for criteria pollutants, throughout the Philippines,
while
minimizing the possible associated impacts to the economy.Renewable
Resources
  can replenish itself at the rate it is used.
  includes sunlight, water, wind and also geothermal sources.
  also known as a flow resource.
  done through natural reproduction or other recurring processes in a finite
amount of time in a human time scale.

Nonrenewable Resources
  has a limited supply.
  opposite of renewable energy – unable to be replaced or replenished once
used.
  includes fossil fuels.
 examples: coal, oil, natural gas, sand, iron, and phosphate rock

Importance of Natural Resources Management

 Mainly because it provides foundation for maintaining and improving the
quality of life of the world's population and can make invaluable contributions
to sustainable growth.

Nuclear Energy
 We call it nuclear energy because the energy comes from the atomic
nucleus.
 It is discovered in the late 1930s that certain large atoms found in nature
can be split into two (or fission), releasing a shocking amount of energy as
heat.
 Nuclear Energy is the World’s Second Largest Source of Low-Carbon
Electricity

Trivia: What country has the largest share of nuclear power in total
electricity generation?
 France relies on nuclear power for 70% of its total electricity generation.
The European country is also the world’s largest net exporter of electricity
due to the very limited costs of production.

Pros of Nuclear Energy

 A natural substance that is not replenished with the speed at which it is
consumed.
 Ex. oil, natural gas, coal, and nuclear energy
 It is a Carbon-free electricity
 Reliable energy source
 Not intermittent
 Produces Low Pollution

Radioactive Elements
1. URANIUM
 Uranium is the most often used nuclear fission fuel in nuclear power reactors.
Despite the fact that uranium is a common metal found in rocks all over the
world, it is considered a nonrenewable energy source because it cannot be
replenished in a short period of time. Nuclear power plants use a kind of
 uranium known as U-235 as fuel because its atoms are easily ripped apart.
This is due to the fact that it decays spontaneously through a process known
as alpha radiation. This signifies that it produces an alpha particle (two
neutrons and two protons connected). The latest estimate of uranium
reserves is 5.3 million tons.

2. THORIUM
 Thorium is three to five times more abundant than uranium in nature. This
element was discovered in the early 1800s by the Swedish chemist Jons Jakob
Berzelius. Thorium is not directly used in nuclear power plants so, Th-232 is
first exposed to radiation in a reactor to provide the necessary neutron dosing
to produce protactinium-233. The Pa-233 when alpha decayed becomes U-
233. Once created, Uranium-233 can be chemically separated and converted
into a new fuel, or it can be utilized directly in the same form, as in molten
salt reactors (a nuclear reactors that uses molten salts (high-temperature
liquid salts) as their nuclear fuel.

3. PLUTONIUM
 Uranium-238 from nuclear power reactors forms plutonium by neutron
capture (it is a nuclear reaction in which an atomic nucleus and one or more
neutrons collide and merge to form a heavier nucleus). Specifically,
Plutonium-239 is mostly employed as a nuclear reactor fuel. In fact, it is
present in the MOX fuel mixture - mixed uranium and plutonium oxide. And
when reacts, it yields much the same energy as the fission (the nucleus of an
atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei) of U-235.

Problems Associated with Nuclear Energy

1. Impact on the Environment
 Thermal pollution. The uranium mining process emits carbon dioxide,
which contributes to pollution. As a result, constructing new nuclear power
plants emits carbon dioxide into the environment.
 Disposal and storage of nuclear waste. This hazardous garbage
comprises very toxic substances such as plutonium and uranium pellets.
These very poisonous compounds are highly radioactive for tens of
thousands of years, posing a threat to agricultural land, fishing seas,
freshwater supplies, and humans.

2. Emission of Hazardous Waste

 Uranium decomposes into harmful subatomic masses. Radium is
formed when uranium decays (emit alpha radiation, however, lower levels
of both beta and gamma radiation are also emitted). Radium decays
through alpha particles to produce radon, a radioactive gas. Radon, rather
than uranium, poses a larger radiation risk to miners in underground
uranium mines.
 Accidental leakage of radiation and large-scale can be
catastrophic. Radiation can cause DNA damage in our cells. High
radiation exposure might result in Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS) or
Cutaneous Radiation Injuries (CRI). High radiation exposure may
potentially cause cancer later in life.

3. Installation cost is very high as compared to the other power station.

 All capital expenses are site preparation, engineering, manufacture, building,
commissioning, and finance. Fuel expenses (from uranium mining through
fuel manufacturing), maintenance, decommissioning, and waste disposal are
also part of the operating costs.

Nuclear Power Plant in the Philippines

1. The Bataan Nuclear Power Plant
 It is a nuclear power plant on the Bataan Peninsula.
 Completed but never fueled.
 It was the Philippines' only attempt at building a nuclear power plant.
 It was mothballed due to safety concerns in the wake of the Chernobyl
disaster in Ukraine in 1986 and issues regarding corruption. Additionally,
The Letter of Instruction No. 957, s. 1979 was signed by the late President
Ferdinand Marcos and was published on November 13, 1979, in which it
states that the continuation of the construction was not possible due to
potential hazards to the health and safety of the public.

Geothermal Energy
 The word geothermal comes from the Greek words "geo" which means
earth and "therme" which means heat.
 Geothermal energy is heat that is generated within the Earth's core.
 This makes it a renewable resource that can be harvested for human use
like heat and electricity.

Trivia: What country holds the Largest Geothermal Plant?

 It is in California which holds the Largest Geothermal Plant located at the
Geysers, which has been in service since 1960, has a capacity of more
than 850 MW and meets approximately 70% of the typical electricity
demand for the Californian North Coast region.
Trivia: What country is the world’s largest producer of geothermal
energy?
 In United States, the US Geological Survey (USGS) has identified
approximately 22,000 MW of geothermal resources sufficient for electrical
power generation in the United States. In addition, low-temperature
resources sufficient for direct-use and heat pumps are
available across the country.

Earth’s Geothermal Gradient

 The earth's internal temperature rises with depth from
the surface.
 The geothermal gradient varies depending on
location, but it averages 25-30 deg C/km [15 deg
F/1,000 ft].
 Temperature gradients can sometimes be quite
extreme around volcanic areas. These areas are
called the Pacific Ring of Fire which includes the
Philippines.
 It takes 150 degrees Celcius to produce steam.

Ways of Harnessing Geothermal Energy

Geothermal power plants, which use heat from deep inside the Earth to generate
steam to make electricity.
  Geothermal heat pumps tap into heat
close to the Earth's surface to heat
water or provide heat for buildings.

3 ESSENTIAL PARTS OF THE GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM:

1. GEOTHERMAL LOOP
 It is a path of pipes that travel deep enough to reach the zone that stays at
a constant temperature.
 The loop of pipes contains water or a mixture of water and antifreeze.This
loop system circulates the liquids and brings heat to the geothermal
system or cools it down.
 The plastic tubing can place either vertically or horizontally underground.
 Horizontal pipe placement is for residential properties where the land
generally has more room for the pipes to be horizontal under the ground.
 Vertical pipe line placements are usually for large businesses and
commercial buildings.

2. GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMP

 It is the central hub for the machine in the geothermal system,which
includes essential components like the compressor and the heat
exchanger.
 Its job is to transfer the water or water mixture through the geothermal
loop to move the heat through the system.

3. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
 Geothermal heat pumps’ distribution system transfers the hot or cold air
throughout your home. Two different options are available to take care of
the property’s heating and cooling needs.
 The first is a forced-air system. Forced air requires ductwork and an air
handler to transfer conditioned air around the home.
 The second option is a water-to-water system. Pipes will run through your
walls or flooring of your home and transfer heat. The hot or cool liquid they
carry comes from the geothermal loop system that connects to the main
geothermal heat pump.

Geothermal Power Plant in the Philippines

The Philippines is home to three of the top ten biggest geothermal power plants in
the world.
1. Makban Geothermal Complex in Batangas Provinces
 It is the fourth biggest geothermal power facility in the world
 Spans the provinces of Batangas and Laguna
 A hotbed for geothermal energy, which is defined as power generated from
natural steam, hot water, hot rocks, or lava from the Earth’s crust.
 Because of the reliability of geothermal power plants, it is often used as
baseload plants, to run at almost 24 hours every day.
 In 2009, AboitizPower, through its wholly-owned subsidiary APRI, assumed
ownership of the MakBan
 Plays an important role in the country’s geothermal power generation,
which currently has an installed capacity of 1.9 GW, forming 12% of the
Philippines’ total electric power supply.
 First
 composed of 10 generating units from five power plants (Plants A to E),
located in Bay and Caluan, Laguna, and Sto. Tomas, Batangas.

2. Tiwi Geothermal Complex

 Tiwi Geothermal Complex with a net capacity of 289 MW in the province of
Albay
 The Tiwi field has an installed capacity of 275 MWe and is located about
300 km southeast of Manila in the Albay Province
 Tiwi is the third-largest geothermal facility in the Philippines

3. Malitbog Power Plant

 Malitbog is a 232.5MW geothermal power project
 It is located in Eastern Visayas, Philippines
 The project is currently active
 It has been developed in multiple phases
 Post completion of construction, the project got commissioned in June
1996

Hydroelectric Energy
What is Hydroelectric Energy?
 Hydroelectric energy is also called hydroelectric power or
hydroelectricity. It is a form of energy that harnesses the power
of water in motion—such as water flowing over a waterfall—to
generate electricity. People have used this force for millennia.
How Does Hydroelectric Energy Work?
 Most hydroelectric power plants have a reservoir of water, a gate
or valve to control how much water flows out of the reservoir,
and an outlet or place where the water ends up after flowing
downward.

TYPES OF HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY PLANTS

Impoundment Facility
 most common type of hydroelectric power plant
 typically, a large hydropower system that uses dam to store
river water in a reservoir.

Diversion Facility
 sometimes called a “run-of-river” facility, channels a portion of a
river through a canal and/or a penstock to utilize the natural
decline of the river bed elevation to produce energy.

Pumped Storage Facility (PSH)

 works like a giant battery
 is able to store the electricity generated by other power sources,
like solar, wind, and nuclear, for later use.

PARTS OF A HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT

Water Reservoir
 an artificial lake where the water is stored. But it can also be
formed from a natural lake. Another type of reservoir is the
cistern. It is a manmade container and do not rely on damming a
river of lake. It can be dug underground caverns or elevated high
above the ground in a water tower.

Dam
 a barrier that controls the amount of water that flows out of the
reservoir
Trash rack
 installed in the intake system of hydroelectric power plants to
prevent the entrance of large debris, which can damage turbine
parts and can hinder the power plant operations.

Penstock
 are pipes or long channels
that carry water down
from the hydroelectric
reservoir to the turbines
inside the actual power
station.

Powerhouse
 structure that houses
generators and turbines at
a hydropower facility.

Turbine
 device capable of transforming the kinetic energy of water into
mechanical energy.

Generator
 a rotating machine that converts mechanical power or energy
into electricity.

Transformer
 converts the alternating current that the hydroelectric power is
generating into a high voltage current. This converted power
supply that is coming from the transformer is connected to the
national grid, where it is when the distributed for domestic and
industrial use.

Small Scale Hydropower Systems

 Small-scale hydropower
systems are those that
generate between .01 to 30
MW of electricity.

 Hydropower systems that

generate up to 100
kilowatts (kW) of electricity
are often called micro
hydro systems. Most of the
systems used by home and
small business owners
would qualify as micro
hydro systems.

 Hydropower is a function of two factors, which are Head and

Flow. Head refers to the height of the slope over which the
waterfalls, while Flow refers to the volume of water per unit of
time.

 Hydraulic turbines harness the water pressure to convert

potential energy into mechanical power, which drives an
electrical generator. Once electricity is produced, the water flow
is returned to the river.

Mechanism involved in a Tidal Power System

What is Tidal Power?
 also known as tidal energy, is another form of hydro power in
which oceans tides is generated into electricity.

 "sustainable energy source" as the Earth constantly harness the

gravitational pulls of both the moon and the sun to move large
amounts of water around the oceans and seas, resulting in tides.

3 DIFFERENT WAYS TO GET TIDAL ENERGY

Tidal Stream
 can refer to two different phenomena: in marine science it refers
to the tidal currents associated with the tides, generally near a
coastline or harbor.

Tidal Barrage
 another type of tidal energy generator uses a large dam called a
barrage. With a barrage, water can spill over the top or through
turbines in the dam because the dam is low. Barrages can be
constructed across tidal rivers, bays, and estuaries.

Tidal Lagoon
 final type of tidal energy generator involves the construction of
tidal lagoons. A tidal lagoon is a body of ocean water that is
partly enclosed by a natural or manmade barrier. Tidal lagoons
might also be estuaries and have freshwater emptying into
them.

Wind Energy
What is Wind Energy?
 The terms "wind energy" and "wind power" both describe the
process by which the wind is used to generate mechanical power
or electricity. This mechanical power can be used for specific
tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator
can convert this mechanical power into electricity.

How does Wind Turbines harness energy?

 Wind turbines use blades to collect the wind’s kinetic energy.
 Wind flows over the blades creating lift (similar to the effect on
airplane wings), which causes the blades to turn.
 The blades are connected to a drive shaft that turns an electric
generator, which produces (generates) electricity.

Wind Farms in the Philippines:

 Burgos Wind Farm
 Nabas Wind Farm
 Caparispisan Wind Farm
 Bangui Wind Farm
 Pililla Wind Farm
 San Lorenzo Wind Farm
 Puerto Galera Wind Farm

SOLAR ENERGY AND BIOMASS

SOLAR ENERGY
 energy accumulated from the sun.
 making use of the Sun’s heat and energy is one of the most viable sources of
electricity that we humans use these days.
 The Solar Power System is one of the most popular sources of renewable
energy. Through modern technologies, the conversion of the heat from the
sun to electricity is now possible. A feature of it where it doesn’t release any
harmful substance at the whole conversion process is a go-factor.

TYPES OF SOLAR POWER SYSTEMS

ON-GRID SYSTEM
 the most common and widely used by homes and businesses.
 the home/building is connected to the grid so it can use electricity from the
utility when the solar panels aren’t producing enough energy to power the
home.
 does not include batteries.
OFF-GRID SYSTEM
 no connection to the grid and the home; instead it is connected to a battery.
 ensure access to electricity at all times, off-grid solar systems require high-
capacity battery storage and a backup generator.

HYBRID SYSTEM
 also called “solar-plus-storage systems”
 the solar panels are paired with a solar battery to store energy for the home
to use later on or during a power outage, and the home is also connected to
the grid.

THE PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL (SOLAR CELL)

 uses a process called the Photovoltaic effect to convert sunlight into useful
electricity.
 formed by a lot of layers.
 the most crucial layer of the Cell is its semiconductors.
 divided into two distinct layers: the p-type and the n-type which are
responsible for the conversion of energy.

BIOMASS
 living organisms or its residues are also a good source of energy. They are
utilized to avoid the rise of bio waste that exploits the bodies of land and
water.
 organisms' energy can be converted into usable energy in two ways: directly
and indirectly.

EARTH’S WATER
Distribution of Earth’s Water
 71% of the Earth’s surface is water-covered
 The oceans hold about 97.5% of all Earth’s water
 The Earth’s freshwater has a total amount of 2.5% found in: glaciers
(68.7%), groundwater (30.1%), permafrost (0.8%), surface water, and
atmospheric water
 0.4% of the total freshwater supply or less than 0.02% of the total
water on Earth
 According to the USGS (U.S. Geological Survey) the bar chart
illustrates how almost all of the Earth’s water is saline and mostly
found in oceans. And has a relatively small portion of freshwater.

Residence Time for Specific Reservoir

 The amount of water in a reservoir divided by either the rate of
addition of water to the reservoir or the rate of loss from it.

Residence time: Tr = V/I [T]

e.g. For our bathtub system here, the residence time is thus 10 liters
divided by 1 liter per second, which is equal to 10 seconds. It is fairly easy
to see that if we increase the flow rates, the water moves through the
reservoir faster, so the residence time decreases.

 oceans have a water residence time of 3,000 to 3,230 years; this long
residence time reflects the large amount of water in the oceans.

 In the atmosphere the residence time of water vapor relative to total

evaporation is only about 10 days.
 Lakes, rivers, ice, and groundwaters have residence times lying
between these two extremes and are highly variable.
 Ice caps have the longest residence times, with residence times of up
to 400 000 years recorded in an ice core from Vostok, Antarctica.

Saltwater Reservoir
 naturally occurring solutions containing large concentrations of
dissolved, inorganic ions.
 most commonly refer to as oceanic waters, in which the total
concentration of ionic solutes is typically about 35 grams per liter
 Four recognized oceans: Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Arctic Ocean

Salinity
 The saltiness or amount of salt dissolved in a body of water, saline
water.
 Measured in g/L or g/kg
 Most of the Earth’s saline water is found at oceans
 Salts are substances that dissolve into ions, such as sodium chloride,
magnesium sulfate, potassium nitrate, and sodium bicarbonate.

Thermocline
 A combination of two words, “thermal,” which means heat, and
“cline,” which means a layer of degradation
 Transitional barrier or layer of water.
 Often occurs in a large bodies of water (lakes and oceans)

 The average temperature of the sea surface is about 20° C (68° F), but
it ranges from more than 30° C (86° F) in warm tropical regions to less
than 0°C at high latitudes. In most of the ocean, the water becomes
colder with increasing depth.
Thermohaline Circulation
 The movement of ocean currents due to differences in
temperature and salinity in different regions of water.
 Temperature (thermo) and salinity (haline) change the density of
water, resulting in water to move accordingly.

EARTH’S WATER: FRESHWATER AND SURFACE WATER

RESERVOIR
Water Reservoir
 an open-air storage area where water is collected and kept in
quantity so that it may be drawn off for use
 an important feature of many water supply systems around the
world
 flows endlessly between the ocean, atmosphere, and land
 finite
 circulates through the water cycle
 includes two types of reservoirs: fresh water and surface water

Freshwater Reservoirs
 contains only minimal
 quantities of dissolved salts
 glaciers, ice sheets, and permafrost

Surface Water Reservoirs

 any body of water found on the Earth's surface
 Steam, lakes, wetland, floods, and groundwater

Glaciers & Ice Sheets

Glaciers
 sizable, enduring mass of crystalline ice, snow, rock, and silt
 every continent but Australia has glaciers.

Ice sheet
 mass of glacial ice more
 than 50,000 square kilometers

Ice shelves
 ice sheets that reached
 the shore and crossed the ocean
Permafrost
 area of the Earth’s surface that is permanently frozen
 composed of ice holding soil, gravel, and sand that is mixed
together
 lasts for at least two years at or below 0°C

Surface Water Reservoirs

Stream
 a moving body of surface water that flows downslope toward sea
level because of gravity
 has clearly defined passageways called channels where particles
and dissolved substances are transported

Components of a Stream
River
 a stream with considerable volume and a well-defined channel
 constitutes about 1.6% of the total surface and atmospheric
water
 Streams are interconnected and form a tree-shaped network of
small streams, making up the branches and joined to a large
main stream or river, which comprise the trunk
 smaller streams are also called tributaries

Drainage basin or watershed

 land area in which the water flow into a particular stream
 varies in size from less than a square kilometer to subcontinental
size, like the Amazon River Basin and the Nile River Basin
 In the Philippines, the largest drainage basin is the Cagayan
River Basin
● comprises a total area of 27,280 km²
● bounded by the Cordillera, Caraballo, and Sierra Madre
mountain ranges
Drainage divide
 the line that separates individual drainage basins

Interfluve
 the narrow, elongated landform separating individual streams
within a basin

Lakes
 inland bodies of fresh or saline water
 its upper surface is exposed to the atmosphere and is
essentially flat
 forms in places where water collects in a low area (depression)
and behind natural or humanmade dams
 provides freshwater for irrigation, industrial, municipal,
residential, and recreational purposes

Wetland
 an area of land where the water level is mostly above the ground
 has four main types:

Bogs
 a soft, spongy ground that contains plenty of partially rotted
plant material called peat

Northern bogs
 associated with short growing seasons and low temperature
Pocosins
 found in upland areas far away from streams

Fens
 peat-forming wetlands that consume nutrients from sources
other than precipitation
 differ from bogs because they are less acidic and have higher
nutrient levels

Swamps
 develop where the water level varies

Forested swamps
 often inundated with floodwater that comes from the nearby
bodies of water

Shrub swamps
 similar to forested swamps aside from the fact that shrubby

Marshes
 form a flat, grassy edge close by river mouths, in bays, and
down coastlines
Tidal marshes
 found along protected coastlines in middle and high latitudes
worldwide

Non-tidal marshes
 occur beside streams in deficiently drained depressions and in
the superficial water along the boundaries of lakes, ponds, and
rivers

Floods
 occurs when a river or the sea rises so much that it spills over
the surrounding land

River floods
 may occur after a period of prolonged heavy rain or after snow
melts in spring

Big floods

Flash floods
 occurs when a small steam changes to a raging torrent after
heavy rain during a dry spell

Groundwater
 the liquid that exists below the surface of the earth
 the majority of the country's fresh water resources nearly 95%
come from groundwater
 can remain subterranean for millions of years or it can rise to the
surface and contribute to the filling of lakes, ponds, rivers,
streams, and wetlands
 contained in and slowly penetrates aquifers

Aquifer
 a body of rock or sediment that is used to store groundwater
 large masses of saturated rock and silt through which water can
flow
 can develop in areas where groundwater
 can move quickly, such as through gravel
 and sandy deposits

Confined
 where thick deposits overly the aquifer and confine it from the
Earth’s surface or other rocks

Unconfined
 where the rock is directly open at the surface of the ground and
 groundwater is directly recharged

Conclusion
• Water reservoirs are important features of many water supply
systems around the world.
• The Earth’s water is composed of two types of reservoirs:
freshwater and surface water reservoirs.
• Freshwater reservoirs include glaciers, ice sheets, & permafrost.
• Surface water reservoirs include streams, lakes, wetlands, floods,
and groundwater.