Learning Competencies

1. identify common rock-forming

minerals using their physical and
chemical properties
2. classify rocks into igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic
Mineral - naturally occurring,
inorganic solid with orderly
crystalline structure and
a definite chemical
composition. These are
the basic building
blocks of rocks.
Water is not a mineral since it is
not solid and crystalline. Tube ice
is not because it is not naturally
occurring.
Snow flake meets all
requirements in defining
a mineral.
◆ Luster refers to how light is reflected from
the surface of a mineral.
◆ There are two main types of luster: metallic
and non-metallic:
◆Metallic are described as shiny, silvery, or having
a metal-like reflectance.
◆Non-metallic may be described as resinous,
translucent, pearly, waxy, greasy, silky,
vitreous/glassy, dull, or earthy
◆ Luster
may be subjective, and thus is not
always a reliable identifier 8
Table of Contents
 Pyrite: Metallic,
Shiny Luster

Copyright© Dr. Richard Busch

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 Halite :
Non-Metallic Translucent Luster

Copyright©Dr. Richard Busch

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 Sulfur :
Non-Metallic Waxy Luster

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◆Hardness is the ability of a
mineral to resist abrasion or
scratching on its surface.

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◆German
geologist/
mineralogist
Friedrich Mohs in
1812
(Mohs Scale of
Hardness)
Mohs Scale
◆Mineral color is determined by how the
crystals absorb and reflect light. Although
color is easy to recognize, it is often
misleading.
◆Minerals, such as quartz, fluorite, halite,
and calcite occur in a wide variety of
colors, and other minerals, such as
olivine, malachite, and amphibole have
fairly distinctive colors.
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Table of Contents
Different Colors of Calcite

Image courtesy of the USGS

copyright@Stonetrust, Inc
Different Colors of Quartz

copyright@Stonetrust, Inc
 Different Colors of Fluorite

copyright@Stonetrust, Inc

Image courtesy of the USGS

Image courtesy of the

Albert Copley Oklahoma
University Archives
◆Streak refers to the color of a mineral’s
powdered form left behind after it is
scraped or rubbed across a porcelain
streak plate.
◆A mineral may appear one color and
then produce a streak with a different
color.
 Even though the
mineral pyrite is
gold in color, it
leaves a grey
“pencil lead” streak
on the porcelain
streak plate.
Fool’s gold

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 5. Crystal Form
◆Crystal form is the external expression of
the internally ordered arrangement of
atoms.
◆During mineral formation, individual
crystals develop well-formed crystal
faces that are specific to that mineral.
 5. Crystal Form
◆The crystal faces for a particular mineral
are characterized by a symmetrical
relationship to one another that is
manifest in the physical shape of the
mineral’s crystalline form.
◆Crystal forms are commonly classified
using six different crystal systems, under
which all minerals are grouped.
Standard 3-3.1 C
Standard 3-3.2
 
A  B
Crystal Form, cont.
❖ Isometric:
Isometric crystals are block shaped with Isometric: Pyrite
C
relatively similar and symmetrical faces. The
crystal form has three axes all at 90° angles and
all the same length. Mineral Example: Pyrite A B

Axes Length Relationships: A = B = C Copyright© Dr. Richard Busch

❖Tetragonal:
Angles:  =  =  = 90

Tetragonal crystals are shaped like four-sided

pyramids or prisms. The crystal form has three C Tetragonal: Zircon
axes that are all perpendicular to one another.
Two axis have the same length, and one is
different. The axes that are the same length lie
A B
on a horizontal plane, with the third axis at a
right angle to the other two. Mineral Example:
Zircon Copyright© Dr. Richard Busch

Axes Length Relationships: A = B  C 26

Angles:  =  =  = 90 Table of Contents
Standard 3-3.1 C
Standard 3-3.2
 
A  B
Crystal Form, cont.
❖Orthorhombic: Orthorhombic: Topaz

Orthorhombic crystals are shaped like a C

rectangular prism with a rectangular base.
The crystal has three axes of different A B
lengths and intersect at 90° angles. Mineral
Example: Topaz Photo Courtesy USGS

Axes Length Relationships: A  B  C

Angles:  =  =  = 90

❖Hexagonal: Hexagonal: Amethyst

Hexagonal crystals have three symmetrical axes D
that occur in the same plane and are all the C
B
same length. The fourth axis may be either A
longer or shorter, and it intersects the other
three axis at 90° angles. The sides intersect at
Copyright © Stonetrust ,Inc.
120 ° angles. Mineral Example: Amethyst
Axes length Relationships: A = B = C ≠ D
Angles:  =  = 90 and  = 120 27
Table of Contents
Standard 3-3.1 C
Standard 3-3.2
 
A  B Crystal Form, cont.
❖Monoclinic: C
Monoclinic: Gypsum

Monoclinic crystals are short and stubby with

tilted faces. Each crystal has three axes that are
B
unequal. Two of the axes lie in the same plane at A
right angles to each other, the third axis is
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inclined. Mineral Example: Gypsum
Axes Length Relationships: A ≠ B ≠ C
Angles:  ≠  =  = 90

❖Triclinic: Triclinic: Kyanite

Triclinic crystals have three axis which are all C
different lengths and all three axis intersect at
angles other than 90°. B
Mineral Example: Kyanite A
Axes Length Relationships: A ≠ B ≠ C
Copyright © Stonetrust ,Inc.
Angles:  ≠  ≠ 
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◆ Amorphous- a mineral that
do not have a crystal
structure

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 6. Cleavage
◆ Cleavage refers to the tendency of a mineral
to break along planes of weakness in the
chemical bonds, or along planes where bond
strength is the least.
◆ Some minerals break along one dominant
plane of cleavage producing parallel sheets,
where as others may break along two or
more planes of cleavage, producing blocks or
prism shapes. 30
Table of Contents
 6. Cleavage
◆ Not all minerals have distinct planes of
weakness that produce cleavage, but
those minerals that do, will consistently
produce predictable cleavage planes.

◆ One direction of cleavage

(one plane)
◆ Mineral Example: Micas (muscovite)
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◆ Two directions of cleavage
(two planes)
◆ Mineral Example: Feldspar
◆ Three directions of cleavage
(three planes)
◆ Cubic : Mineral Example: Galena
◆ Rhombohedral: Mineral Example: Calcite

◆ Four directions of cleavage

(four planes)
◆ Mineral Example: Flourite
Feldspar: Two Cleavage Planes

plane one:

plane two:

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Calcite: Three Cleavage Planes
Plane one:

Plane two:

Plane three: Copyright©Stonetrust, Inc

34
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 Galena: Three Cleavage Planes

Plane one:

Plane two:

Plane three:

Copyright©[Link] Busch

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 7. Fracture
◆ Fracture refers to the non-planar breakage
of minerals.
◆ Minerals that break along fractures (as
oppose to cleavage planes) do not exhibit
predictable weakness along specified
bonds.
◆ Fractures may be described as splintery,
uneven, or conchoidal.
Conchoidal Fractures on a Quartz Mineral

copyright©Dr. Richard Busch

 8. Specific Gravity
◆ Specificgravity refers to the weight or
heaviness of a mineral, and it is expressed as
the ratio of the mineral’s weight to an equal
volume of water.
◆ Waterhas a specific gravity of 1. Therefore, a
mineral with a specific gravity of 1.5, is one
and a half times heavier than water.

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 8. Specific Gravity
◆ Mineralswith a specific gravity < 2 are
considered light, 2-4 are average, and >4.5
are heavy
◆ Specific
gravity can be measured using
complex lab tools such as the hydrostatic
balance or more simple procedures involving
beakers and water displacement
measurements.
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 Others
◆There are certain unique properties of
minerals that actually help in their
identification (e.g. magnetism, odor,
taste, tenacity, reaction to acid, etc.).
◆Magnetite is strongly magnetic; sulfur has
distinctive smell; halite is salty; calcite
fizzes with acid as with dolomite but in
powdered form, etc.
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 One mineral
property we will not
use…
COLOR
A mineral can be many different colors.
Below is Mica.
Many minerals can be the same color. Below are
gold colored minerals. Which one is gold?
The answer…
None of them are
real gold.
Just like with people…
Outside color does not tell
you much about his/ her
important characteristics.
1. Silicates
◆Silicates are composed of silicon-oxygen
tetrahedrons, an arrangement which contains
four oxygen atoms surrounding a silicon atom
(SiO4-4).
◆Silicates comprise the majority of minerals in
the Earth’s crust and upper mantle. Over 25%
of all minerals are included in this group, with
over 40% of those accounting for the most
common and abundant minerals.
◆Feldspar, Quartz, Biotite, and Amphibole are
the most common silicates
◆Silicatesare often divided into two major
groups: ferromagnesian silicates and non-
ferromagnesian silicates
◆Ferromagnesian silicates contain iron or
magnesium ions joined to the silicate
structure. They are darker and have a
heavier specific gravity than non-
ferromagnesian silicate minerals.
◆Ferromagnesians include minerals such as
olivine, pyroxene, hornblende, and biotite
◆Non-ferromagnesians include muscovite,
feldspar, and quartz
Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron (SiO4-4)
Oxygen atoms

Silicon atom Quartz

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2. Native Elements
◆Nativeelements are Silver
minerals that are
composed of a single
element.
◆Some examples are:
Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), Gold
Diamonds (C),
Image Courtesy of the USGS
Graphite (C), and
Platinum (Pt)

Image Courtesy of the USGS

2. Native Elements
◆a. Metals and Intermetals – minerals with
high thermal and electrical conductivity,
typically with metallic luster, low hardness
(gold, lead)
◆b. Semi-metals – minerals that are more
fragile than metals and have lower
conductivity (arsenic, bismuth)
◆ c. Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur,
diamond)
3. Halides
◆ Halides consist of halogen
elements, chlorine (Cl), bromine
(Br), fluorine (F), and iodine (I) Fluorite
forming strong ionic bonds with Image courtesy of USGS

alkali and alkali earth elements

sodium (Na), calcium (Ca) and
potassium (K)
◆ Some examples include Halite
(NaCl) and Flourite (CaF2).
Halite
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Sample Problem
Which is an example of a
halide?
(A) barite (BaSO4)
(B) calcite (CaCO3)
(C) fluorite (CaF2)
(D) hematite (Fe2O3)
4. Carbonates
◆Carbonates are anionic groups of carbon
and oxygen. Carbonate minerals result
from bonds between these complexes
and alkali earth and some transitional
metals
◆Common carbonate minerals include
calcite CaCO3 / calcium carbonate, and
dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 calcium/
magnesium carbonate
◆Carbonate minerals react when exposed to
hydrochloric acid. Geologist will often carry
dilute hydrochloric acid in the field to test if a
mineral contains calcium carbonate. If the
mineral fizzes when it comes in contact with
the hydrochloric acid it contains calcium
carbonate. Some cola soft drinks can also be
used for this test because it contains enough
hydrochloric acid to react with calcium
carbonate.
 Dolomite

Calcite

Copyright©Stonetrust, Inc.

Copyright©Stonetrust, Inc.
5. Oxides
◆Oxides are minerals that
include one or more metal
cations bonded to oxygen or
hydroxyl anions. Hematite
◆Examples of oxide minerals
include:
◆Hematite (Fe2O3), Magnetite
(Fe3O4), Corundum (Al2O3),
and Ice (H2O)
Sample Problem
Which is an example of an
oxide?
(A) barite (BaSO4) (B)
calcite (CaCO3)
(C) fluorite (CaF2)
(D) hematite (Fe2O3)
6. Sulfates ◆Sulfates are minerals that
Barite include SO4 anionic groups
combined with alkali earth
and metal cations.
◆Anhydrous (no water) and
Image Courtesy of the USGS
hydrous (water) are the two
major groups of Sulfates.
Gypsum ◆Barite (BaSO4) is an example
of a anhydrous sulfate and
Gypsum (CaSO4 · 2H2O) is an
example of a sulfate.
Image Courtesy of the USGS
Sample Problem
Which is an example of a
sulfate?
(A) barite (BaSO4) (B)
calcite (CaCO3)
(C) fluorite (CaF2)
(D) hematite (Fe2O3)
7. Sulfides
◆Sulfides are minerals
composed of one or more
metal cations combined with
sulfur. Many sulfides are
economically important ores. Cinnabar

◆Pyrite (FeS2) or “fool’s gold”,

Galena (PbS), Cinnabar (HgS)
and Molybdenite (MoS2) are a
few commonly occurring
sulfide minerals

Pyrite “Fool’s Gold”

questions
1. What are the characteristics that
define a mineral?
2. Which is more abundant in the
Earth’s crust: silicates or all the other
mineral groups combined? Explain.
3. An unknown opaque mineral has a
black streak and has a density of
18g/cm3. Is the mineral metallic or
non-metallic?
4. What is the difference between a
mineral's streak and color? Why is
streak more reliable for rock
identification?
5. Differentiate habit and a cleavage
plane.
6. Is it possible for a mineral to have a
prismatic habit without having any
cleavage? Why or why not? If yes, give
an example
8 elements comprising almost 99% of the
minerals making up the Earth’s crust
IGNEOUS
ROCK
Phaneritic Texture:
formed through slow
cooling forming
interlocking crystals.

peridotite
Porphyritic texture: formed
through two stages of crystallization
where in magma partly cooled below
the surface of the earth providing
time for the large crystals to grow
(phenocrysts) before it is extruded to
the surface forming the fine grained
matrix (groundmass).
Aphanitic texture:
fine-grained texture;
minerals not visible to the
naked eye; relatively fast
rates of
cooling/solidification
prevent the formation of
large crystals.
Vesicular olivine basalt

Vesicular texture:
voids created by rapid
cooling which causes
air bubbles to be
trapped inside.
Glassy: Glassy or vitreous textures occur
during some volcanic eruptions when the
lava is quenched so rapidly that
crystallization cannot occur. The result is a
natural amorphous glass with few or no
crystals.
Pyroclastic rocks: fragmental
rocks usually associated with
violent or explosive type of
eruption
Origins of Igneous Rocks
Extrusive/Volcanic
Basalt
• These rocks are formed above
the ground when lava flows
or explodes from a volcano.
• Pyroclastic, aphanitic,
porphyritic, vesicular

Granite
 Granite and Rhyolite have the same chemical
composition however Granite exhibits phaneritic
texture and rhyolite on the right has aphanitic and
porphyritic textures
 Diorite and Andesite have the same chemical
composition but different textures. Diorite (left) is
coarse grained (phaneritic) and andesite (right) is
fine grained (aphanitic and porphyritic).
 Gabbro and Basalt are of the same
chemical composition but differ in texture.
Gabbro (left) has larger crystals than basalt
(right) which has finer crystals.
Classification of igneous rocks based on
Silica content
-felsic: granitic: >65% silica, generally
light-colored
- intermediate: andesitic: 55-65% silica,
generally medium colored (medium gray)
- mafic: basaltic: 45-55% silica, usually
dark colored
- ultramafic: <45% silica, generally very
dark colored
Low Silicates: High Silicates:
Igneous rocks with Igneous rocks high
low amounts of silica in silica usually
usually produce dark appear light in
colored rocks. color.

Peridotite Pumice
Uses of Igneous Rocks
For thousands of years people have used igneous
rocks for building and tools.
Granite is still
used today for
constructing
buildings.

Obsidian has been used for Pumice is used for

tool making by Native cleaning and for
Americans. Some surgeons removing calluses
use obsidian instead of steel in from feet.
their scalpels today because
they cut better and leave a
thinner scar.
SEDIMENTARY
ROCK
Sediments: solid fragments of organic or
inorganic materials from weathered and
eroded pre-existing rocks and living matters
Erosion
Erosion is the wearing away of rock due to
wind, water or ice.
Deposition
Deposition is when the sediments from erosion
settle out of the wind, water and ice and are
left or deposited in a different place.
Compaction
Sediments build up over time and press down
on the layers below. This squeezes the layers
so that the particles or grains stick together.
Cementation
Minerals that are dissolved in water start to
crystallize. These crystallized minerals “glue” the
solids or grains together.
Sediment Transport
Sediment transport is the movement of organic and
inorganic particles by water. In general, the greater
the flow, the more sediment that will be conveyed.
Weathering of Rocks
Weathering is the alteration of rocks to more stable
material from their exposure to the agents of air,
water, and organic fluids. No rock is stable or
immune to weathering.
 Common Sedimentary Features

Fossil Assemblages
- remains and traces of plants and
animals that are preserved in rocks
 Common Sedimentary Features
Stratification & Layering
Layering is a structure made up of layers
Stratification is the process leading to the
formation or deposition of layers, especially of
sedimentary rocks.
(strata which is >1cm is called and <
1cm is called )
Clastic Rocks
Clastic rocks are your basic
sedimentary rock. They are
formed from broken bits and
pieces of other rocks that were
eroded and deposited a long time shale
ago. These rock pieces were
squeezed together. The particles
can be the size of sand or large
and jagged.

Breccia
 Classification by size

Grains: greater
than sand-sized
minerals and/or
rock fragments.
Matrix: fine-grained
(clay to silt sized)
minerals

Cement: minerals
precipitated from solution
that binds the grains and
matrix together
Different clastic rocks
Rudaceous Rocks: (rudites) >50% clasts
diameter >2mm made up of primarily
rock fragments
Arenaceous Rocks: (arenites) >50%
sediments diameter between
0.063-2mm can contain high quartz
Argillaceous Rocks: (argillites) >50%
sediments diameter <0.063mm and
made up mainly of clay minerals and
quartz grains to a much lesser extent
Non-clastic Rock Evaporites: rocks
- evaporation and precipitation formed from the
from solution or lithification of evaporation of water
organic matter leaving the dissolved
minerals to crystallize
- classified as evaporites
(halite, gypsum and Precipitates: rocks
dolostone), precipitates formed when minerals
from a mineral
(limestone) and bioclastics supersaturated waters
(coal, coquina) start to crystallize at
the bottom of the
Lithification, complex process solution
whereby freshly deposited loose Bioclastic: rock formed
grains of sediment are converted into from compacted
rock. organic matter
Organic Sedimentary Rocks
Organic sedimentary rocks are made from the
remains of plants and animals. These get deposited,
compacted, and cemented just like rock sediments.
Coal and limestone are two examples. Sometimes
limestone can have fossils in it.
Limestone

Coal
Chemical Rocks
When the minerals that are dissolved in a solution
crystallize, chemical rocks are formed. One type of
limestone can form this way when calcite is
dissolved in lakes and becomes crystallized. Halite is
another example of a chemical rock.
Conglomerate (left)
relatively large and
rounded clasts as
compared to the angular
clasts of the breccia on
the right
Sandstone (left) with
visible grains and
prominent layering or;
claystone (right) with
several embedded fossils
Non-clastic sedimentary
rocks limestone (left)
and coquina (right)
METAMORPHIC
ROCK
 formed below the surface of the earth
through the process of metamorphism with
the recrystallization of minerals in rocks due to
changes in pressure and temperature
conditions.
A metamorphic rock is a result of a
transformation of a pre-existing rock
Foliated Metamorphic Rock
In foliated rock the grains are arranged in parallel
layers or bands. These may appear as alternating
layers of color or just as flat layers that break or
cleave.
Non-foliated Metamorphic Rock
In non-foliated rock the grains are
random. They do not split into layers.
 Metamorphism
A process where the physical and chemical
properties of rock changes in response to
heat, pressure, and/or chemically active
fluids.
Two Types of Metamorphism
•Contact Metamorphism
•Regional Metamorphism
Contact Metamorphism
-heat and reactive fluids as main factors: occurs
when a pre-existing rock gets in contact with
magma which is the source of heat and
magmatic fluids where metamorphic alterations
and transformations occur around the contact/
metamorphic aureole of the intruding magma and
the rock layers.
- creates non-foliated
metamorphic rocks
Regional Metamorphism
- pressure as main factor: occurs in areas that have
undergone considerable amount of mechanical
deformation and chemical recrystallization during
orogenic event which are commonly associated
with mountain belts
- Creates foliated rocks
Regional Metamorphism
-can create non-foliated rocks where
pressure is not intense, far from geologic
event
The earth recycles!