‫ﺑﺴﻢ ﷲ اﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ اﻟﺮﺣﯿﻢ‬

Epithermal Deposits
Simplified Definition:

Epithermal deposits of Au (± Ag) comprise veins and disseminations near the Earth’s
surface (≤1.5 km), in volcanic and sedimentary rocks, sediments, and, in some
cases, also in metamorphic rocks. The deposits may be found in association with
hot springs and frequently occur at centres of young volcanism.

The ores are dominated primarily by precious metals (Au, Ag), but some deposits may
also contain variable amounts base metals such as Cu, Pb, and Zn.
Epithermal Au (―Ag) deposits form in the near-surface environment, from
hydrothermal systems typically within 1.5 km of the Earth’s surface.

They are commonly found associated with centres of magmatism and volcanism, but
form also in shallow marine settings.

Hot-spring deposits and both liquid- and vapour-dominated geothermal systems are
commonly associated with epithermal deposits.

The shallow origin of epithermal Au deposits makes them more susceptible to erosion

Epithermal Au deposits have represented a high-grade, readily mineable,

exploration target largely in Tertiary and younger volcanic centres, including the
Cordillera. However, a number of older epithermal Au deposits have also been
discovered, including several Proterozoic examples in Canada.

The ores are dominated primarily by precious metals (Au, Ag), but some deposits may
also contain variable amounts base metals such as Cu, Pb, and Zn.

Ore texture; replacement (i.e. by solution and reprecipitation),or open-space filling (e.g.
veins, breccias, pore spaces).
The form of deposits originating by open-space filling typically reflects that of the
structural control of the hydrothermal fluids (planar vs. irregular fractures, etc).

The deposits are commonly young, generally Tertiary or Quaternary.

They may be of similar age as their host rocks when these are volcanic in origin, or
(typically) younger than their host
5
FIGURE 3. Plot of Au grade (g/t) versus tonnage (economic, or reserves+production) for
selected Canadian epithermal Au deposits and prominent examples elsewhere in the
world, classified by subtype as referred to in the text (Taylor, 2007).
Robb, 2005
 High sulfidation (HS) Low sulfidation (LS)

Genetically related volcanic Mainly andesite-rhyodacite Andesite-rhyodacite-rhyolite

rocks
Deposit form Disseminated: dominant, Open-space veins: dominant,
replacement: common, stockwork: common,
stockwork: minor disseminated & replacement:
minor
Alteration Zone Areally extensive & visually Commonly restricted and visually
prominent subtle
Quartz gangue Fine-grained, massive, mainly Chalcedony &/or quartz
replacement origin; residual, displaying crustiform, colloform,
slaggy (vuggy) quartz commonly bladed, cockade & carbonate-
hosts ore replacement textures; open
space filling
Carbonate gangue Absent Ubiquitous, commonly
managanoan
Other gangue Barite widespread with ore; Barite & (or) fluorite present
native sulfur commonly fills open locally; barite commonly above
spaces ore
Sulfide abundance 10-90 vol% mainly fine-grained, 1-20 vol%, but typically <5 vol%,
partly laminated pyrite predominantly pyrite
Metals present Cu, Au, As (Ag, Pb) Au and (or) Ag (Zn, Pb, Cu)
5. tonnes of ore x106; 6. grams of gold (Au) x106; 7. Alteration facies, vein (vn) to wall rock (w.r.): Vgy-Si; vuggy silica; Qtz,
quartz; Al, alunite (advanced argillic); Si, silicification; K, potassic; Ph, phyllic (sercitic);
A, argillic/advanced argillic; P, propylitic (sequence from vein to wall rock); 8. Form of deposit (in order of importance) vn,
vein; bx, breccia; st, stockwork; diss., disseminated, repl., replacement; 9. Classification is based on available
Abbreviations: %S*, per cent sulphide; Ad, adularia; Al, alunite; Cpy, chalcopyrite; En, enargite; Ss, sulphosalts (e.g.,
tennantite-tetrahedrite); Ags, silver sulphides; Sp, sphalerite; Gn, galena; Ba, barite; Fl, fluorite; CO3*, carbonate; Rc
rhodochrosite; Cc, calcite; Ank, ankerite; XX = abundant; X = present; x = minor to rare; blank = absent or unknown; and. =
andesite; bslt. = basalt; congl. = conglomerate; s.s. = sandstone; lms. = limestone; sh. = shale; Tert. = Tertiary;
Cret. = Cretaceous; L. Jur. = Lower Jurassic; NB: [ ] = not in paragenetic association with Au . (Talor, 2007)
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Wallrock alteration in epithermal deposits

Quartz-alunite / high sulfidation deposits Adularia-sericite / low sulfidation deposits

Types of silicic alteration & veining
in epithermal deposits

Hedenquist et al. (2000)

Relation between volcanic-hosted epithermal
and sub-volcanic types of mineralization
 Styles and geometries of epithermal deposits illustrating the
influence of structural, hydrothermal and lithologic controls on
permeability, i.e., fluid conduits (Sillitoe, 1993)
 Fluid salinities in epithermal deposits

Simmons et al. (2005)

 KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS

Deposits classified as epithermal show a wide range of

characteristics, including their tectonic setting,
character of host rocks, deposit form, mineralogy of ore and
gangue, hydrothermal alteration , assemblage and zoning, and
ore fluid chemistry, temperature and pressure (White and
Hedenquist, 1995).
The key characteristics that allow a simple classification of
epithermal deposits are:
1) the redox state of the ore-forming fluid
2) the metal assemblage of the deposit
• Noel C. White and Vincent Poizat BHP Minerals International Exploration, Brook House, 229 Shepherds Bush Road, London
C. PUDACK, W. E. HALTER, C. A.
HEINRICH, AND T. PETTKE, 2009

21
 Low-sulfidation styles
1. Low-sulfidation gold-silver deposits
Associated with calc-alkaline volcanic rocks :
-They are typically vein deposits with at most minor amounts of associated base metals;
- usually gold and silver are the only economic metals.
- The veins are dominated by quartz or chalcedony and calcite, usually with adularia, and
show a great diversity of textures.
- The veins typically have an extensive envelope of hydrothermal alteration produced by
neutral-pH mineralising fluids: i.e. pervasive propylitic alteration, with the veins
surrounded by sericitic alteration, then illite-smectite alteration at shallow levels.
- They are also found in parts of the central Asian Tethys belt. A sub-style of these
deposits was distinguished by Sillitoe (1993)
- they occur with high-silica rhyolites of probable A-type, and are rich in molybdenum
and fluorite.
Associated with alkaline igneous rocks :
Deposits of this type (Bonham, 1986) are not very common, but they are economically
important.
The best examples are Cripple Creek (USA), Porgera and Ladolam (Papua New Guinea),
and Emperor (Fiji).

In most respects they resemble the low sulfidation gold-silver deposits associated with
calc-alkaline volcanic rocks except:
i) they tend to be unusually large and rich
ii) they are associated with potassium-rich alkaline volcanic and/or intrusive rocks
iii) they are commonly related to alkaline (or shoshonitic) porphyry copper
Systems
iv) they may show relatively narrow and restricted hydrothermal alteration zones
v) they show evidence of the involvement of a late-stage magmatic fluid in ore-
forming processes
vi) they are tellurium-rich (other epithermal gold-silver deposits typically have
selenium » tellurium).
2. Low-sulfidation silver-gold-base metal deposits

- They show many of the textural and alteration characteristics of

gold-silver deposits, but are usually dominated by Ag, Pb and Zn
mineralisation.
- Au may be present, but is typically (though not always) much less significant
than silver.
- Cu may be significant at deeper levels.
- Mn carbonates are common as gangue, and adularia and fluorite
may be present
- These deposits commonly extend much deeper than low
sulfidation gold-silver deposits, and to higher paleotemperatures.
- In some cases there may be an increase in tin minerals at greater depths.
3. Low-sulfidation tin-silver-base metal deposits

- They form at shallow depth and are related to rhyolite or quartz latite
domes.
- The hydrothermal alteration is similar to other low-sulfidation deposits.
- There is a tin-tungsten-bismuth association at greater depths,
and lateral zoning to base metal-rich mineralisation (Smirnov et al, 1983;
Nakamura and Hunahashi,1970).
- The epithermal tin bearing deposits may be of several styles, rather than the
one style described here.
 Boiling is the critical process to deposit high
concentration of Au in LS epithermal deposits
Mechanisms of Au deposition have a profound effect upon Au grade varying
from:

• Cooling in the case of many coarse sulphides with low grade Au contents.
• Rapid cooling promoted by quenched magmatic fluids evidenced by fine sulphides, or by mixing of
ore fluids with deep circulating meteoric waters, commonly recognised in high precious metal
polymetallic vein deposits where low temperature quartz (opal) is in contact with high temperature
sulphides.
• While boiling fluids deposit much of the gangue (adularia, quartz pseudomorphing platy calcite and
local chalcedony), in epithermal veins and some Au other mechanisms are preferred to account for
elevated Au grades.
• Mixing of oxygenated ground waters with ore fluids at elevated crustal settings produces elevated
Au grades and is evidenced by hypogene haematite in the ore assemblage.
• Mixing of bicarbonate waters derived from the condensation of CO2 volatiles released from cooling
intrusions is responsible for the development of higher Au grades as the carbonate-base metal group
of low sulphidation Au deposits.
• Mixing of low pH waters, developed by the condensation of H2S volatiles above the water table,
and responsible for the development of near surficial acid sulphate caps, provide the highest Au
grades and is evidenced by the presence of hypogene kaolin including halloysite within the ore
assemblage
High-sulfidation styles
High-sulfidation gold-silver-copper deposits can be separated
into two different styles on the basis of the associated
hydrothermal alteration. Both are disseminated deposits; with a
core of intense acidpH hydrothermal alteration that hosts the
economic mineralisation.

a) With vuggy quartz alteration (commonly called Nansatsu-

style, see Hedenquist et al, 1994).

b) With pyrophyllite-sericite alteration

 a) With vuggy quartz alteration (commonly called Nansatsu-
style, see Hedenquist et al, 1994).

they are characterised by a core of intensely acid-leached residual quartz

(vuggy quartz - see Hedenquist et al,
1994), typically preserving the texture of the original host-rock. This core is
commonly in part quartz flooded, producing a massive quartz zone; it also
commonly contains alunite. Around the sharp contacts of this quartz±alunite
zone there is commonly a very narrow clay-altered margin, which grades out
to propylitic alteration
- the gold is always in the siliceous core.
The amount of gold, silver and copper (and other elements) varies widely,
even in one mineralised district or cluster of deposits.
b) With pyrophyllite-sericite alteration

In these deposits the core of vuggy quartz (which characterises the

Nansatsu deposits) is poorly developed, or may be absent, and instead the
core is dominated by pyrophyllite.
Recent work on the Peak Hill deposit in New South Wales (Masterman, 1994),
showed that the pyrophyllite-rich core grades out through a zone with
kaolinite-alunite to sericite, illite-smectite and finally propylitic alteration
zones.
The gold principally occurs on the margin of the pyrophyllite core.
Strato-volcano and epithermal mineralization
 Typical paragenetic opaque mineral evolution in
Quartz-alunite / high sulfidation epithermal deposits
Alteration zones in high sulfidation epithermal
deposits
 Acid waters in epithermal systems:
Three environments of advanced argillic alteration
(b) Steam-heated:
Steam-heated:
(a) Magmatic- <120°C
hydrothermal: opal-fine grained
>200°C alunite-kaolinite-
quartz-tabular pyrite-marcasite
alunite-dickite- Forms above water
pyrophyllite- table, shallowest
diaspore-zunyite environment. Sinter
Cuts across deposits only in
stratigraphy, geothermal systems.
follows high- (c) Supergene:
angle structures <40°C
(epigenetic) alunite-kaolinite-
Below water halloysite-jarosite-Fe
table oxides
Magmatic- Weathering &
derived acidic oxidation of sulfide-
waters bearing rocks, within
vadose zone.
Alteration zones in high sulfidation epithermal deposits
Model for the evolution of HS epithermal ore
system ore system
 Generalised model of Porphyry and epithermal deposits associated with
shallow sub-volcanic intrusions and strato-volcano

Active volcanic-hydrothermal systemsextends from degassing magma to fumaroles and

acidic springs, and incorporate porphyry and/or high-sulfidationore environments
Epithermal Au deposits may be found in association with volcanic activity in
numerous tectonic settings, including island-arc volcanoes (e.g. Papua
New Guinea: Sillitoe, 1989), and continental-based arcs and volcanic
centres (e.g. Silverton caldera, Colorado).
Geoscience Australia, 2004
FIG. 2. Secular distribution of porphyry Cu-Au, epithermal Au, and orogenic Au deposits, after Groves et al.
(2005b).
The former two deposit types, formed at relatively shallow levels, have been typically eroded from the
geologic record beyond about 20 to 30 Ma, although particularly the porphyry deposits have some giant
exceptions that have been preserved since the Mesozoic and earlier times.
The orogenic gold deposits have a much broader temporal distribution, reflecting their deeper levels of
formation and thus greater likelihood to be preserved in older orogenic belts. (Goldfarb et al., 2010)
 Summary of Geological Setting, Definitive Characteristics1 and Several Examples of Typical Epithermal Au Deposit SubTypes

HIGH-SULPHIDATION LOW-SULPHIDATION
subtype subtype
Hosted in volcanic rocks Hosted in volcanic and plutonic rocks Hosted in sedimentary and mixed host rocks
Geological Setting volcanic terrane, often in caldera-filling Spatially related to instrusive centre; veins in In calcareous to clastic sedimentary rocks; may
volcaniclastic rocks; major faults, be intruded
hot spring deposits and acid lakes may locally ring fracture type faults; hot springs at depth by magma; can form at variety of depths
be associated may be present
Ore Mineralogy native gold, electrum, tellurides; magmatic- electrum (lower Au/Ag with depth), gold; gold (micrometre): within or on sulphides (e.g. pyrite
hydrothermal: py sulphides include: py,
(+bn), en, tennantite, cv, sp, gn; Cu sp, gn, cpy, ss); sulphosalts; gangue: quartz, unoxidized ore), native (in oxidized ore), electrum,
typically > Zn, Pb; adularia, sericite, Hg-Sb-As
Au-stage may be distinct, base-metal poor; calcite, chlorite; ± barite, anhydrite in deeper sulphides, pyrite, minor base metals; gangue:
steam-heated: deposits variable base quartz, calcite
base-metal poor; gangue: quartz (vuggy metal content, high sulphide veins closer to
silica), barite intrusions
Alteration mineralogy advanced argillic + alunite, kaolintie, sericitic replaces argillic facies (adularia ± silicification, decalcification, sericitization,
pyrophyllite (deeper); sericite ± kaolinite); sulphidation;
± sericite (illite); adularia, carbonate Fe-chlorite, Mn-minerals, selenides present; alteration zones may be controlled by stratigraphic
absent; chlorite and carbonate (calcite
Mn-minerals rare; no selenides; barite with and/or rhodochrosite) may be abundant, permeability rather than by faults and fractures;
Au; lamellar if boiling quartz (may
steam-heated: vertical zoning occurred; quartz-kaolinite-alunite-subtype be chalcedonic)-sericite (illite)-montmorillonite
minerals possible in
steam-heated zone; clays
Host rocks silicic to intermediate (andesite) intermediate to silicic intrusive/extrusive felsic intrusions; most sedimentary rocks except
rocks massive
carbonates (hosts to mantos and skarns)
Ore fluids (examples from 160-240ºC; ≤1 wt.% NaCl (late fluids); sulphide-poor: 180-31ºC, ≤1 wt.% NaCl, about bimodal: 150-160 (most); 270-280ºC, ≤15 wt.%
possibly to 30 wt.% 1.0 molal CO2 NaCl;
fluid inclusion studies)
NaCl in early fluids; boiling common; (Mt. Skukum: McDonald, 1987) nonboiling: (Cinola: Shen et al., 1982); 230-250ºC,
(Nansatsu district, ≤1 wt.%
Japan; Hedenquist et al., 1994) sulphide-rich: ave. 25ºC, <1 to 4 wt.% NaCl NaCl; nonboiling (Dusty Mac: Zhang et al., 1989)
(Silbak-Premier: McDonald, 1990)
Age of mineralization and host rocks and mineralization of similar mineralization variably younger (>1 Ma) than mineralization variably younger (>1 Ma) than host
age host rocks rocks.
host rocks
2 2
Deposit size small areal extent (e.g. 1 km ) and size may occur over large area (e.g. several tens of may have large areal extent (e.g. >>1 km ), large
2
km ); may be size
(e.g. 2500-3500 kg Au) large (e.g. 100 000 kg Au). (e.g. 58 000 kg Au), low grades (e.g. 2.5 g/t)
2 3 4
Modern analogues: Matsukawa, Japan Broadlands, New Zealand Salton Sea geothermal field, California
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Photo 21. Adularia-sericite epithermal gold-silver Photo 22. Banded banded vein with chalcedony,
mineralization showing well developed quartz ginguro band and pink adularia, Cracow.
pseudomorphing platy calcite from Vera Nancy.
65
66
Knowledge Gaps

Upon comparison of many features, both regional and local, of 16 bonanza (>30 tonnes Au) and
giant (>200 tonnes Au) epithermal Au deposits, Sillitoe (1992) concluded that, although complex arc
environments and unusual igneous rock types seemed more prospective, no single feature could be
isolated as an apparent cause or explanation.

Either an unusually rich source of Au or an unusually effective depositional process was necessary to
effect such concentrations of Au. This ‘chicken or egg’ conclusion remains as a principal enigma, a
key question in the knowledge gap.

A firmer understanding of links between porphyries and epithermal systems is evolving, and an
understanding of the temporal differences in magmatic and hydrothermal evolution that explains the
lack of direct linkages (e.g. low-sulphidation and porphyry Cu-Au deposits).

A sufficient number of ancient epithermal Au deposits, both low- and high-sulphidation subtypes, are
now known to raise the level of understanding needed regarding the likelihood of preservation and
rates of destruction of the epithermal regime of the crust. Clearly very old examples have survived.

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68
 Tectonic-diffusion model
Age-frequency distributions for mineral deposits at convergent margins are log-
normal (skewed) in form and there is a direct relation between the mode (most
common value) in these distributions and the depth at which the deposits form
(Kesler and Wilkinson, 2006). Deposits that form at great depth require more time to
reach the surface than deposits that form at shallow levels, and their age frequency
distribution defines an older modal age.

Using preliminary compilations of isotopic ages, Kesler and Wilkinson (2006)

showed that epithermal deposits, which form largely in the upper kilometer of the
crust, have a modal age of ~3 Ma, whereas porphyry copper deposits, which
originate at average depths of ~2 km, have a modal age of ~12 Ma, and orogenic
gold deposits that form largely at average depths closer to 10 km have a modal age
of ~160 Ma. This relation between depths of emplacement and modal ages makes ore
deposits an excellent indicator of uplift and denudation (erosion) rates, and provides
the basis for the tectonic-diffusion model.

69
Tectonic-diffusion model
The basic function of the tectonic-diffusion model is to produce a theoretical
(computational) age-frequency distribution that comes as close as possible to
matching the actual (real-Earth) age-frequency distribution for a specific group or
type of deposits (Wilkinson and Kesler, 2007).

For the estimate of epithermal gold resources, we have compiled a global

database that is discussed below and that yields an age-frequency distribution
(Fig. 1) very similar to that from our preliminary compilation (Kesler and
Wilkinson, 2006). The important point to resource estimates is that in generating
the theoretical age-frequency distribution, the model calculation determines the
number and vertical distribution of deposits in the crust. The calculation does this
by emplacing deposits at a fixed rate and crustal depth, and then allowing each
one to move randomly (tectonic diffusion) upward (uplift and erosion),
downward (subsidence and burial) or sideways (stasis) during each interval of
model time (Fig. 2). In the calculation, some migration paths bring deposits
upward to a position above the Earth’s surface, where they are “eroded” (Fig. 2A,
B). Many other deposits undergo amounts of subsidence that equal or exceed
rates of uplift and therefore remain in the subsurface, never reaching the
computational surface; these constitute Earth’s crustal endowment of ore deposits
70
(Fig. 2C).
We have estimated Earth’s endowment of gold in Phanerozoic epithermal deposits using a
tectonic-diffusion model, which simulates the emplacement of deposits at a shallow crustal
depth and their subsequent vertical tectonic migration in the crust. The calculation was
calibrated by least-squares comparison of a calculated age-frequency distribution to the age-
frequency distribution for 448 epithermal deposits of Phanerozoic age.

Results indicate that ~17 percent of the epithermal deposits that formed through Phanerozoic
time remain in the crust today whereas ~83 percent have been removed by erosion. Assuming
a similar age distribution for all 1,181 epithermal deposits in our compilation indicates that
~307,000 deposits formed throughout Phanerozoic time, that ~63,000 of these remain in the
crust, and that ~244,000 have been eroded. Grade and tonnage data of gold in 757 epithermal
deposits in the compilation have an arithmetic average of 34.7 t and yield an estimate of 2.2
× 106 t of gold for epithermal deposits remaining in the crust.

all of the epithermal deposits that formed through Phanerozoic time represent only about 0.03
percent of the gold in the crust. Only about 0.007 percent of crustal gold remains in
epithermal deposits; the rest has been eroded and recycled.

Finally, we are consuming gold from epithermal deposits about 17,000 times faster than
71
Earth is replenishing the supply.
Ages of epithermal gold-bearing deposits.
A. Age-frequency distribution plotted on an
arithmetic scale. Open bars show the actual
agefrequency distribution for all deposits of
Cenozoic age. Shaded bars are the age-
frequency distribution that would result if
ore formation proceeded at a Phanerozoic
average rate.
B. Age-frequency distribution (open bars)
plotted on a log scale showing the
approximate log-normal distribution of all
deposit ages. Shaded bars are the normal
age-frequency distribution to the log data
(mean = 1.25, standard deviation = 0.71).

72
Time-depth random-walk paths defined by the
tectonic-diffusion model calculation showing how
some known deposits (shaded diamonds) might have
moved through crustal time-depth prior to exposure.
All deposits were formed at a depth of 0.5 km (large
open diamonds to right).
Panels A and B show several different spans of time
since formation (deposit ages): corresponding
deposit ages are as follows: ~6 Ma (Porgera, PNG)
to 38 Ma (Tayoltita, Mexico), B) ~50 Ma
(Richmond Hill, South Dakota) to 345 Ma (Yandan,
Australia).
Panel C shows hypothetical depth-time paths of five
deposits that were not exposed during Phanerozoic
time. Note that several of these (still buried) deposits
nearly reached the surface (shaded diamonds) but
were buried again and did not reemerge during the
remainder of Phanerozoic time. If paths were
continued into Precambrian, several paths might
emerge as older deposits, such as Hope Brook, with
an age of 576 Ma (Dubé et al., 1998). Although
duration of burial in these diagrams matches actual
data, actual depths could have been greater or lesser.

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Economic Geology
Vol. 97, 2002, pp. 3–9

Relationship of Epithermal Gold Deposits to Large-Scale Fractures in Northern

Nevada

D. A. PONCE AND J. M. G. GLEN

U.S. Geological Survey, MS 989, 345 Middlefield Rd., Menlo Park, California
94025

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Geological events that have led to mineralization at
Gandy,
A. Emplacement of Chekelbas andesite has resulted
in doming of volcanosedimentary layers in a shallow
lake.
B. Eruption of Chekelbas andesite has resulted in
collapse of volcanosedimentary layers, formation of a
caldera and developing a series of normal faults
including Kakieh fault.
C. Emplacement of rhyolitic intrusions along caldera
related normal faults and subsequent mineralization.
D and E. Emplacement of rhyolitic intrusions results
in increase in local strain rate resulting in breaching
of sealed zone dividing lithostatic from hydrostatic
domain and allows brine and gas to be expelled
quickly to the epithermal environment and cause the
observed mineralization.

85
Geology of the Sari Gunay Epithermal
Gold Deposit, Northwest Iran*
JEREMY P. RICHARDS,
DAMIEN WILKINSON,
HOMAS ULLRICH

Richards JP, Wilkinson D, Ullrich T (2006) Geology of the Sari Gunay

epithermal gold deposit northwest Iran. Economic Geology 101:1455–
1496.
• The Sari Gunay epithermal gold deposit is located within a
mildly alkaline latitic to trachytic volcanic complex in central-
northwest Iran.
• Intrusive and volcanic rocks that host the deposit have been
dated at between 11.7 and 11.0 Ma,
• whereas sericitic alteration associated with an early stage of
hydrothermal activity occurred between ~10.8 and~10.3 Ma.
• Early hydrothermal activity produced weak porphyry-like
quartz-sulfide-magnetite veining and potassic alteration but
with low grades of copper and gold mineralization (~0.25 wt
% Cu, ≤0.5 ppm Au).

(A, B). Banded and sheeted quartz-magnetite veins cutting sericitized (white
alteration) porphyry wall rocks.
 Fluid Inclusion of quartz-sulfide-
magnetite veins
• Fluid inclusions indicate temperatures of 246° to 360°C and
salinities of 34.4 to 46.1 wt percent NaCl equiv in hypersaline
inclusions coexisting with low-density, CO2-bearing vapor-
phase inclusions.
• Later quartz-tourmaline veins and breccias similarly
introduced little gold but provided a structurally prepared
pathway for the passage of later epithermal fluids.

Quartz-tourmaline–cemented Quartz tourmaline breccia vein

hydrothermal breccia. crosscutting and then following an
earlier quartz-sulfide-magnetite vein.
• The main stage of gold deposition occurred early in the paragenesis of quartz-
pyrite-stibnite-realgar-orpiment veins, with the deposition of fine-grained,
auriferous, sooty arsenical pyrite and minor arsenopyrite.

(A). Quartz-sooty pyrite-stibnite vein cutting earlier quartz-sulfide-magnetite veins and

sericitic Alteration .(B) Quartz-stibnite vein with orpiment impregnations in wall rock. (C).
Quartz-tourmaline breccia vein, with vuggy cavities infilling by late orpiment. (D). Realgar
and acicular orpiment overgrown by late chalcedony in a vug in a quartz-sooty pyrite vein.
 Mineralization
• Invisible gold occurs in solid solution in fine-grained arsenical
pyrite and minor arsenopyrite, deposited in the early stages of
quartz-adularia-pyrite-stibnite veins.
• Liquid-rich fluid inclusions in these veins have an average
homogenization temperature (trapping temperature) of 199°
± 24°C, salinities of 3.6 ± 1.1 wt percent NaCl equiv, and
coexist with low-density CO2-bearing vapor-phase inclusions,
suggesting low-pressure conditions.
 Genetic Model
• The Sari Gunay deposit may thus be classified as a collision-
related alkalic-type epithermal system, although it is less
alkaline than classic deposits of this group such as
Porgera,Emperor, or Cripple Creek.
 The Gandy and Abolhassani Epithermal Prospects in

the

Alborz Magmatic Arc, Semnan Province, Northern Iran

GHOLAM HOSSEIN SHAMANIAN,

JEFFREY W. HEDENQUIST, KIKO H. HATTORI,
JAMSHID HASSANZADEH

Shamanian, G. H., Hedenquist, J. W., Hattori, K. H. & Hassanzadeh, J. 2004.

The Gandy and Abolhassani epithermal prospects in the Alborz magmatic
arc, Semnan province, Northern Iran. Economic Geology,.712–691 ,99
• The Gandy and Abolhassani epithermal precious and base
metal deposits occur in the Torud-Chah Shirin mountain
range in the Alborz magmatic belt of northern Iran.
• The mountain range is considered to be part of the Paleogene
Alborz volcanic arc.
• The Gandy and Abolhassani areas are about 3 km apart, and
each contains a small abandoned Pb- Zn mine.
• Mineralization at Gandy occurs in quartz sulfide veins and
breccias and is accompanied by alteration halos of quartz,
illite, and calcite up to 2 m wide.
• The average homogenization temperatures (Th) and salinities
of fluid inclusion assemblages from Gandy range from 234° to
285°C, with a peak at about 250°C and 4.2 to 5.4 wt percent
NaCl equiv.
• The temperature and salinity values in fluid inclusion
assemblages from the Abolhassani deposit range from 234° to
340°C and 6.7 to 18.7 wt percent NaCl equiv.
100
A. Hydrothermal brecciated zones of stage I with fragments of host tuff breccia that have been kaolinitized.
B. B. Hydrothermal breccia of stage I, consisting of brecciated fragments of altered tuff that show a jigsaw-
puzzle texture.
C. Narrow veins of base metal sulfides, barite, and quartz of stage II.
E. Hydrothermal breccias of stage I mineralization in the Abolhassani
prospect, consisting of brecciated fragments of altered dacite.
F. Andesite cut by veinlets of galena, sphalerite, and quartz, which
represent the second stage of mineralization.
Backscattered electron images of minerals from the Gandy and Abolhassani
prospects. A. and B. Gold grains (Au) in secondary iron oxides of stage I
(Gandy prospect). C. and D. Gold within galena (Gn) and chalcopyrite (Ccp) of
stage II (Gandy prospect).
 Genetic Model

The mineralogy of ore, gangue, and alteration products,

combined with fluid inclusion data from both areas,
indicate that these are intermediate-sulfidation
epithermal veins that share characteristics with
those of major districts in Mexico, western United
States, Peru, and elsewhere.
Geological setting and timing of the Chah Zard
breccia-hosted epithermal gold–silver deposit
in the Tethyan belt of Iran

Hossein Kouhestani
Majid Ghaderi
Khin Zaw
Sebastien Meffre
Mohammad Hashem Emami
• The breccia-hosted epithermal gold–silver deposit of Chah
Zard is located within a high-K, calc-alkaline andesitic to
rhyolitic volcanic complex in the central part of the Urumieh-
Dokhtar Magmatic Arc (UDMA), west central Iran.
• The total measured resource for Chah Zard is ∼2.5 million
tonnes of ore at 12.7 g/t Ag and 1.7 g/t Au (28.6 t Ag, 3.8 t
Au).
• LA-ICP–MS U–Pb zircon geochronology yields a mean age of
6.2±0.2 Ma for magmatic activity at Chah Zard.
• Precious metals occur with sulfide and sulfosalt minerals as
disseminations, as well as in the veins and breccia cements.
• ore minerals consisting of pyrite, marcasite, arsenian pyrite,
arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, gold (in
electrum and native form), and silver sulfosalts.
• Hydrothermal alteration and deposition of gangue minerals
progressed from illite-quartz to quartz-adularia, carbonate,
and finally gypsum-dominated assemblages.
A: Polymictic breccia with carbonate cement, containing pre-brecciationclasts of stage 1
mineralization. B: Clast-rotated polymicticbreccia with stage 2A sulfide (pyrite-arsenian
pyrite) cement. C: Photomicrograph of subparallel sheeted stage 2. C :quartz-adularia veins
cutting polymictic breccia. D: Photomicrograph of stage 3 veins containing dogtooth quartz
and fine-grained aggregates of quartz, and colloform pyrite, cutting stage 2A mineralization.
E: Stage 4A quartz–pyrite-base metal sulfide veins overgrown by stage 4B gypsum veins.
Euhedral pyrite surrounded by marcasite and Native gold associated with pyrite and quartz.
arsenian pyrite showing zoning pattern.
 Genetic Model
• The Chah Zard gold–silver deposit is a good example of a
breccia-hosted low- to intermediate-sulfidation epithermal
deposit (e.g. Hedenquist et al. 1996; Sillitoe 1999; Einaudi et
al. 2003; Sillitoe and Hedenquist 2003).
• This deposit formed in a transtensional environment related
to the evolution of the Dehshir-Baft strike-slip fault system.
• The age of Au–Ag mineralization at Chah Zard is younger than
those of the large porphyry Cu–Mo deposits (e.g., Sar
Cheshmeh, Meiduk, and Sungun) and other epithermal gold
deposits (e.g., Sari Gunay) so far discovered in UDMA and may
represent a previously unrecognized pulse of mineralization in
UDMA.
 Geological setting, alteration, and fluid inclusion
characteristics of Zaglic and Safikhanloo epithermal
gold prospects, NW Iran

SUSAN EBRAHIMI
SAEED ALIREZAEI
YUANMING PAN3

From: Sial, A. N., Bettencourt, J. S., De Campos, C. P. & Ferreira, V. P. (2011)

Granite-Related Ore [Link] Society, London, Special Publications,
350, 133–147.
• The Zaglic and Safikhanloo epithermal gold prospects are
located in the Arasbaran zone, to the west of the Cenozoic
Alborz-Azarbaijan magmatic belt in NW Iran.
• Mineralization is mainly restricted to quartz and quartz -
carbonate veins and veinlets.
• Gold occurs as microscopic and submicroscopic grains in
quartz and pyrite.
• The least altered country rocks display a trend from calc-alkaline to
alkaline, and feature more typical of continental arc/rift magmas.
(a) Lenticular dark gray
quartz, rich in
microscopic pyrite
(black spots). (b and c).
Pyrite from the main
stage of mineralization
occurring as
disseminations (b) and
veinlets (c) in silica. (d)
Bornite (Bo) and
chalcopyrite (Cp)
replaced by covellite
during supergene
processes. (e)
microscopic gold grain
(Au) in quartz. (f )
Coarse-grained (bladed)
calcite (Ca) from the
main stage of
mineralization.
 Fluid Inclusion
• For Safikhanloo, homogenization temperatures (Th)
vary between 170–230 8C.
• For Zaglic, Th values vary between 190–331C.
• The relatively wide variations in the salinity values
(0.17–6.7 and 1.4 to 9.5 wt% NaCl equiv. for Zaglic
and Safikhanloo, respectively) could be explained by
extensive boiling and vaporization of a low salinity
fluid
 Genetic Model
• With regards to the dominant intermediate argillic
alteration, low contents of base-metal sulphides,
homogenization temperatures, and the overall low
salinities of the fluids, the Safikhanloo and Zaglic
prospects formed in a low-sulphidation
epithermalenvironment.