Rubberized Geopolymer Composites A Comprehensive Review

Ceramics International 48 (2022) 24234–24259
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Ceramics International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ceramint
Rubberized geopolymer composites: A comprehensive review

Shaker M.A. Qaidi a, Ahmed S. Mohammed b, *, Hemn Unis Ahmed b, Rabar H. Faraj c,
Wael Emad d, Bassam A. Tayeh e, Fadi Althoey f, Osama Zaid g, Nadhim Hamah Sor h
a
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Duhok, Duhok, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
b
Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Sulaimani, Sulaimaniyah, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
c
Civil Engineering Department, University of Halabja, Halabja, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
d
Department of Civil Engineering, Komar University of Science and Technology, Kurdistan-Region, Iraq
e
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Islamic University of Gaza, P.O. Box 108, Gaza Strip, Palestine
f
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Najran University, Najran, 1988, Saudi Arabia
g
Department of Structure Engineering, Military College of Engineering (MCE), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), H-12 Campus, 44000,
Islamabad, Pakistan
h
Civil Engineering Department, University of Garmian, Kalar, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The construction sector has been addressing the issue of integrating sustainability into production processes over
Rubberized geopolymer concrete the last few years, either through solid waste materials as aggregates in concrete or the search for more eco-
Waste rubber tires friendly raw materials. Besides, the global trends group focused on developing an alternative to cement,
Crumb rubber
which is a significant contributor to pollution of the environment due to its greenhouse gas emissions. Geo
Mechanical and durability properties
Applications
polymer (GP) is one of the most acceptable solutions for utilizing all industrial by-products containing an
Embodied CO2 emissions alumino-silicate (A-S) source material. However, one method to recycle waste rubber tires is incorporating them
into geopolymer concrete (GPC) as an alternative to natural aggregates. Recently, the potential of combining the
advantages of GPC with rubberized concrete to produce rubberized geopolymer concrete (Ru-GPC) as a viable,
sustainable building material has been recognized. This paper presents a state-of-the-art review of the waste
rubber’s environmental and economic impact, resources, recycling, classifications, and physicochemical prop
erties. Besides, this article provides in-depth studies on the behaviors and properties of Ru-GPC composites, such
as their basic components, preparation and curing processes, fresh and physical properties, mechanical prop
erties, dynamic properties, durability properties, microstructures, and insulation properties. The effect of crumb
rubber (CRu) substitution on critical properties is addressed critically. Also, it highlights the applications,
embodied CO2 emissions, and cost analysis of Ru-GPC. Moreover, gaps in the literature and recommendations for
future study have been identified to support further developments in the investigation and future publication of
Ru-GPC materials in practice.
Association [6] reports that over 230 million waste rubber tires are
1. Introduction produced each year, and over 75 million are preserved. This massive
volume of non-biodegradable garbage consumes considerable land and
The disposal of waste rubber tires has become a significant envi poses environmental hazards. Thus, discarded tires are now recycled to
ronmental concern globally. Tires are continuously disposed of, dis benefit the environment and the economy to meet growing ecological
carded, or buried worldwide, posing a severe environmental threat [1, concerns, as seen in Figs. 1 and 2. As per a report by the U.S.-RMA [6],
2]. Every year, it is estimated that nearly a billion tires reach the end of just 16% of discarded tires are dumped in landfills, with the rest recycled
their useful life, with over half being disposed of in landfills or as in other ways.
garbage without treatment [3,4]. Moreover, energy recovered from waste tires benefits industrial
As per a World Bank report (2018) [5], worldwide waste generation economies in developed countries. About 2%–8% of waste tires in the
is expected to rise by 70% in the next thirty years to 3.5 thousand million USA and the EU, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2 are recycled as engineering
tonnes. If the USA situation is considered, the Rubber Manufacturers and construction materials [7].
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ahmed.mohammed@univsul.edu.iq (A.S. Mohammed).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2022.06.123
Received 7 May 2022; Received in revised form 4 June 2022; Accepted 12 June 2022
Available online 13 June 2022
0272-8842/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd and Techna Group S.r.l. All rights reserved.
S.M.A. Qaidi et al. Ceramics International 48 (2022) 24234–24259
List of abbreviations
GP Geopolymer
GPC Geopolymer concrete
CRu Crumb rubber
Ru-GPC Rubberized geopolymer concrete
PC Portland cement
Sodium silicate Na2SiO3
Sodium hydroxide NaOH
SS/SH Sodium silicate (Na2SiO3)/Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
A-S Alumino-silicates
AAS Alkaline-activator solution
MOE Modulus of elasticity
RTSF Recycled tire steel fiber
NRC Noise reduction coefficient
ELT End of life tires
Tires are disposed of in many ways, including landfill disposal,

burning, using as fuel, pyrolysis, and producing carbon black. Moreover,
stored tires pose various health, ecological, and economic problems due
to air, water, and soil pollution [8–10]. Over several years, the building
industry has responded to integrating sustainability into manufacturing
processes by utilizing solid waste products as aggregates in concrete or
by seeking out more ecologically friendly raw ingredients [11,12]. One
possible method of recycling discarded tire rubber is to include it in Fig. 2. Recovery of scrap tire materials in the EU (2019) [21,26].
concrete in place of natural aggregates. This strategy can be ecologically
friendly since it contributes to preventing environmental pollution involves extensive overuse of natural resources, mostly limestone
caused by the disposal of discarded tires. quarries. The globe consumes more than 3 thousand million tonnes of
Moreover, it reduces carbon dioxide emissions by preventing tire raw materials (of which 70% are limestone) to make just 2 thousand
fires. Consequently, rubberized concrete has garnered considerable in million tonnes of PC. All of the above parameters contribute to the
terest as a viable technology for construction materials that may research and emergence of new alternative materials that are more
contribute to the reduction of environmental dangers. Numerous pre energy-efficient and environmentally friendly (lower CO2 emissions,
vious research shows that concrete, including CRu’s, increases impact recycling of industrial waste) while keeping or surpassing the effec
resistance while decreasing compression and flexural strengths. There is tiveness of ordinary PC [15–17].
widespread agreement on the drastic drop in mechanical characteristics Compared to PC-concrete, geopolymer concrete (GPC) has been
caused by an increase in rubber content [12–14]. made because it has better mechanical properties, low creep, low
Portland cement (PC) is an effective construction material. Yet, its shrinkage, and better acid resistance [18,19]. It has also been made
manufacture is energy-intensive (requiring kiln temperatures of because it is more environmentally friendly than PC-concrete. GP ad
1450–1550 ◦ C) and has other significant ecological impacts. With hesive binds loose fine aggregates, coarse aggregates, and other
approximately one tonne of CO2 produced for every tonne of PC pro unreacted materials together [20–22]. It is an alkali-activated binder
duced, this binder is a major contributor to climate change (responsible created through polymerization involving alkaline liquids, silicon, and
for around 7% of world emissions of CO2). Moreover, PC manufacture aluminum oxides found in various kinds of raw materials. Numerous
Fig. 1. Waste tire disposal in the USA (2017) [21,25].
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geologically originated minerals, including metakaolin, and industrial Compared to carbon black made from petroleum sources, carbon black
wastes, including fly ash and ground granulated blast-furnace slag created from tires is more costly and of inferior quality. Tire rubber can
(GGBFS), can be activated [23]. As a result, it emits less CO2 than PC and be used in a variety of civil and non-civil engineering fields, including
generates high-value construction materials by recycling industrial road construction, geotechnical work, onshore and offshore breakwa
waste with an alumino-silicate composition [24]. Fig. 3 shows, in ters, agriculture to seal silos, retaining walls in harbors and estuaries to
simplified form, the geopolymerisation process. cushion the impact of ships, artificial reefs to improve fishing, as a fuel in
Limited research has been undertaken on the effect of CRu on GP cement kilns, combustion for power generation, reefs in marine envi
concrete mixes. However, it has gained considerable attention in engi ronments, and as an aggregate in cement-based products. Regardless,
neering materials due to the numerous experimental studies performed millions of tires are discarded, buried, or burned every year [32].
in the published studies. Additionally, the rubber content has an Tire burning, the cheapest and simplest form of disposal, creates
important impact on rubberized concrete’s compressive and tensile major fire dangers [33]. The temperature increases in that region and
strengths. Nevertheless, the limited available data on the mechanical the noxious smoke from uncontrolled releases of potentially harmful
characteristics of Ru-GPC tends to leave some questions unanswered, substances are hazardous to people, animals, and plants. Tires are made
and extra-scientific facts are required to confirm the capability of pro using petrochemical feedstocks like butadiene and styrene. Butadiene is
ducing Ru-GPC composites with CRu serving as a partial substitute for a highly carcinogenic four-carbon molecule that may be generated while
both fine and coarse aggregates. It is critical to develop rubberized burning the styrene-butadiene polymer (bur-ningissues.org). Tire com
concrete to meet the demand for high-performance, cost-effective, and bustion emits styrene and various benzene derivatives. The contami
environmentally friendly materials in contemporary construction. This nants in the air generate thick black smoke, which reduces vision and
paper presents a state-of-the-art review of the technical and production soil painted surfaces. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons, CO, NO2, HCl, and
properties of the recent advances and perspectives of Ru-GPC. SO2, are among the hazardous gases emitted. The powder residue left
behind after burning pollutes the earth. The problem with pyrolysis is
2. Waste rubber that it makes carbon black powder, making the environment dirty.
For some years, the construction sector has focused on the issue of
2.1. Disposal of waste rubber tires incorporating sustainability into its production processes, whether via
the use of more environmentally friendly raw materials or the use of
Waste tire disposal has become a serious environmental concern in solid waste products as aggregates in concrete [34]. One potential use of
all countries worldwide. It is predicted that 1.5 billion tires are made discarded tire rubber is to include it in cement concrete to substitute for
each year globally [2,28,29]. Annually, millions of tires are dumped, some natural particles. This attempt could be environmentally benign
thrown away, or buried worldwide, posing a severe danger to the since it contributes to the disposal of waste tires and prevents environ
environment. Tires are disposed of in many ways, including landfill mental contamination. Furthermore, it contributes to carbon dioxide
disposal, usage as fuel, burning, and pyrolysis to make carbon black. reduction by preventing tire fires. This procedure is also a good deal
Stockpiled tires also pose various health, economic, and environmental because it can save some more expensive natural aggregates [35–37].
problems due to water contamination, air, and soil [9]. Because of their
unique shape and waterproof nature, tires can hold water for a long
time, making them a good place for mosquitoes and other pests to live 2.2. Environmental and economic impact
and breed [30,31].
The economics of using tire rubber as fuel are unattractive. Apart from human activities, the growth in waste disposal has
opened a Pandora’s Box for waste management at the end of life,
Fig. 3. Simplified geopolymerisation process [27].
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encouraging worldwide academics to produce optimal waste recycling

and disposal solutions that promote environmental and economic sus
tainability [38–43]. Among the other types of waste, end-of-of-life tires
(ELTs) are one of the most frequent volume and shape [44,45].
Employed tires could be recycled or disposed of. ELT waste could be
disposed of in landfills, thermally processed to generate energy (through
incineration), or recycled to get raw ingredients [46–48]. The first two
techniques (disposal and incineration) could cause various ecological
issues regarding waste tire management. For instance, during landfill
disposal, this could function as a breeding site for disease-carrying in
sects and rodents, or it could be a product of dioxins and other high
volatility toxins during incineration, posing serious health risks [49,50].
As a result of these aspects, rubber tires are treated selectively to pro
duce granules, flakes, powders, and textiles, enabling them to be
employed in several sophisticated applications, including concrete [46,
51,52].
The ecological benefits of utilizing rubber in concrete include the
proper disposal of dumped and non-biodegradable rubber tires, road
infrastructure water resistance, decreased demand for natural raw ma
Fig. 5. Tire structure and engineered layers [62].
terial supply, elimination of the need for capital assets, and, therefore, a
contribution to sustainable management [53–55]. Because of the
2.4. Recycling
amount of fine and coarse materials used in building, including rubber in
concrete, it can effectively help conserve the ecosystem while also
Tire waste is typically utilized for energy recovery, and various types
minimizing building costs [56–58].
of waste-derived automobiles are also recovered in the building industry
Recycling waste in any form is beneficial. Academics have spent
[25,66]. The methods of waste tire recycling vary based on the goals.
decades attempting to find an adequate standard for recycling tire waste
Waste tires have enormous potential as a material for construction since
using a variety of approaches. The global tire recycling market was
they include steel, fibers, and rubber, all of which can be recovered using
worth $4.54 billion in 2021 and is predicted to reach $5.38 billion by
various techniques [25]. As concrete additives, steel and fibers can be
2026, increasing at a cumulative annual growth rate of 3.41%
used [67]. CRu, on the other hand, can be utilized as a coarse or fine
throughout the forecast timeframe, as shown in Fig. 4-a. If the USA
aggregate [25]. At the same time, rubber powder can be used as a filler
scenario is taken into account, the US tire recycling market was worth
or binder in concrete [60,68]. This study focuses on studying the
$0.89 billion in 2015 and is predicted to reach $1.15 billion by 2031,
different properties of CRu in the form of aggregate. Fig. 6 illustrates the
increasing at a cumulative annual growth rate of 2.6% throughout the
fundamental processing steps for a waste rubber recycling plant, which
forecast timeframe, as shown in Fig. 4-b [59].
can be divided into three major steps: crushing and grinding screening,
and magnetic separation [69]. This provides a framework for further
2.3. Resources
inspections.
Tires are the primary source of CRu, which is broadly classified as
truck and vehicle tires [60]. The physical and chemical characteristics of 2.5. Classifications and pphysico-chemical properties
tires vary depending on their origin [61]. As a result, the influence on
concrete strength differs. While tires are typically comprised of a unique Earlier studies categorized the waste rubber used in concrete into
combination of materials, they are toughened to obtain the appropriate distinct categories based on its size. Table 2 and Fig. 7 show the standard
properties. Yet, most of them have nearly the same volume of rubber rubber divisions and sizes.
[25]. Fig. 5 shows a typical tire structure, and Table 1 lists the most The physical properties of tires differ considerably based on the
important parts of each tire. source. Consequently, when used, they have varying effects on the
Fig. 4. Tire recycling downstream products market: (a) global, and (b) U.S [59].
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Table 1
Compositions of a standard tire.
Type of tire Compositions (%) Ref.
Synthetic rubber Natural rubber Carbon black Ash Steel Others
Car tire – 43–48 20–28 – 14–16 3–6 [63]

45–55 22–42 30–38 2–7 – – [64]
26 15 28 – 13–15 – [65]
Truck tire 15 26 28 – 14.5–15 – [64]
– 42–45 21–28 – 21–27 1–10 [65]
Fig. 6. The fundamental phases of producing a waste tire recycling plant [69].
temperatures [63]. The chemical composition of CRu, on the other hand,

Table 2
changes, as do the physical properties, based on the methods of manu
Rubber aggregate classifications.
facture of tires and the origins of the basic materials [70]. CRu particles
Aggregates size (mm) Ref. have a specific gravity ranging from 1.05 to 1.15 [71–73]. Li, Li, Wei,
Powdered/ground CRu Shredded/chipped Fiber Zhang, Wei and Li [74], CRu particles have a bulk density of 260–460
rubber rubber rubber kg/m3. Also, many investigations have found that the melting point of
0.075–0.0475 0.425–4.75 11–76 – [68] CRu is about 170 ◦ C [75–77]. Moreover, CRu is a hydrophobic material
0.15–19 0.5–5.0 12–76 8.5–21.5 [83] with a considerable water contact angle, varying from 95◦ to 122◦
<1 3–10 25–30 – [60] [78–81]. When additional CRu was added to concrete, Akinyele, Salim
and Kupolati [82] noticed a decrease in the amount of key components,
strength of concrete [25]. Synthetic and biological rubber, metal, carbon including Ca, Fe, Si, O, and Al. Furthermore, as expected, the amount of
black, fabric, and additives are common tire elements [25]. Incorpo S and C in the mixture rose as the amount of CRu increased, due to the
rating various additives into tire rubber products, such as antioxidants, elevated sulfur and carbon black content of tire rubber [82]. The
stabilizers, and antiozonants, makes them non-biodegradable, imper physical and chemical properties of the CRu’s are shown in Tables 3 and
vious to chemical reagents, photochemical degradation, and high 4.
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Fig. 7. Different sizes of CRu particles: (a) 2 mm, (b) 750 μm, and (c) 375 μm [84].
3. Main material of rubberized geopolymer concrete

Table 3
Physical properties of the CRu.
3.1. Alumino-silicates (A-S)
Size (mm) property Ref.
Water absorption (%) Specific gravity Density (kg/m3) GGBFS, fly ash, metakaolin, silica fume, rice husk ash, red mud, and
0.15–2.36 / 0.84 535 [85]
waste wood ash are common A-S precursors employed in the production
2–6 0.65 1.13 490 [86] of GP concrete. When these materials are combined with an alkaline
0–5 / / 410–465 [87] liquid, they release silica and aluminum, leading to GP gels [94]. Raw
5–10 5.30–8.90 1.12 460 materials’ mineralogical and chemical composition significantly im
10–20 0.80–1.30 1.12 485
pacts their reactivity [21]. Table 7 presents the A-S source materials
utilized in various research to make rubberized alkali-activated con
crete, revealing that most studies employed GGBFS, or fly ash, and
Table 4
Chemical composition of the CRu.
Composition (%) Ref.
Carbon Black Oxygen Zinc Sulfur Silicon Polymer Magnesium Aluminum Nitrogen Ash Hydrogen Organic compounds
87.52 9.23 1.76 1.09 0.20 / 0.14 0.08 / / / / [88]

91.50 3.3 3.5 1.20 / / / / / / [89]
81.2–85.3 1.72–2.07 / 1.32–1.64 / / / / 0.32–0.47 / 7.22–7.43 / [90]
40.1 / / / 45 / / / / 15 [91]
30–39 / / 1–5 / 42–55 / / / 3–71 / / [92]
31.35 / / 3.24 / 38.3 / / / 5.44 / [93]
Table 5
Chemical composition of GGBFS.
Chemical composition (%) Refs.
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO Na2O SO3 CaO K2O P2O5 TiO2 CL SrO LOI
34.10 12.30 0.41 0.25 8.12 / 2.59 44.20 0.56 / 0.96 / / / [95]
36.95 10.01 1.48 0.52 6.43 1.39 3.52 33.07 0.74 0.10 0.52 0.05 / / [96]
31.40 13.10 0.80 0.20 5.50 0.30 4.00 43.20 0.30 0 0.60 / / 0.60 [97]
32.92 13.80 0.58 / 5.76 0.20 3.33 42.13 0.32 0.034 0.57 / / / [98]
34.95 13.58 0.53 0.15 3.58 0.26 2.52 42.88 0.61 / 0.63 / / / [99]
35.12 14.20 0.62 0.69 8.47 0.98 / 39.08 / / 0.71 / / 0.13 [100]
36.10 9.30 0.03 / 8.90 0.80 2.20 39.00 0.60 / / / / 1.01 [101]
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Table 6
Chemical composition of fly ash.
Chemical composition (%) Refs.
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO Na2O SO3 CaO K2O P2O5 TiO2 CL SrO LOI
Class F fly ash 54.70 29.00 6.74 / 0.80 1.88 0.10 1.29 / / / / / 2.72 [102]
55.90 27.80 7.09 / / / / 3.95 1.55 / 2.25 / 0.37 / [103]
50.00 23.40 17.29 0.22 / / 0.08 5.06 1.41 / 1.60 / / / [104]
50.40 31.50 10.40 / 1.10 0.30 0.10 3.30 0.50 0.50 1.90 / <0.1 / [98]
50.30 22.90 8.17 0.08 2.00 / 0.58 3.38 3.55 / 1.15 / / / [95]
61.75 24.61 6.47 / 1.53 / / 3.45 0.55 / 0.91 / / / [105]
55.90 23.90 7.90 0.10 1.30 0.40 0.30 7.00 1.00 0.50 1.30 / / 0.30 [106]
Class C fly ash 39.40 20.80 11.50 / 2.20 1.40 4.20 14.5 2.40 0.20 0.50 / / 1.50 [107]
50.67 18.96 6.35 / 3.12 0.69 0.74 14.14 / / / / / 0.17 [102]
45.85 16.82 12.05 0.18 2.90 0.50 3.76 12.97 1.83 0.28 0.48 / 0.05 / [108]
Table 7
Summary of previous studies for precursor, alkaline-activator, admixture, and curing methods.
Precursors Alkaline activators Admixtures Curing
Na2SiO3 (modulus of NaOH SS/ AA/ Type Doses (SP/ Type Duration Temps. Refs.
silicate) (molarity) SH AP AP) (hrs) (◦ C)
Class C fly ash 2.41 10, 15, 20 0.51 0.650 / / Oven 48 25 [98]
1.5 0.750 60
0.85 90
2.41 10 1 0.75 / / Oven 48 60 [140]
1.85 12 N.M N.M / / Heat 6 60 [108]
2.15 6, 8, 10, 12 0.33 0.6 / / Ambi. U.T 25 [119]
Class C fly ash + 2.5 8, 14 0.52 N.M PB N.M Steam 7-d 46 [102]
Class F fly ash
Class F fly ash 3.2 12 2.0 0.40 / / Ambi. U.T 20–22 [104]
2.0 14 2.5 0.4 NB 2% Oven 48 90 [118]
N.M 14 2.5 0.4 NB 2% Oven 48 90 [121]
N.M 10 N.M 0.45 NB 2% Hot water 48 60 [124]
curing
N.M 12 2.5 0.5 / / Seawater U.T N.M [103]
N.M 10 2 0.4 / / Ambi. U.T 20–22 [123]
N.M 10, 12, 14 1.52 0.30 NB 2%3%4% Oven 24, 48, 72 60, 75, 90 [129]
2.5 0.350
0.4
N.M 8 2.5 0.45 NB 2% Oven 24 60 [141]
Class F fly ash + 2.0 10 2.0 0.4 PB 1% Ambi. U.T 20 ± 2 [95]
GGBFS 3.2 14 2.5 0.4 PB + 5.55 mL/kg Ambi. U.T 23 [98]
VMS + setting time 5.55 mL/kg
retarder 11.12 mL/
kg
2.3 12 1.58 0.37 / / Ambi. U.T 25 ± 5 [106]
2.0 12 1.5 0.4 / / Oven 48 80 [105]
Class F fly ash+ N.M 12 2.5 0.4 Super lubricant 1.5% Oven + 48 Until the 60 [120]
PC Ambi. test N.M
Class F fly ash+ N.M 10 2.5 0.80 / / N.M N.M N.M [142]
Waste wood
ash
fly ash N.M 10, 12, 14 1.52 0.30 NB 2%3%4% Oven 24, 48, 72 60, 75, 90 [128]
2.5 0.35
0.4
fly ash + N.M 12 N.M N.M / / Ambi. U.T N.M [98]
GGBFS N.M 12 2.5 0.6 / / N.M N.M N.M [122]
GGBFS 2.59 N.M 0.39 0.54 / / Ambi. U.T N.M [116]
3.39 / 0.3 / / Heat curing 28-d 45 ± 1 [96]
1.96 N.M 6.13 0.152 / / Ambi. U.T 20 ± 2 [100]
2.6 10 0.69 0.6 PB 1% Ambi. U.T 23 ± 2 [126]
2.6 10 0.69 0.58 / / Ambi. U.T N.M [101]
GGBFS + / / / / PB defoamer 2.7%, Water U.T 23 ± 3 [99]
Calcium 3.6%,
hydroxide 5%, 2.9%
0.1%
Metakaolin N.M 15 2.9 0.84 / / Oven 48 65 [117]
U.T = Until testing, NB = naphthalene-based, PB = polycarboxylate-based, SP = superplasticizer, VMA = viscosity modifying agent, N.M. = Not mention.
frequently the two in combination. Tables 5 and 6 show the chemical 3.2. Alkaline-activator solution (AAS)
compositions of GGBFS and fly ash utilized in various research to obtain
rubberized concrete. As demonstrated in Table 7, sodium hydroxide and sodium hydrox
ide were utilized as AAS in rubberized concrete. GP concrete can also be
24240
made using potassium silicate and potassium hydroxide [109]. These poorly when certain superplasticizers were introduced to GP concrete
alkaline liquids aid in extracting aluminum oxide and silicon dioxide [131–134]. Many studies explore the influence of superplasticizers on
from source material A-S to create GP binders [110] and are normally GP concrete made with GGBFS [135], fly ash [132,136,137], both fly
made one day before blending [102]. As shown in Table 7, the molarity ash and GGBFS [138] and metakaolin [139]. It was discovered that the
of sodium hydroxide solutions employed in rubberized concrete mix efficiency of superplasticizers was dependent on the activator utilized,
tures ranged from 6 molarity [111] to 20 molarity [107]. The molarity of the water content, the water content, the A-S source material, and the
sodium hydroxide solution affects the compressive strength of rubber blending circumstances. Superplasticizers based on polycarboxylates,
ized concrete and GP concrete mixtures [112,113]. High doses of so and naphthalene were the most often utilized in rubberized concrete
dium hydroxide have a negative impact on mechanical characteristics mixtures, as shown in Table 7. The superplasticizers used in various
[114,115], although this relies on the precursor materials, such as rubberized concrete mixtures ranged from 1% [126] to 5% of the binder
reactivity, fineness, and chemical composition [108]. Conversely, so content [99]. Luhar, Chaudhary and Dave [128] investigated the impact
dium hydroxide, frequently referred to as water glass, is employed in of various naphthalene sulfonate-based superplasticizer doses (2–4%)
various industrial and commercial uses and can be manufactured in on the compressive strength of rubberized concrete and discovered that
highly viscous or solid conditions [116]. As indicated in Table 7, larger concentrations led to decreased compressive strength. In addition
numerous research on rubberized concrete employed sodium hydroxide to superplasticizers, a setting time retarder [98], a viscosity modifying
with a modulus of silicate varying from 1.86 [108] to 4.50 [117], with agent [98], and a defoamer [99] were added to rubberized concrete
ideal values ranging from 2.0 to 2.50 [95,105,106,118]. The SS/SH ratio mixtures. A setting time aids in delaying concrete setting, while a vis
determines the characteristics of GP concrete [105]. In the in cosity modifying agent changes the rheology of the concrete mixture to
vestigations on rubberized concrete included in Table 7, the SS/SH ratio achieve good workability.
ranged from 0.33 [119] to 2.90 [117], although most of the in
vestigations used a ratio between 1.50 and 2.50 [118,120–122]. Aside 4. Preparation and curing of rubberized geopolymer concrete
from the molarity of the SS/SH ratio and the sodium hydroxide solution,
the ratio of AAS to A-S precursor, which ranged between 0.15 [100] and 4.1. Rubber waste pretreatment
0.85 [107] in rubberized concrete investigations, with an optimal value
of 0.40 [98,123]. Before blending, rubber waste is pretreated to minimize the adverse
effects of CRu inclusion. Pretreatment approaches for various Ru-GPC
3.3. Natural aggregates mixtures are listed in Table 7, which primarily involve water soaking/
washing and sodium hydroxide pretreatment. Both approaches include
Aggregates are often classified as coarse aggregates or fine aggre immersing the rubber particles in the pretreatment liquid for approxi
gates based on their size. Table 7 shows the type, size, proportion, and mately 60 s and then closing the container for 24 h at room temperature
specific gravity of the coarse aggregates and fine aggregates utilized in [106]. After draining the solution, the rubber is carefully cleaned to
the production of rubberized concrete. Coarse aggregate was obtained reduce its pH to about seven. The rubber particles are dried to achieve
from a variety of resources, including crushed gravel [124], crushed saturated surface dry (SSD) conditions.
dolomite [116], crushed basalt [116], and lightweight coarse aggregates Regarding soaking in water, the water is drained after 24 h s, and the
[125]. Natural sand was the most prominent source utilized by fine rubber particles are supposed to reach an SSD state before being intro
aggregates. Fine aggregates typically account for 30–45% of natural duced to the mixture [98]. Both pretreatment approaches effectively
aggregates by mass, with coarse aggregates accounting for the rest. Fine eliminated contaminants from the surfaces of CRu particles [122] while
aggregates consist entirely of aggregates in rubberized GP mortar [107, keeping the same surface texture [106]. Nevertheless, compared to
111,126]. water soaking, pretreatment with sodium hydroxide resulted in the
formation of more needle-formed crystals on the surfaces [122]. Pre
3.4. Rubber particles treatment with a sodium hydroxide solution aids in the removal of the
zinc stearate layer from the surface of the CRu particles, which acts as a
Rubber particles recycled from discarded tires substitute for a pro barrier between both the concrete mixture and rubber [143–146].
portion of fine, coarse, or total natural aggregate in rubberized concrete Moreover, immersing the mixture in water can help increase compres
[127]. Because of their larger size, shredded rubber particles are usually sive strength and minimize air entrapped [73].
utilized as alternative coarse aggregates in concrete, whereas CRu par Pham, Lim and Malekzadeh [141] studied the characteristics of four
ticles are frequently utilized as alternative fine aggregates. Even though distinct CRu pretreatment regimens on the characteristics of Ru-GPC
extremely fine ground rubber (powdered) has been utilized to substitute based on fly ash. Pretreatment approaches studied comprised
the binder in rubberized concrete partially, powdered rubber lacks immersing CRu particles in a sodium hydroxide solution, soaking in
cementitious characteristics [96]. Table 7 shows the rubber particles’ water, coating CRu particles with ultra-fine slag, or coating CRu parti
type, size, percent substitution, and specific gravity in rubberized con cles with cement paste. As demonstrated by the results, all pretreatment
crete. Most research employed CRu to substitute natural aggregates, approaches improved compressive strength [141]. When compressive
whereas just a few used rubber fibers [128,129] and natural rubber latex strength was considered, coating with ultra-fine slag and pretreatment
[119]. The substitution of natural aggregates in rubberized concrete by with sodium hydroxide solution produced the most impressive results.
CRu particles was up to 100% [107], resulting in strengths sufficient for Ultra-fine slag worked as fillers and generated calcium silicate com
rubberized concrete bricks/blocks [130]. Other research incorporated pounds, which enhanced the microstructure of the Ru-GPC more than
60 vol% CRu substitution [100,126]. However, as indicated in Table 7, coating it with cement paste. Pretreatment of CRu particles, specifically
most investigations limited the substitution to 30 vol%. coating with ultra-fine slag, improved the flexural strength, splitting
strength, and modulus of elasticity (MOE) somewhat as well [141]. In
3.5. Admixtures terms of acid resistance, pretreatment with a sodium hydroxide solution
was most successful, producing the maximum residual strength after
The majority of the admixtures employed in rubberized concrete 90-d of immersion in sulfuric and hydrochloric acids [141].
investigations were either superplasticizers or high-range water re
ducers. Due to GP concrete mixtures’ increased alkalinity, available 4.2. Mixing approaches
commercial superplasticizers were designed for PC-concrete, and
applying them to GP concrete provides a challenge. They performed The AAS was prepared 24 h before blending in most Ru-GPC
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experiments [96,99,124]. In terms of blending, dry ingredients such as achieve high compressive strength under ambient curing conditions and
A-S precursors, coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, and rubber particles do not need thermal curing [151,152].
were blended for 2–5 min first. After mixing for 2–5 min, the extra water
and AAS were added to the dry materials. Admixtures were then grad 5. Fresh and physical properties
ually added and mixed for a further 1–2 min. Concrete was subsequently
cast in the prepared molds, and samples were frequently compacted into 5.1. Workability, flowability, and setting time
two or three layers using a vibrating table to ensure dense samples. Fig. 8
illustrates this technique schematically. Numerous studies on Ru-GPC Concrete flow is reduced when CRu particles are used instead of
started with blending the A-S precursor with the AAS for 3–5 min, natural aggregate [100,153,154]. For instance, when 20, 40, and 60% of
then add the natural aggregate and rubber particles, blending for fine aggregate were replaced with CR, the slump was reduced by 16%,
another 5 min, casting, and compaction [103,126]. 35%, and 52%, respectively, compared to the reference mixture [126].
Likewise, 30% CRu substitution for fine aggregate and coarse aggregate
led to a 17.6% slump reduction as compared to the reference mixture
4.3. Curing methods (from 175 to 140 mm) [106]. This decrease in workability has been
linked to the reduced relative density of CRu particles relative to natural
The curing approaches for Ru-GPC samples are listed in Table 7: aggregate, which results in less flow caused by self-weight [145].
ambient curing, autoclave/steam curing, oven/heat curing, and water Moreover, mechanically processed CRu particles have a larger overall
curing. Unlike PC-concrete, water curing is not commonly used with GP surface area and rougher surfaces than natural aggregate particles,
mixtures due to the possibility of free alkalis leaching through the pores which demands the use of more water to overcome interparticle friction
of the concrete, which leads to the chemical instability of the GP mixture [1,155]. Due to the hydrophobic properties of CRu, they trap air in
[147,148]. Curing samples at elevated temperatures improves strength blending, increasing flow resistance and reducing workability [126].
growth, particularly for fly ash-based GPC [113]. Heat curing is a pro Apart from the influence of CRu substitution on workability, the ratio
cess that involves putting samples in an oven at temperatures ranging of AAS to A-S precursor, the SS/SH ratio, and the molarity of sodium
from 60 to 90 ◦ C for 24–72 h, after which they are returned to ambient hydroxide also influence Ru-GPC flow, as shown in Fig. 9. Increasing the
temperature until tested [118]. On the other side, steam curing entails AAS to A-S precursor ratio is equivalent to increasing the mix’s water
putting samples in an autoclave for 7-d at a temperature of around 46 ◦ C content in PC-concrete and improving workability [156]. When it relates
[102]. After that, the samples are removed and cured at room temper to sodium hydroxide content, higher molarity leads to a stiffer fresh
ature until the test. According to Rajendran and Akasi [105], oven mixture and, consequently, decreased workability [107]. A similar
curing is one and a half times more effective than steam curing. negative influence on workability is observed when the SS/SH ratio is
Luhar, Chaudhary and Dave [128] studied the influence of oven increased, as the increased sodium hydroxide tends to increase the vis
curing duration (24, 48, and 72 h) on the compressive strength of cosity of the fresh mixture [107,157]. Preferring CRu particles with a
Ru-GPC samples, concluding that 48 h of curing was optimal. Moreover, sodium hydroxide solution decreases Ru-GPC workability since rougher
the compressive strength of Ru-GPC rose with curing temperatures, CRu particles have improved flow resistance and adhesion properties
although only slightly above 75 ◦ C. As an option to heat curing, ambient [101].
curing is an appealing approach since it results in less concrete When rubber particles are added to GPC, the initial and final setting
shrinkage, greater energy efficiency, and fewer surface cracks than heat times increase [111]; for example, the initial and final setting times of
curing [149,150]. Moreover, it was demonstrated that GGBFS-based Ru-GPC mixtures containing 10% natural rubber latex were 85 and 135
alkali-activated concrete and rubberized alkali-activated concrete can
Fig. 8. Mix design method for Ru-GPC.
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Fig. 9. Effect of (a) AAS to fly ash ratio, (b) concentration of sodium hydroxide solution, and (c) sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide ratio on the flowability of CRu
geopolymer mortar [107].
min, respectively [111]. In comparison, the reference samples had an of entrapped air in the mixture, the alkaline liquid to solid binder ratio,
initial and final setting time of 62 and 106 min, respectively, demon and the characteristics of the CRu particles’ interaction with the GP
strating an increase due to the inclusion of rubber latex. This is partly binder [158]. When CRu particles are added to GPC, the water absorp
because of the water contained within the pores of the CRu particles, tion and porosity generally increase [123]. Wongsa, Sata, Nematollahi,
which resulted in a modest increase in the total mixture’s water content. Sanjayan and Chindaprasirt [107] found that 100% CRu substitution of
Likewise, as shown in Fig. 10, introducing 2% rubber fibers to Ru-GPC fine aggregate increased the water absorption and porosity of rubberized
mixtures can increase the initial and final setting times by 36% and geopolymer mortar mixtures by 5.7 and 1.5 times, respectively,
22%, respectively [142]. compared to the reference mixture. Similarly, Dehdezi, Erdem and
Blankson [125] indicated an increase in porosity from 23% in the con
trol mixture without CRu substitution to 27.4% and 29.8% in Ru-GPC
5.2. Water absorption and porosity mixtures with 20% and 50% CRu substitution, respectively, by weight
of fine aggregate. This happens as a result of increased CRu substitution,
The water absorption and porosity of Ru-GPC samples are influenced which results in more entrapped air in Ru-GPC, raising the total
by several parameters, such as the porosity of CRu particles, the volume
Fig. 10. Effect of waste rubber fiber on the initial and final setting times of low Fig. 11. SEM picture showing micro-scale features in rubberized con
calcium-based GPC [142]. crete [125].
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porosity, as shown in Fig. 11.

Moreover, a larger ratio of AAS to A-S precursor contributed to
increased porosity in Ru-GPC mixtures, but higher curing temperatures
and higher molarity of sodium hydroxide led to decreased porosity [98].
Additionally, the water absorption capacity of the Ru-GPC mixes
increased when the curing temperature and SS/SH ratio rose [98].
Pretreatment of CRu particles with sodium hydroxide resulted in a small
decrease in water absorption due to enhanced adhesion between the GP
mixture and the CRu particles. Moreover, Fig. 12 presents the water
absorption of Ru-GPC versus CRu substitution based on previous studies.
5.3. Density
The density of Ru-GPC samples decreased when the ratio of CRu to

natural aggregate increased [99]. For example, Yahya, Abdullah, Ramli,
Minciuna and Abd Razak [103] showed a drop in Ru-GPC density of
4.1% and 7.2%, respectively, when coarse aggregate was 10% and 20%
were substituted with 5–10 mm CRu particles. In the same way, Fig. 13. The 28-d density at various chopped tire rubber (CTR)/sand ra
replacing 30% of both fine and coarse aggregate with CRu caused a tios [124].
15.5% drop in density, from 2340 kg/m3 to 1980 kg/m3 [122].
Wongsa, Sata, Nematollahi, Sanjayan and Chindaprasirt [107]
investigated the density of rubberized geopolymer mortar mixtures,
including 100% CRu aggregate substitution, which was found to be
between 1067 and 1275 kg/m3, or around 42% less dense than the
control mix. This decrease in density associated with increased CRu
substitution of natural aggregate can be related to the decreased relative
density of CRu particles compared to natural aggregate, their larger
internal pore capacity, and their tendency to entrap air in the mixture
because of their toothed surfaces, as shown in Fig. 13 [124].
Rubberized geopolymer mortar mixtures had lower densities
(1075–1950 kg/m3) than rubberized concrete mixtures (1299–2150 kg/
m3) at the same CRu percentage replacement (25, 50, 75, and 100%)
[140]. A-S precursors (GGBFS and fly ash) have lower specific gravity
than PC. Moreover, increasing the ratio of AAS to A-S precursor led to a
slight decrease in density in Ru-GPC mixtures [107]. Conversely,
increasing the molarity of sodium hydroxide results in an increase in
Ru-GPC density [107]. Moreover, Fig. 14 presents the density of Ru-GPC
versus CRu substitution based on previous studies. The figure indicates
Fig. 14. The density of Ru-GPC versus CRu substitution [106,107,159,
that the increase in the percentage of replacing the rubber aggregate 160,162].
increases the decrease in the density. This behavior is generally related,
as previously mentioned, to the lower relative density of CRu particles
6. Mechanical properties
compared to natural aggregates, their ability to have larger internal
pores, and their tendency to trap air in the mixture due to their serrated
6.1. Compressive strength
surfaces.
Increased CRu particle content in Ru-GPC leads to decreased
compressive strength, irrespective of the A-S precursor type, curing
conditions used, or AAS used [102,104,118]. Azmi, Abdullah, Ghazali,
Sandu and Hussin [104] found a compressive strength decrease of up to
60% for fly ash-based rubberized geopolymer mortar when 15% CRu
was replaced by a volume of fine aggregate. As shown in Fig. 15, Zhong,
Poon, Chen and Zhang [95] observed that when 15% CRu was
substituted for fine aggregate, the 28-d compressive strength decreased
by 36.9%. Wongsa, Sata, Nematollahi, Sanjayan and Chindaprasirt
[107] showed that when fine aggregate and coarse aggregate were
completely replaced with CR, the 28-d compressive strength decreased
by about 93% and varied between 2 and 3.3 MPa, keeping within the
required strength scope for lightweight moderate strength concrete
(2–14 MPa) [163].
The reasons for the decline in compressive strength for Ru-GPC with
increased CRu replacement are similar to those for rubberized concrete
and can be summarized in the following: (a) the hydrophobic property of
CRu results in a poor bond with the GP mixture, leads to the develop
ment of a weak ITZ; (ii) CRu particles have a lower MOE than the sur
rounding GP mixture, leads to high-stress intensity within them and
Fig. 12. The water absorption of Ru-GPC versus CRu substitution [106,
later development of micro-cracks around them, leads to compressive
107,159–161].
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14 molarity sodium hydroxide doses obtained a greater 7-d compressive

strength than the mix with 8 molarity, as shown in Fig. 17. Moreover,
Luhar, Chaudhary and Dave [128] showed a continuous increase in
compressive strength as the molarity of sodium hydroxide was raised
from 10 to 14 molarity. Wongsa, Sata, Nematollahi, Sanjayan and
Chindaprasirt [107] found a 9.7% increase in compressive strength
when the molarity of the sodium hydroxide solution was raised from 10
to 15 molarity, but a 13.2% decrease in compressive strength when the
molarity was increased further to 20 molarity, as shown in Fig. 18.
Similarly, with GPC, the optimal sodium hydroxide molarity was 14
molarity [164]. This shows that the ideal sodium hydroxide molarity for
increasing compressive strength is between 14 and 15 molarity.
Moreover, previous research has demonstrated that the ratio of SS/
SH affects compressive strength [102]. For example, Park, Abolmaali,
Kim and Ghahremannejad [102] observed an increase in compressive
strength of up to 40.7% when the SS/SH ratio was adjusted from 0.5 to 2,
as shown in Fig. 19. Increased sodium hydroxide content in the mixture
leads to increased dissolution, which enhances the microstructure.
Nevertheless, it was shown that raising the SS/SH ratio over 2 had an
Fig. 15. Effects of CRu and recycled tire steel fiber (RTSF) on compressive adverse effect on compressive strength. According to Luhar, Chaudhary
strength [95].
and Dave [128], raising the SS/SH ratio from 1.5 to 2 increased
compressive strength, but increasing it from 2 to 2.5 decreased strength.
strength decline; and (iii) the existence of CRu particles in Ru-GPC, and The results indicate that the optimal SS/SH ratio is 2.
(iv) the jagged and rough surface of the CRu particles increases the Compressive strength is decreased by increasing the AAS to A-S
number of entrapped air bubbles in the Ru-GPC mix, increasing the precursor ratio from 0.65 to 0.85 [107]. Meanwhile, increasing the AAS
overall porosity and lowering compressive strength. to fly ash ratio from 0.3 to 0.35 increased compressive strength, but
Apart from the rubber replacement ratio, the compressive strength of raising it further to 0.4 decreased compressive strength [129].
Ru-GPC is dependent on several influences, such as the following: (a) the Aslani, Deghani and Asif [98] conducted trial tests to identify the
A-S precursor, (b) the alkaline solution, (c) the AAS to A-S precursor optimal Ru-GPC mix design, varying the ratio of AAS to A-S precursor
ratio, (d) the aggregate size, (e) the CRu particle size, and (f) the curing from 0.4 to 0.6 and settling on 0.4 as the optimal value. This indicates
conditions. The amount of calcium oxide in the A-S precursor signifi that the optimal AAS to A-S precursor ratio is between 0.35 and 0.4 to
cantly affects compressive strength. For instance, Park, Abolmaali, Kim produce a high strength Ru-GPC.
and Ghahremannejad [102] showed that when several fly ash-based In addition to the above, it has been demonstrated that utilizing
Ru-GPC mixtures were compared, the mixture with a higher calcium bigger coarse aggregate (16 mm) in Ru-GPC mixes results in better
oxide concentration in the fly ash showed the highest compressive compressive strength than mixes using smaller coarse aggregate (9.5
strength, as shown in Fig. 16. Furthermore, for the same kind of fly ash, mm) [102], which may be because of the increased interlocking among
larger particle sizes (50–200 μm) led to a greater drop in compressive the larger aggregates [165]. The compressive strength of Ru-GPC mix
strength with increased CRu addition than smaller particle sizes (1–60 tures can also be affected by the size of CRu particles. Using bigger CRu
μm) [102]. Moreover, Dong, Elchalakani, Karrech and Yang [106] re particles (5–10 mm) resulted in an 8.2–9% drop in compressive strength
ported that increasing the proportion of GGBFS in the fly ash-based when compared to Ru-GPC mixes with smaller CRu particles (2–5 mm)
Ru-GPC mixture from 20% to 40% of the overall binder volume led to [98]. Likewise, Ru-GPC mixes containing 2 mm CRu particles had a
a 33% increase in the 28-d compressive strength, which was directly compressive strength of 8.3–15.9% more than mixes containing 4 mm
proportional to the higher calcium oxide level in GGBFS. CRu particles while keeping the same CRu replacement percentage of
Park, Abolmaali, Kim and Ghahremannejad [102] demonstrated that fine aggregate [124]. According to previous research, Figs. 20 and 21
for the same sort of fly ash and CRu substitution ratio, the mixture with show the normalized compressive strength versus CRu substitution and
the relationship between the compressive strength and water absorption
of Ru-GPC.
6.2. Splitting tensile strength
Aslani, Deghani and Asif [98] found a decrease in the 28-d splitting
tensile strength, as shown in Fig. 22, from 2.26 MPa for reference
samples to 1.84 MPa (18.6% lessening) and 1.82 MPa (19.5% lessening)
for 10% and 20% CRu substitution of fine aggregate, respectively. Aly,
El-Feky, Kohail and Nasr [116] reported a 35.5% reduction in splitting
tensile strength with a 30% CRu substitute of natural aggregate, while
Dong, Elchalakani, Karrech and Yang [106] reported a similar decrease
in splitting tensile strength from 3.5 MPa for reference samples to 1.2
MPa (65% decrease) and 0.7 MPa (80% decrease) with 15% and 30%
CRu substitute of coarse aggregate, respectively. Reduced adhesion
among CRu particles and the surrounding GP mixture due to rubber’s
hydrophobic characteristics and the development of a weaker interfacial
transition zone around the CRu particles are the causes of this decrease.
Fig. 16. Comparison of compressive strength concerning the type of fly

ash [102].
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Fig. 17. Comparison of compressive strength concerning the type of molarity [102].
Fig. 20. The compressive strength of Ru-GPC versus CRu substitution [102,
106,107,121,122,159,161,166–169].
Fig. 18. Effect of sodium hydroxide concentration on compressive
strength [107].
Fig. 21. The relationship between compressive strength and water absorption
of Ru-GPC [104,106,107,126,140].
6.3. Flexural strength

Fig. 19. Comparison of compressive strength concerning the ratio of alkaline
solutions [102]. The flexural strength of Ru-GPC decreased proportionately with
increasing CRu substitution, similar to compressive strength [100]. Aly,
El-Feky, Kohail and Nasr [116] indicated a decrease in flexural strength
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Fig. 22. Tensile strength of developed geopolymer concrete (GC), lightweight geopolymer concrete (LWGC), rubberized geopolymer concrete (RGC), and light
weight rubberized geopolymer concrete (LWRGC) mixes at 7 and 28-d [98].
of up to 20% with 10% CRu substitution of fine aggregate and coarse fibers were added to the GP mixture to substitute up to 30% by weight of
aggregate and a 30% decrease in flexural strength with 20% CRu sub fine aggregate, as shown in Fig. 24. This decrease in MOE with increased
stitution. Rajaei, Shoaei, Shariati, Ameri, Musaeei, Behforouz and de CRu substitution is owing to the CRu particles’ softness and deform
Brito [126] indicated a reduction in flexural strength of up to 74% when ability. CRu can be used instead of natural aggregate to make concrete
fine aggregate was replaced with 60% CR, as shown in Fig. 23. Mean that is more flexible and has a lower MOE [170].
while, Zaetang, Wongsa, Chindaprasirt and Sata [140] reported flexural
strength decreases of 61.4%–77.3% when fine aggregate and coarse
aggregate were replaced with 50% and 100% CR, respectively,
compared to reference samples. The cause of the decrease in flexural
strength is mostly due to the low adherence of CRu particles to the
matrix.
6.4. Modulus of elasticity (MOE)
The MOE of Ru-GPC samples decreased as more CRu was substituted

for natural aggregate [121]. The 28-d MOE decreased from 30 GPa for
reference samples to 18.2 GPa (by 39%) and 7.8 GPa (by 74%),
respectively, for samples with 15% and 30% CRu substitution of coarse
aggregate [106]. Similar findings were noted by Rajaei, Shoaei, Shariati,
Ameri, Musaeei, Behforouz and de Brito [126], who detected decreases
in MOE of around 29%, 66%, and 81% for samples with 20%, 40%, and
60% CRu substitution of fine aggregate, respectively. Luhar, Chaudhary Fig. 24. Modulus of elasticity of PC and GPC [121].
and Luhar [121] also found a drop in MOE of up to 36.3% when rubber
Fig. 23. Flexural strength of mixes at various ages [126].
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6.5. Stress-strain curve
To effectively assess the effect of CRu aggregates on the GP paste’s

flexural response and deflection curve under compression, the sample’s
stress-strain curves should be analyzed. Fig. 25 from the study of
Hamidi, Valizadeh and Aslani [171] depicts the stress-strain curves for
ambient-cured control GPC, Ru-GPC, and Lightweight GPC depending
on 28-d findings. According to the authors, when the normal
stress-strain curve for normal concrete under compression is considered,
the ascending branch of the stress-strain curve consists of two distinct
areas: the initial upward linear area and the non-linear strain-hardening
zone. The concrete will exhibit elastic behavior under compression with
no cracks inside the cement paste until the load approaches the binder’s
cracking limit. The steeper the linear section, the greater the sample’s
strength, which implies that the concrete exhibits less deflection before
cracking development. In the non-linear strain-hardening zone, the
concrete undergoes irreversible plastic deformation because of the for
mation of several micro-cracks within the paste of cement at the inter
action among the paste and the aggregates, until it reaches the yield
point, which is the maximum stress that a concrete sample can with
stand in compression [172,173]. Up to about 40% of the peak load, the Fig. 26. Load-deflection curve under four-point bending [95].
initial linear elastic area exists [174], and the MOE of the concrete
sample can be calculated as the proportion of the stress equivalent to desired load-bearing capacity and delay the occurrence of cracks. This
40% of the yield strength and its associated strain [175,176]. The sloped may be due to the more compacted microstructure of the Ru-GPC
branch of the stress-strain curve contains the plastic strain-softening comprising 10% CRu aggregates, the development of the A-S gel, and,
area, in which a high number of micro-cracks develop in the concrete, consequently, the interfacial transition zone among the paste and the
and these localized micro-cracks define the concrete’s ductility [173, rubber aggregates over the 28-d curing process. When the rubber ag
174]. The GPC stress-strain profile is comparable to that of normal gregates volume exceeds 10%, the CRu aggregates’ filling capacity de
concrete. creases, behaving as voids inside the GPC paste. At less than 10%, CRu
Zhong, Poon, Chen and Zhang [95] investigated the deflection aggregates are inadequate to form a thick microstructure and, conse
behavior of an alkali-activated binder reinforced with recycled steel fi quently, impair the uniformity of the paste at low binder concentrations.
bers, including CRu aggregates instead of fine aggregates, as shown in
Fig. 26. They discovered that adding more than 10% CRu aggregates 7. Dynamic properties
decreased the elastic effectiveness of the recycled steel fiber-reinforced
alkali-activated binder comprising CRu aggregates but did not affect 7.1. Strain rate effects
the strain-hardening behavior of the steel fiber-reinforced alka
li-activated binder, whereas raising the steel fiber dosage prolonged the Pham, Liu, Tran, Pang, Shi, Chen, Hao and Tran [122] exposed φ
deflection-hardening phase. 100 × 50 mm Ru-GPC samples to split Hopkinson pressure bar tests at
In a previous study by Hamidi, Valizadeh and Aslani [171], the au strain rates of 50, 70, 90, and 1301/s, as shown in Fig. 27. The split
thors summarized their findings by stating that the stress-strain curves of Hopkinson pressure bar test is commonly applied to characterize the
the Ru-GPC also revealed that 10% CRu aggregates might be the optimal dynamic characteristics of concrete samples exposed to moderate to
rubber aggregate concentration within the GPC paste to ensure the high strain levels and to measure their dynamic increase factor [177,
178]. The results indicated that when subjected to high strain levels,
Ru-GPC samples stayed intact, but those without CRu entirely collapsed.
The stress-strain curves of samples are similarly altered by the CRu
partial substitute of natural aggregate, with samples containing CRu
having a flatter sloped stress-strain branch following the peak load,
denoting increased ductility with increasing CRu addition [122]. It has
been demonstrated that when CRu substitution increases, the dynamic
compressive strength of Ru-GPC mixtures decreases [122]. The refer
ence samples demonstrated that with 0% CRu substitution, they had a
greater dynamic compressive strength than the samples with 15% and
30% CRu substitution of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate.
On the other hand, the dynamic increase factor was higher in sam
ples with a higher rate of CRu substitution. For example, mixtures
containing 30% CRu showed a dynamic increase factor of 1.37–3.4
when strain rates varied between 50 and 1301/s [122]. In comparison,
at the same strain rates, reference normal samples showed a dynamic
increase factor of 1.04 and 1.87 [122]. This increase in dynamic increase
factor results from the increased deformability of CRu and their ability
to inhibit crack development [116].
7.2. Impact resistance properties

Fig. 25. Stress-strain curves for Ru-GPC and Lightweight GPC under
compression [171]. Aly, El-Feky, Kohail and Nasr [116] conducted a drop weight test
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Fig. 28. Relationship between impact energy of concrete and rubber con
tent [180].
8. Durability properties
According to Rajaei, Shoaei, Shariati, Ameri, Musaeei, Behforouz

and de Brito [126], the drying shrinkage of Ru-GPC samples with a 20%,
40%, and 60% CRu substitution for fine aggregate rose by 18%, 34%,
and 57%, respectively, as compared to the reference sample. This in
crease is attributable to the decreased stiffness and increased flexibility
of CRu particles, which provide little resistance to paste shrinkage when
the mixture dries [181]. Moreover, the limited adhesion between the
surrounding GP mixture and the CRu particles limits shrinking to a
minimum owing to reduced internal friction.
Moghaddam, Madandoust, Jamshidi and Nikbin [120] evaluated the
resistance to sulfuric conditions by immersing Ru-GPC samples with a
10% CRu substitution of fine aggregate in a 5% sulfuric acid solution
with a pH of 1 for up to 90-d. As shown in Fig. 29, some of the fly ash in
the Ru-GPC samples was substituted by PC (up to 20%), and the results
revealed that mixtures with a larger PC substitution of fly ash had more
mass loss. For example, with 0%, 10%, and 20% PC substitution, mass
decreased by 4.7%, 5.4%, and 8.1%, respectively. Furthermore,
Fig. 27. Stress-strain diagrams of (a) 0%, (b) 15%, and (30%) Ru-GPC at
different strain rates [122].
using cylindrical rubberized alkali-activated concrete discs (φ 150 × 65

mm) following AC-544 [179]. The test involved lowering a 4.5 kg steel
ball from a predetermined height of 450 mm. The number of strikes
required to initiate and finish cracks in the concrete discs was measured.
The results showed that when the CRu ratio was increased, more strikes
caused both an initial crack and a final crack, which meant that the
material’s impact resistance went up as well.
Dehdezi, Erdem and Blankson [125] conducted a drop weight test on
Ru-GPC samples using the Erdem, Dawson and Thom [180] method, in
which a cylindrical steel ball weighing 5 kg was felled from a preset
height of 1 m. Initial cracks developed at 3, 5, and 7 strikes for GPC
mixtures containing 0%, 20%, and 50% CRu of fine aggregate, respec
tively. The final strikes were 4, 17, and 38, with failure impact energies
of 250 kN mm, 900 kN mm, and 1900 kN mm for each mixture.
Increased CRu content in rubberized alkali-activated concrete improves
impact resistance, as shown in Fig. 28, because of the increased
deformability and reduced stiffness of CRu particles, which improve
energy absorption and flexibility [116]. Unlike GP paste and natural
aggregate, rubber particles can assist in preventing crack development
and boost impact strength when subjected to impact loading [180].
Rubberized alkali-activated concrete discs also had a more ductile fail
ure, as shown by the production of several cracks, while control discs
without CRu addition failed with a single massive crack, frequently Fig. 29. Mass Less of GPC samples exposed to sulfuric acid: (a) 7 to 90-d, (b)
splitting the discs in half. after 90-d [120].
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compressive strength results show that Ru-GPC samples with more PC groups increased the wettability of the CRu surface. Pretreatment
substitution were more sensitive to sulfuric acid exposure and lost more decreased porosity at the interfacial transition zone [184], improving
strength when they were exposed to sulfuric acid. bonding between CRu and other GPC constituents and increasing GPC’s
Luhar, Chaudhary and Luhar [121] observed that more rubber sub strength. Numerous insoluble elements, such as zinc oxide, were trans
stitution of fine aggregate increased the abrasion resistance of Ru-GPC formed into water-soluble sodium ions that were easily removed; hence,
samples after 28-d, as evaluated by wear depth, as shown in Fig. 30. sodium hydroxide improved the surface characteristics of CRu [185].
For example, with 0% and 30% rubber fiber substitution of fine aggre In the previous study by Pham, Lim and Malekzadeh [141], the au
gate, the depth of wear was 1.28 mm and 0.8 mm, respectively, after thors summarized their findings by stating that GPC was susceptible to
28-d. This increase in abrasion resistance may be partial because rubber hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid attack, with a maximum strength drop
particles elongate further than the smooth surface and act as brushes of 23.4% for the reference GPC. GPC containing CRu was more sus
when exposed to abrasive forces, reducing the effect of the abrasive ceptible to acid attacks. When batch B3 was exposed to hydrochloric
powder on the surface. acid and sulfuric acid, it lost a small amount of its compressive strength.
This loss was 7–18% and 10–22%, respectively.
9. Chemical attacks
10. Microstructures
9.1. Resistance to sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid attack
Lazorenko, Kasprzhitskii and Mischinenko [161] investigated the
Pham, Lim and Malekzadeh [141] investigated the impact of influence of several physical and chemical pretreatments of CRu with
replacing fine aggregates with CRu on the characteristics of GPC. Nat H2SO4, NaOH, KMnO4, and (CH3)2CO solutions, and also ultraviolet
ural fine aggregates were partially substituted with CRu at a volumetric (UV) light, on the mechanical properties and microstructure of rubber
ratio of 10%, 20%, and 30%. The impact of pretreatment of CRu with ized fly ash-based GP composites. According to the authors, micro
water, sodium hydroxide, cement paste, and ultra-fine slag on the structure investigation of GP composite shattered surfaces using 3D laser
strength of GPC was investigated. The GPC mixtures were produced confocal imaging, as shown in Fig. 31, confirms the findings of me
using 8 molarity sodium hydroxide and then heated to 60 ◦ C for curing. chanical testing, suggesting a high adherence of CRu particles treated
Moreover, the durability characteristics of the material, such as acid with KMnO4 to the GP. The rubber particles are spread very equally
attack resistance, were investigated experimentally. According to the throughout the GP matrix, as shown in Fig. 31-a. The fractured surfaces
authors, samples subjected to sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid of all samples reveal a typical fly ash-based GP microstructure consisting
demonstrated similar declines in compressive strength. Yet, the highest of geopolymerisation products, trapped air pores, and tiny spaces from
strength was seen when sodium hydroxide-treated and ultra-fine slag- unreacted fly ash particles, consistent with earlier research [186–189].
treated CRu were used. This is because the roughness of the surface On open rubber surfaces of GP/CR-PP, there are substantial changes in
caused by sodium hydroxide mechanically etching led to more matrix the ratio of residual geopolymerisation products, as shown in Fig. 31-g,
coating on the CRu surface, which led to better adhesion for the CR. compared to other composites, as shown in Fig. 31-(b–f). The GP binder
Moreover, sodium hydroxide functioned as a duty cleanser, assisting strongly covers and bonds the potassium permanganate-treated CRu
in removing dirt, grease, and other impurities from the CRu surface, particles. It strongly covers and bonds the potassium
leading to enhanced adhesion among CRu and other GPC ingredients. permanganate-treated CRu particles, resulting in a continuous gel mass.
On the other side, ultra-fine slag, a pozzolana, functions as a filler ma There are no faults or delamination identified in the interfacial transi
terial and fills the pores in GPC, leading to a denser matrix structure. The tion zone. This demonstrates the interplay between CR-PP and GP stages
other main reason was to fix Ca(OH)2, the most sensitive product in an in forming structures. On the other hand, the surface of the rubber
acidic environment. Previous research has indicated that the use of particles on the fractured surfaces of the remaining samples is relatively
pozzolanic materials can aid in the prevention of aggressive chemicals, clean, and delamination and cavities are shown in certain parts of the
such as acids, from penetrating concrete [182]. Lee, Moon and Swamy contact zone among the GP and the filler, which refers to a lack of
[183] studied the sulfate attack resistance of concrete using silica fume adhesion.
and discovered that the inclusion of silica fume, a pozzolanic material Moreover, Valente, Sambucci, Chougan and Ghaffar [160] investi
comparable to ultra-fine slag, increased the sulfate resistance. The effect gated the microstructures of rubberized samples created by altering the
of sodium hydroxide pretreatment on the hydrophobicity of CRu parti binder, the sand rubber substitution ratio (0%, 50%, and 100%), and the
cles was considerable; the contact angle was reduced [184], leading to a rubber particle size (1–3 mm rubber granules and 0–1 mm rubber fine
thinner water film forming on the CRu surface. More functional groups aggregate). The authors report that (i) microstructural evaluation re
were produced due to sodium hydroxide degradation of the rubber veals a significant variation in the interfacial adhesion of ground tire
chains, which resulted in the highly polar CRu surface. Increased O–H rubber aggregates with the two-binder composite, as shown in Fig. 32.
Enhanced ground tire rubber-matrix compatibility was noted in GP
mixtures as a result of the synergistic effect of sodium hydroxide and
silica fume on the instinct chemical and physical activation of rubber,
resulting in more ductile behavior under pending; (ii) the permeability
and porosity rate of the mixtures were impacted by various micro
structural properties of the rubber-interfacial matrix bond. Although the
addition of ground tire rubber increased the permeable porosity and
water absorption values in both matrices slightly, the GP formulations
had lower values than their PC counterparts. Moreover, the decreased
water content and self-compacting nature of the alkali-activated mate
rial formulations can reduce the incidence of permeable porosity in the
hardened specimens.
In the previous study by Lazorenko, Kasprzhitskii and Mischinenko
[161], the obtained parameters are consistent with the findings of water
adsorption investigations and the chemical and morphological proper
ties of CRu. This verifies the hypothesis that the chemical composition of
Fig. 30. Depth of wear for PC and GPC [121]. the CRu surface and the strength of its contact with the GP have a
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Fig. 31. (a) Photograph of the Ru-GPC after flexural tests (28-d) and the 3D laser confocal images of geopolymer composite fractured surfaces for the different CRu
types: (b) native; (c) NaOH treated; (d) H2SO4 treated; (e) UV treated; (f) (CH3)2CO treated; (g) KMnO₄ treated [161].
significant effect on the strength of the composites investigated. The 11. Insulation properties
most polar (hydrophilic) groups on the surface of CR-PP particles
establish strong hydrogen intermolecular interactions, as shown in 11.1. Thermal conductivity
Fig. 33, with oxygen sodium A-S hydrate (N-A-S-H) gel and other geo
polymerisation products coexisting with it [190,191]. These bonds are The thermal conductivity of concrete is governed by various pa
responsible for the strong adherence of rubber treated with KMnO4 to rameters, such as the type of aggregate used, the amount of air in the
the GP binder, which reaches or surpasses the matrix’s cohesive mixture, and the density [107]. According to Aslani, Deghani and Asif
strength, favorably affecting the composite’s strength properties. This is [98], the thermal conductivity of rubberized geopolymer mortar sam
in line with findings from other researchers who looked at a wide range ples with a 100% CRu substitution of fine aggregate was, on average
of dispersed and fibrous fillers [187,192,193]. They found that filler 79% lower than the nonrubberized reference sample. Zaetang, Wongsa,
surface hydroxyl groups had a positive effect on the mechanical prop Chindaprasirt and Sata [140] found comparable results with rubberized
erties of GP composites. geopolymer mortar samples, where the thermal conductivity was
1.07W/mK for the reference sample and 0.19 W/mK for the sample with
100% CRu substitution of natural aggregate, showing a drop of up to
82% in thermal conductivity. This reduced thermal conductivity is
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Fig. 32. Rubber-Geopolymer interface properties: RP (a–b) and RG (c–d) [160].
Fig. 33. (a) Reaction mechanism during the KMnO₄ treatment of CRu and (b) schematic illustration of the interfacial interaction between KMnO₄ treated CRu and
geopolymer matrix [161].
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attributable to the mix’s increased porosity and decreased density as a

result of the increased CRu addition, as shown in Fig. 34 [101]. Rubber
particles also have a lower thermal conductivity than natural aggregate,
which is even less when CRu is used instead of natural aggregate. This is
even less when CRu is used instead of natural aggregate.
Thermal conductivity is also affected by the binder type. For
example, when fly ash-based rubberized geopolymer mortar mixtures
with 100% CRu substitution of fine aggregate were compared to
rubberized concrete mixtures with the same CRu substitution, the
thermal conductivity of the fly ash-based rubberized geopolymer mortar
mixtures was reduced by 35% [140]. This variation in thermal con
ductivity results from fly ash is having a lower specific gravity than PC
and Ru-GPC mixtures having a larger liquid-tosolid ratio [194]. On the
other hand, the resistance of concrete structures to extreme tempera
tures is a critical factor to consider because it can affect their chemical
and physical properties [195]. Luhar, Chaudhary and Luhar [118]
studied the mass loss and degradation of compressive strength in Fig. 35. The thermal conductivity of Ru-GPC versus CRu substitution [107,
140,196,197].
Ru-GPC samples after 2 h of exposure to elevated temperatures of up to
800 ◦ C. As the temperature rose, a continuous mass loss was found, with
more mass loss found for Ru-GPC samples than for GPC samples treated
at the same temperature. Likewise, the drop in compressive strength at
increasing temperatures was greater for Ru-GPC samples (52.4% at
800 ◦ C) than for GPC samples (45.2% at 800 ◦ C). Figs. 35 and 36 present
the thermal conductivity versus CRu substitution and the relationship
between thermal conductivity and density of Ru-GPC based on previous
studies, respectively.
11.2. Sound properties
In terms of sound characteristics, it has been observed that Ru-GPC

samples with up to 10% CRu substitution by weight of fine aggregate
and coarse aggregate had a lower sound transmission loss than PC-
concrete, as shown in Fig. 37 [117]. Yet, when fine aggregate and
coarse aggregate were replaced with CRu at a ratio of 14%, the sound
transmission loss coefficients were reduced to lower than that of
Fig. 36. The relationship between density and thermal conductivity of Ru-GPC
PC-concrete. This is most likely because of the increased pores associ
[107,126,140,196,197].
ated with increased CRu addition since sound travels quickly through
porous structures. Gandoman and Kokabi [117] revealed that the sound
transmission loss coefficients for Ru-GPC mixtures with 0%, 3%, and 6%
CRu substitution of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate were 44.6, 45.0,
and 44.1 dB, respectively, as shown in Fig. 38. While adding CRu at 10%
and 14% led to sound transmission loss coefficients of 36.9 and 33 dB,
respectively. However, the PC-concrete’s sound transmission loss
Fig. 37. Plots of sound transmission loss versus frequency for conventional and
waste rubber GPC samples [117].
coefficient was 36.5 dB. Moreover, as compared to PC-concrete samples,

Ru-GPC samples exhibited superior sound absorption behavior (as
evaluated by non-reflected sound waves) for frequencies up to 4000 Hz
[117]. Moreover, when the noise-reducing coefficient was evaluated as a
function of sound absorption, the results indicated that Ru-GPC samples
had a superior noise reduction coefficient (NRC) than PC-concrete
samples, as shown in Fig. 39. Samples with 6% and 14% CRu substitu
Fig. 34. Thermal conductivity at 28-d, where CSAAS-CR5 is a copper slag
tion of fine and coarse aggregate had NRC values of 14.3 and 16.1%,
alkali-activated slag mortar containing 5% CRu as a partial replacement of
respectively. PC-concrete had an NRC value of 11.1%.
copper slag, while CSAAS-CR5-1 h is a copper slag alkali-activated slag mortar
containing 5% CRu as a partial replacement of CS alkali-treated for 1 h [101].
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13. Embodied CO2 emissions and cost analysis
Valente, Sambucci, Chougan and Ghaffar [160] analyzed the

possible embodied CO2 emission performance and cost analysis to assess
the environmental and economic effects of using recycled rubber as a
full aggregate in PC and GP mixtures. The embodied CO2 findings are
shown in Fig. 40-a. According to the authors, irrespective of the mixture
design used in this trial, the alkali-activated materials binder (geo
polymers) created in this study produced less carbon dioxide than its PC
equivalent. Using the PC mixture findings as a reference, it is feasible to
observe embodied CO2 decrease rates of around 30% and 40% for
control-alkali-activated materials and RP100alkali-activated materials
mixtures (RP100 indicates 100% CRu), respectively. This result is
Fig. 38. Plots of variation of sound absorption coefficients versus frequency for consistent with those stated in a past study review carried out by the
conventional and waste rubber GPC samples [117]. instigators Valente, Sambucci and Sibai [221], whereas the
Alkali-Activated Materials Technology has been determined to represent
a viable and environmentally sustainable alternative to conventional
cement mixtures, resulting in up to an 80% reduction in carbon emis
sions. The carbon footprint of both matrices was expected to rise when
the mineral component was replaced with tire rubber aggregate.
Compared to reference formulations, the adjusted mix design exhibits an
approximately 52% rise in the embodied CO2 index (RP100-PC) and a
28% increase in the embodied CO2 index (RP100alkali-activated mate
rials). This tendency is not related to the environmental impact of
ground tire rubber processes, which is better for the environment than
using mineral aggregates, but to the increased raw material percentage
needed (PC and A-S binders/alkali activator). The findings corroborate a
recent life cycle assessment conducted by Maxineasa, Neocleous,
Dumitrescu, Themistocleous, Taranu and Hadjimitsis [222], which
established a roughly 5% increase in CO2 emissions associated with the
Fig. 39. Variation of noise reduction coefficients for conventional and waste
production of concrete mixtures incorporating recycled rubber particles
Ru-GPC samples. Samples, i.e., GC0, GC2, GC6, GC10, and GC14, were pro
as a partial substitute (40%). Medine, Trouzine, de Aguiar and Djadouni
duced by adding 0, 2, 6, 10, and 14 wt% of waste rubber based on the total
aggregates [117].
[223] demonstrated the opposite, demonstrating that modest replace
ment rates of mineral aggregates with rubber aggregates (up to 10%
w/w) resulted in minor CO2 emission reductions (0.25%–0.48%) when
12. Applications
compared to a standard concrete mixture. As a result, considering a low
ground tire rubber percentage would be ineffective regarding environ
After years of research, the uses of GPs and alkali-activated materials
mental effects and technical characteristics. It would be worthwhile to
are still somewhat limited, owing to the difficulty of handling, trans
emphasize studies on developing more sustainable matrices that inte
porting, and using liquid alkaline activators. Specific precautions are
grate a significant volume of recycled rubber. According to the
required when using such extremely corrosive ingredients properly (for
embodied CO2 data, ground tire rubber appears to perform better in
example, sodium hydroxide, sodium silicate, potassium hydroxide, etc.).
alkali-activated material matrices, where the environmental effect is
This results in increased utilization of solid activators, including sodium
mostly due to the creation of the alkaline-activator (about 93% of the
metasilicate anhydrate. On the other hand, sodium metasilicate can be
total emission contribution). In this context, by developing a “cleaner”
utilized as a ready-to-mix mixture that looks remarkably similar to PC-
alkali-activated materials mix design, for instance, by the use of “one-
concrete. By ambient temperature curing, the Illikainen research team
part geopolymer technology” [224], more favorable eco-sustainability
has proven its ability to produce compressive strengths of up to 107 MPa
levels may be obtained.
(28-d) utilizing one-part GP [198–202]. However, geopolymeric binders
The fundamental elements utilized to create the current alkali-
and alkali-activated materials promise to be utilized as sustainable
activated materials formulation increased the final material’s
concrete materials in important infrastructure segments in either form
manufacturing cost, as shown in Fig. 40-b, corroborating a previous
due to their extremely high-thermal resistance of up to 1350 ◦ C [203],
study’s cost analysis comparison of geopolymeric and PC-concrete ma
approximately 75% reduction in acid resistance [204–210].
terials [225,226]. Ground tire rubber’s impact on cost calculations relies
However, by incorporating CRu into GPC to make Ru-GPC, light
entirely on sand market pricing. The available data can discern two
weight concrete with improved impact characteristics, thermal and
distinct tendencies: for RP100-PC mix production, rubber addition de
sound insulation properties, and abrasion resistance is developed. This
creases aggregate fraction costs by roughly 28%, but for
property makes Ru-GPC an excellent material for highway accident
RP100alkali-activated materials mixture production, ground tire rubber
barriers [211], hollow blocks [130], lightweight members [212],
aggregate costs 2.5 times as much as mineral aggregate. Nevertheless,
foundation pads and rail sleepers [213], structural insulated panels
caution is advised when generalizing the findings, as the study was
[214], and thermal and sound barriers for machinery [98,215–217].
conducted in two distinct contexts, namely British and Italian, and the
Unconfined Ru-GPC can be utilized in non-structural and pavement
aggregates’ prices may vary significantly. According to previously dis
parts despite the loss in strength due to the increased CRu substitution
closed experimental data, rubberized alkali-activated material mixes
[213]. Confined Ru-GPC is suitable for application in columns and
displayed comparable or better performance than cement-based mate
bridge piers and low-to medium-rise structures in seismically active
rials, using fewer materials to achieve equivalent structural stability.
areas [85,218–220].
GPs are also subject to a reduced carbon tax system, which might be used
to assist with low-carbon solutions.
Moreover, due to current worldwide sustainable environmental
24254
Fig. 40. Embodied CO2 emission (a) and cost analysis (b): Comparison among normal concrete and rubberized concrete considering PC and alkali-activated materials
matrices [160].
policies focused on conserving natural resources, the cost of conven samples exhibited advantageous ductile failure processes upon
tional aggregates is projected to rise in the future. Thus, the utilization of impact.
recycled rubber materials in targeted architectural and civil applications 10. Ru-GPC samples become more porous and water-absorbing as the
can significantly increase their functionality (lightweight precast ele CRu substitution of natural aggregates increases, which means
ments, increased ductility of pavement sections, thermal-noise blocking that the samples get better. When 100% CRu is used instead of
blocks in buildings) [146]. This may be a more cost-effective alternative. natural aggregate, water absorption can rise by up to 2.5 times.
These factors can narrow the cost differential between PC and GP 11. Increased CRu substitution for natural aggregate results in
cementitious composites. increased drying shrinkage because of the lower restriction pro
vided by CRu particles compared to natural aggregate. The
14. Conclusions thermal conductivity of Ru-GPC samples reduces when more CRu
is substituted for natural aggregate, achieving a maximum of 82%
The following summarizes the review’s conclusions: with 100% CRu substitution. Moreover, there is a clear rela
tionship between the thermal conductivity of Ru-GPC samples
1. The strength of Ru-GPC and how quickly it sets are very intri and their density.
cately linked to the amount of calcium oxide in the A-S pre
cursor’s chemical components. 15. Recommendations
2. Pretreating CRu particles with sodium hydroxide solution or
soaking them in water can help them become adhesive to the GP 1. There are presently no studies on structural members employing Ru-
mixture around them, which improves mechanical properties, GPC materials that have been subjected to various forms of loading.
increases thermal conductivity, and reduces slump. Additional studies are required to fully comprehend and quantify Ru-
3. For high compressive strength in Ru-GPC, the optimal SS/SH GPC structural components’ behavior.
ratio is around 2, while the ideal sodium hydroxide concentration 2. Presently, no research has been done on the fresh properties of
is approximately 14–15 molarity. Generally, a ratio of 0.35–0.4 is GGBFS-based rubberized alkali-activated concrete.
advised for the alkaline solution-to-AS precursor. 3. Until now, the study of the behavior of rubberized one-part GPC has
4. Oven curing is 1.5 times more efficient than steam curing for Ru- been extremely restricted. Basic investigations into the materials and
GPC. The optimum curing conditions for the oven include a structural behavior of such materials are required.
heating period of up to 48 h at a temperature of 75 ◦ C. 4. Most past research on Ru-GPC materials has concentrated on two-
5. When considerable amounts of CRu were used instead of natural part GPC. One-part GPC, where the alkaline-activator is mixed sol
aggregate, the dry density dropped by up to 33.5% for 50% CRu idly with the dry precursors and then water is added, is another
substitution and 42% for 100% CRu substitution. option.
6. The substitution of high CRu for natural aggregate in Ru-GPC 5. Another unexplored area of study on Ru-GPC is improving the
affects the slump/flow of the concrete, hence reducing work compatibility of CRu particles with the GP matrix to minimize bond
ability. This could result in a 50% decrease in a slump with 60% issues.
CRu substitution. 6. In terms of durability, no research has been done on how Ru-GPC
7. The Ru-GPC’s compressive strength reduces as the CRu content is behaves under long-term loading, and most of the data on carbon
increased. Compressive strength is reduced by 63% when 30% ation depth, shrinkage, sorptivity, efflorescence, freeze-thaw resis
CRu is substituted for 100% natural aggregate. Compressive tance, sulfate resistance, and rebar corrosion are mostly inadequate.
strength is reduced by more than 80% at sustainable levels of 7. To make Ru-GPC flexible and useful in many situations, it is
roughly 60%. important to evaluate the full range of stress-strain responses and
8. The compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural create foundational models for design goals.
strength, and MOE of natural aggregate decrease as the CRu
substitution increases. Moreover, there is a substantial relation Declaration of competing interest
ship between splitting tensile strength and flexural strength.
9. Compared to non-rubberized concrete samples, Ru-GPC samples The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
stay intact under high strain levels and have a higher dynamic interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
increase factor than GPC samples. Moreover, Ru-GPC disc the work reported in this paper.
24255
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Rubberized Geopolymer Composites A Comprehensive Review

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Ceramics International 48 (2022) 24234–24259

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Rubberized geopolymer composites: A comprehensive review

Tires are disposed of in many ways, including landfill disposal,

Fig. 1. Waste tire disposal in the USA (2017) [21,25].

Fig. 3. Simplified geopolymerisation process [27].

encouraging worldwide academics to produce optimal waste recycling

Synthetic rubber Natural rubber Carbon black Ash Steel Others

Car tire – 43–48 20–28 – 14–16 3–6 [63]

temperatures [63]. The chemical composition of CRu, on the other hand,

3. Main material of rubberized geopolymer concrete

87.52 9.23 1.76 1.09 0.20 / 0.14 0.08 / / / / [88]

Fig. 8. Mix design method for Ru-GPC.

porosity, as shown in Fig. 11.

The density of Ru-GPC samples decreased when the ratio of CRu to

14 molarity sodium hydroxide doses obtained a greater 7-d compressive

6.2. Splitting tensile strength

Fig. 16. Comparison of compressive strength concerning the type of fly

6.3. Flexural strength

6.4. Modulus of elasticity (MOE)

The MOE of Ru-GPC samples decreased as more CRu was substituted

Fig. 23. Flexural strength of mixes at various ages [126].

6.5. Stress-strain curve

To effectively assess the effect of CRu aggregates on the GP paste’s

7.2. Impact resistance properties

According to Rajaei, Shoaei, Shariati, Ameri, Musaeei, Behforouz

using cylindrical rubberized alkali-activated concrete discs (φ 150 × 65

Fig. 32. Rubber-Geopolymer interface properties: RP (a–b) and RG (c–d) [160].

attributable to the mix’s increased porosity and decreased density as a

11.2. Sound properties

In terms of sound characteristics, it has been observed that Ru-GPC

coefficient was 36.5 dB. Moreover, as compared to PC-concrete samples,

13. Embodied CO2 emissions and cost analysis

Valente, Sambucci, Chougan and Ghaffar [160] analyzed the

Acknowledgement [30] P.G. Asteris, E. Gavriilaki, T. Touloumenidou, E.E. Koravou, M. Koutra, P.

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