ANIMAL TISSUE

Introduction : Body of an animal is formed of several kinds of cells. There are about 200
different types of specialized cells in the human body. The cell of one or more kinds are arranged
together in a characteristic manner and cooperate to perform a specific role. Such a group of cells is
called a tissue. The cell of a tissue may secrete between them a nonliving intercellular material. Thus, a
tissue may be defined as a group of one or more types of cells having a similar origin and specialized
for a specific function or functions along with the intercellular material.
Branch of biology dealing with the study of tissue is called histology. The term ‘tissue’ was
introduced by Bichat and also known as ‘Father of histology’. Mayer coined the term ‘histology’ and
the founder of histology is Marcello Malpighi. Histological study of an organ called Microscopic
Anatomy. Marcello Malpighi is the father of microscopic anatomy. Hertwig introduced the term
‘mesenchyme’ for mesodermal tissue. The formation of tissues from germinal layer is called as
histogenesis. The tissue classified into four main groups on the basis their location and functions, are
Epithelial tissue, Connective tissue, Muscular tissue and Nervous tissue.

1.1 Epithelial Tissue.

An epithelium is a tissue composed of one or more layers of cells that cover the body surface and
lines its various cavities. It serves for protection, secretion and excretion. The word ‘epithelium’ was
introduced by Ruysch. It was applied originally to thin skin covering the nipple (G. epi = upon, thele =
nipple). They are located on the outer surfaces of organs, including the skin. They form the linings of
tracts, cavities and vessels. Epithelial tissue evolved first in animal kingdom. It originate from all the
three primary germ layers. e.g. Epidermis arises from ectoderm, Coelomic epithelium from the
mesoderm and epithelial lining of alimentary canal from the endoderm.
(i) Structure : Cells are arranged in one or more layers, cells are compactly arranged and there is
no inter cellular matrix between them. Neighbouring cells are held together by intercellular junctional
complexes like desmosomes, tight junctions, interdigitations etc. the cells of lowermost layers always
rest on a non living basement membrane or basal lamina. Basement membrane is made up of no cell
product of epithelial tissue. It is formed of mucopolysacharides, glycoprotein and collagen or reticular
fibres. The epithelial cells are held together by small amounts of cementing substances is mainly
composed of glycoprotein secreted by the cell themselves. Blood vessels are absent in the epithelial
tissues. However, nerve endings may penetrate the epithelium. The free surface of cells may be smooth
or may have fine hair like cilia, sterocilia and microvilli. Epithelium is subjected to continuos wear and
tear and injury. Hence it posses very high capacity of renewal (mitotic cell division). The following
types of modifications and junctions are found in the plasma membrane of adjacent epithelial cells to
keep the cells together.
 EPITHELIAL CELLS

BASEMENT
MEMBRANE

CONNECTIVE
TISSUE

CAPILLARIES

Fig. – Diagram to show an epithelium with its basement membrane resting upon
underlying connective tissue
(a) Microvilli : It is simple and minute cytoplasmic processes arising from free exposed surfaces
of the cell. They absorb material.
(b) Stereocilia : It is non-motile cytoplasmic processes.
(c) Cilia : It is contractile motile fibrous processes arising from basal granules.
(d) Tight junctions (Zona occludens) : At certain places the plasma membranes of adjacent cells
are tightly packed or even fused together.
(e) Desmosomes : Desmosome is present in epithelial tissue. They consist of thickened area and
several fine tonofibrils extending from each plasma membrane into cytoplasm of respective cells.
Macula adherens is a kind of desmosome.
(f) Gap junction : At place, the adjacent cells form ion-rich gap junctions for intercellular
communication and chemical exchange. These junctions probably do not provide physical support.
(g) Interdigitations : These are interwoven finger-like processes of plasma membranes of
adjacent cells.
(h) Intercellular bridges : These are minute projections that arise from adjacent cell membranes.
The intercellular bridges make contact with one another.
MICROVILLI

CELL MEMBRANE
OF CELL B
CELL MEMBRANE
OF CELL A

INTER DIGITATION
INTERCELLULAR SPACE CELL MEMBRANE

CYTOPLASM
CYTOPLASM OF CELL A CYTOPLASM OF CELL B
INTERCELLULAR BRIDGES
DESMOSOME

TONOFIBRIL
S

THICKENING
GAP JUNCTION

TIGHT Showing intercellular bridges

S
JUNCTION

BASEMENT
MEMBRANE

Fig. – Electron microscopic view of two adjacent epithelial cells, basement

(ii) Functions : Epithelial
membrane tissues have a wide spread distribution throughout the body and serve
and cell junctions
several important functions –
 (a) Protection : Generalized protection is the most important function of membranous epithelium.
It is the relatively tough and impermeable epithelial covering of the skin that protects the body from
mechanical and chemical injury and also from invading bacteria and other disease causing micro-
organisms.
(b) Sensation : Epithelial structures specialized for sensory functions are found in the skin, nose,
eye and ear.
(c) Secretion : Glandular epithelium is specialized for secretory activity, secretory products
include hormones, mucous, digestive juices and sweat.
(d) Absorption : The epithelium lining of the gut and respiratory tracts allows the absorption of
nutrients from the gut.
(e) Excretion : It is the specialized epithelial lining of kidney tubules that makes the excretion and
concentration of excretory products in the urine.
(f) Conduction : Ciliated epithelium moves fluid, mucous and other materials in the organs it
lines.
(g) Reproduction : Germinal epithelium of the seminiferous tubules and ovaries produces
spermatozoa and ova respectively.
(h) Regeneration : The ability of epithelia to regenerate quickly helps in the healing of wounds.
(i) Pigmentation : Pigmented epithelium of retina darkens the cavity of eyeball.
(j) Selective barrier : The epithelia check the absorption of harmful or unnecessary materials.
(k) Respiration : Epithelium of alveoli of the lungs brings about exchange of gases between blood
and air.
(l) Exoskeleton : Epithelium also produce exoskeletal structures such as scales, feathers, hair,
nail, claws, horns and hoofs.
(iii) Classification of epithelial tissue : It is mainly based on the location and functions of tissue.
Epithelial
tissue
Simple (one cell Compound (More than one
thick) cell thick)

Squamo Cuboid Column Ciliat Pseudostratif

us al ar ed ied

Column Cuboid Column Ciliat Stratifi Specialized

ar al ar ed ed epithelia

Squamo Cuboid Column Columnar

us al ar ciliated

Keratinis Non-
ed Keratinised

Transitio NeurosensPigmented Germina

nal ory epitheliu l
epitheliu epithelium m epitheliu
(a) Simple epithelium : It is simple in structure and basically formed by single layer cells.
m m
 (1) Simple squamous epithelium : It is consists of only one layer of flat, scale like cells, usually
polygonal cells which are closely fitted together like the tiles of a mosaic. It is also known as pavement
epithelium. There is a round nucleus in
the centre of cell and covers those moist NUCLEUS

places where friction causes wear and CYTOPLASM

tear such as inner lining of cheeks and CELL BOUNDARY

associated with filtration and diffusion

in mammalian tissue. Blood and
lymphatic vessels linings are called
NUCLEUS
endothelium and surface of the pleura,
CYTOPLASM
pericardium and peritoneum are called
mesothelium. The cells of endothelium BASEMENT
MEMBRANE
and mesothelium become wavy and Fig. – Simple squamous epithelium
called tessellated. e.g. It forms lining of
blood vessels, lymph vessel, heart, peritoneum, pleura, Bowman’s capsule, inner surface of tympanic
membrane, thin segment of loop of Henle and lung alveoli.
(2) Simple cuboidal epithelium : The simple cuboidal epithelium is composed of one layer of
cuboidal shaped cells resting on a basement membrane. The nuclei are situated centrally. The cells of
cubical epithelium often form microvilli on their free surface border called brush bordered cuboidal
epithelium. e.g. the cubical epithelium is present in the small salivary and pancreatic ducts, thyroid
vesicles, parts of membranous labyrinth, nephrons of kidneys, ovaries, seminiferous tubules of testes,
ciliary bodies, choroid, iris of eyes, thin bronchioles and sweat gland of mammalian skin.

CELL
MEMBRANE
NUCLEUS

CYTOPLASM

BASEMENT
MEMBRANE
Fig. – Simple cuboidal
epithelium
(3) Simple columnar epithelium : It consists of a single layer cells, many of which have
modified structure. Three common modifications are
MICROVILLI
goblet, cilia and microvilli. In the intestine plasma
MUCUS
membranes of many columnar cells extend out in
CYTOPLASM
hundreds and hundreds of microscopic finger like GOBLET CELL

microvilli, to increase the absorptive surface area and NUCLEUS

is called brush bordered columnar epithelium Certain CELL MEMBRANE

cells of this epithelium contain mucous or goblet ABSORPTIVE CELL

cells along with under lying supporting connective BASEMENT

MEMBRANE
tissue is called mucous membrane. Simple columnar Fig. – Simple columnar
epithelium
epithelium is present in the stomach and intestine.
e.g. located inner lining of gall bladder and bile duct. It also occurs in the gastric gland, intestinal
glands, pancreatic lobules, respiratory bronchioles and PCT (Proximal Convoluted Tubules).
 (4) Simple ciliated epithelium : It bears
CILIA
numerous delicate hair like outgrowths called cilia BASAL GRANULE
arising from basal granules help to create a current MUCUS
to transport the materials. The ciliated epithelium CILIATED CELL
NUCLEUS
is of two types –
CYTOPLASM
(i) Ciliated columnar epithelium : It lines GOBLET CELL
REPLACEMENT CELL
respiratory tract, fallopian tubes (oviducts),
BASEMENT MEMBRANE
ventricles of brain (ependyma), central canal of
spinal cord, tympanic cavity and auditory tube Fig. – Simple columnar ciliated
epithelium
(Eustachian tube).
(ii) Ciliated cuboidal epithelium : It occurs in certain parts of nephrons of the kidneys.
(5) Pseudostratified columnar epithelium : It is always consist of single layer of irregularly
shaped columnar cells, touches the basement membrane. MUCOU
S
The cells are of differing heights and many are not tall GOBLET CELL
enough to reach the upper surface of the epithelial sheet. LONG CELL

Being unequal sized cells, their nuclei lie at different NUCLEUS

levels. The long cells have oval nuclei however, short cells CYTOPLASM

SHORT CELL
have rounded nuclei although epithelium is one cells thick,
but it gives the appearance of a stratified epithelium, hence BASEMENT MEMBRANE
Fig. – Pseudostratified
it is called pseudostratified epithelium. Mucous secreting epithelium
goblet cells are numerous and cilia are present. It is of two types –
(i) Pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium : It is found in the lining of trachea and
bronchi.
(ii) Pseudostratified columnar epithelium : It is found
in certain segments of human male urethra and parotid HORNY
LAYER
INTERMEDIA
salivary gland, vasa deferentia and epididymis. TE LAYERS

(b) Compound epithelium : It is complexed in structure GERMINATI

VE LAYERS
and basically formed by two or more than two layers of cells. BASEMENT
MEMBRAN
(1) Stratified squamous keratinised epithelium : E
SQUAMOUS
Stratified squamous epithelium is characterized by multiple LAYERS
INTERMEDIAT
layers of cells with typical flattened squamous cells at the free E LAYERS
GERMINATIV
or outer surface of the sheet. The presence of keratin in these E LAYER
BASEMENT
cells contributes to the protective qualities of skin covering MEMBRAN
E
the body surface. Keratin is dead and waterproof so it protects Fig. – Stratified squamous
the underlying tissues from abrasion and infection e.g. epithelium
A– Keratinised, B– Non
epidermis of the skin of land vertebrates. keratinised
(2) Stratified squamous non keratinised epithelium : Its free surface is moist, and the outer
epithelial cells, unlike those found in the skin, do not contain keratin. This type of epithelium serves a
protective function. It is found lining the oral cavity (buccal cavity), pharynx, oesophagus, anal canal,
lowerpart of urethra, vocal cords, vagina, cervix (lower part of uterus) and conjunctiva of eyes.
 (3) Stratified cuboidal epithelium : It is consists of two or more rows of low cuboidal-shaped
cells which are arranged randomly over a basement membrane. It is found in the sweat gland ducts,
larger salivary and pancreatic ducts.
(4) Stratified columnar epithelium : It is CILIA

protective epithelium has multiple layers of columnar

cells, only the most superficial cells are truly CYTOPLAS
M
columnar in appearance. Epithelium of this type is NUCLEU
S
rare. It is found in male urethra and in the mucous GERMINATIV
E LAYER
layer near the anus. It also lines mammary gland
BASEMENT
ducts and epiglottis. MEMBRAN
Fig. – Stratified columnar E
Fig. – Stratified columnar
(5) Stratified columnar ciliated epithelium : ciliated epithelium epithelium

It lines the larynx and upper part of the soft palate.

(c) Specialized epithelium : This type of epithelium are specialized to perform specific activity
hence, specialized in structure also. They are as follows –
(i) Transitional epithelium
EPITHELIUM EPITHELIAL
(Urothelium) : It is often consists ten or CELLS

more layers thick. It lacks germinative

layer, basement membrane. Stratified
transitional epithelium is typically found
in the body areas such as the wall of
UNDERLYIN UNDERLYING
urinary bladder, ureter and renal pelvis. It G CONNECTIVE
CONNECTIV
is located in all the hollow viscera E TISSUE
B TISSUE
A
subjected to stress and protects organ Fig. – A and B. Transitional epithelium in wall of
wall from tearing. nondistended and distended urinary bladder

(ii) Neurosensory epithelium :

Olfactory mucosa, called Schneiderian membrane, lining of internal nares, retina of eyes and epithelial
covering of tongue containing taste buds are examples of neurosensory epithelia. These contain
neurosensory cells, singly or in groups, interspersed between epithelial (supporting) cells. The sensory
cells bear, at their free ends, slender “sensory hairs” to receive specific stimuli. Basely, these cells are
connected, by means of synapses, with fine fibrils of sensory nerves.
(iii) Pigmented epithelium : The epithelial cells of the basal layer of retina contain pigment.
Hence, this layer is often referred to as a pigmented epithelium. e.g. – Pigmented layer of retina, iris
and skin.
(iv) Germinal epithelium : Specialized cuboidal cells capable of producing gametes as found in
gonads. Germinal epithelium produces gametes e.g., ova (Female gametes) and sperms (Male gametes)

1.2 Glands.
 Glandular epithelium are specialized for secretory activity. A cell, tissue or organ which secretes a
useful chemical material is known as gland. Glands are made up of cuboidal epithelial cells which are
more secretory. All glands arise as folding of epithelia. The golgi body in gland cells are larger and
more secretory. Most of the glands of body are merocrine types. It originate from all three germinal
layers. (ecto, meso and endoderm). Liver is the largest gland of the body and lined by glandular
epithelium.
(i) Types of glands
(a) Unicellular gland : It consist of unicellular gland cells which are called as goblet cells or
chalice cells. They secrete mucous and found in mucosa of intestine and stomach. Mucous lubricates
the food for easy peristalsis. Their life span is about 2–3 days.
(b) Multicellular gland : It consist of many cells and are generally located in underlying
connective tissue e.g. gastric and intestinal glands.
(c) Exocrine gland : These are those glands which discharge their secretory products into ducts. It
is also called ducted glands or glands of external secretion. e.g. Salivary glands, Mammary glands and
Tear glands.
(d) Endocrine gland : It is often called ductless gland, because they discharge their secretory
products (hormones) directly into the blood. e.g. Pituitary gland, thyroid, parathyroid and adrenal
glands.
(e) Heterocrine gland : These are those glands which are partly endocrine and partly exocrine in
function. e.g. Pancreas.
(ii) Structural classification of exocrine glands : Multicellular exocrine glands are classified by
structure, using the shape of their ducts and the complexity (branching) of their ducts system as
distinguishing characteristics. Shape include tubular and alveolar (Sac like). Simple exocrine glands
e.g. intestinal glands, mammalian sweat glands, cutaneous glands of frog etc. have only one duct
leading to surface. Compound exocrine glands have two or more ducts e.g. liver, salivary glands etc.

Type Example
Simple tubular Intestinal glands, crypts of Lieberkuhn in ileum.
Simple coiled tubular Sweat glands in man
Simple branched tubular Gastric (stomach) gland, and Uterine gland.
Simple alveolar Mucous gland in skin of frog, Poison gland of
toad and seminal vesicle.
Simple branched alveolar Sebaceous glands
Compound tubular Brunner’s gland, bulbourethral gland and liver.
Compound alveolar Sublingual and submandibular parotid salivary
gland
Compound tubulo alveolar Parotid salivary glands, Mammary gland and
Pancreas.
 (iii) Classification of glands on the basis of their mode of secretion –
(a) Apocrine gland : Apocrine glands collect SECRETIO SECRETIO
N N
their secretory products near the apex or tip, of the cell
and then release it into a duct by pinching off the
distended end. This process results in some loss of
cytoplasm and damage to the cell. e.g. Mammary
glands. (Modified sweat gland)
(b) Holocrine gland : Holocrine glands collect MEROCRIN APOCRINE HOLOCRIN
E CELLS CELLS E CELLS
their secretory products inside the cell and then rupture
Fig. – Types of glands regarding the mode of
completely to release it. These cells self destruct to secretion
complete their functions. e.g. Sebaceous glands. In
case of rabbit sebaceous glands are found in dermis of skin. Pineal body and thymus can also be
considered as holocrine gland.
(c) Merocrine gland : Merocrine glands (Eccrine or Epiccrine glands) discharge their secretory
product directly through the cell or plasma membrane, without injury to the cell wall and without loss
of cytoplasm. e.g. Sweat glands, exocrine region of vertebrate pancreas, salivary glands and intestinal
glands etc.

(iv) Classification of glands on the basis of nature of product

(a) Mucous gland : Secret slimy mucous e.g. goblet cells, palatine gland, gland of uterus, some
gastric gland and gland of colon.

(b) Serous gland : Produce watery secretion. e.g. pancreas, parotid, salivary gland, sweet gland
and intestinal gland.

(c) Seromucous gland : Secrete mixed liquid. e.g. Most gastric gland, sublingual, submaxillary
salivary gland.

(d) Cytogenic gland : They produce cells e.g. Testis and ovary.

Important Tips
 Study of tissue outside the body in a glass tube is known as in vitro, while study of living tissues
in situ is known as in vivo.
 Among epithelia, simple epithelia were first to evolve.
 Transitional epithelium also called plastic epithelium or urothelium. It lacks basement
 membrane
 False epithelium derived from mesenchyma (a diffuse network of tissue derived from
embryonic mesoderm) and lining the synovial cavities.
 Mammary glands without teats are present in prototheria.
 A malignant tumour arising from an epithelium is called a carcinoma. If it arises from a
squamous epithelium it is a squamous cell carcinoma and if it arises from glandular epithelium it
is called an adenoma.
 The epithelial lining of brain ventricles and central canal of spinal cord is known as ependyma.
 Stereocilia are elongated membrane outgrowths found in certain parts of male reproductive tract.
 The cuboidal or columnar cells of germinative layer rest upon a basement membrane and
continuously divide mitotically to produce new layer of cells.
 Brush bordered cuboidal epithelial cells bear microvilli on their free ends.
 Myoepithelium made up of fusiform or stellate cells capable of contraction.
 Basement membrane of epithelial tissue is non-cellular.
 Recent work suggests that basement membranes may play a role in cell-organisation as
molecules within the membrane interact with receptors on cell surfaces substances present in the
membrane may influence morphogenesis of cells to which they are attached.
 Cilia are fine fibres having 9 + 2 internal structure and connected with cell internally by basal
granules.
 In frog and snakes, moulted skin is stratum corneum of flat cells. Sweat glands of skin of
mammals are simple coiled tubular glands while those of armpit are simple branched tubular
glands.
 Bartholins duct is lined by cuboidal epithelium.
 Stereocilia present in Epididymis.

1.3 Connective tissue.

It connects and supports all the other tissues, the intercellular element predominating. The cellular
element is usually scanty. In function this tissue may be mechanical, nutritive and defensive. It is a
tissue made up of matrix (abundant intercellular substance or ground substance) and living cells that
connects and support different tissues. Connective tissue was called mesenchyme by Hertwig (1893).
Connective tissue is one of the most widespread tissue in the body, found in or around every organ of
the body constituting about 30% of body mass and present between ectoderm and endoderm. All
connective tissues in the body are formed by mesoderm.
 (i) Structure : There are large intercellular spaces between the cells. Intercellular spaces are filled
with large amount of extracellular materials formed of insoluble protein fibres lying in an amorphous,
transparent ground substance called matrix. Ground substances is formed of mucopolysaccharides
chondritin–6–sulphate of hyaluronic acid. Ageing of an animal body is associated with deterioration in
its connective tissues. With advancing age, the amount of the jelly like amorphous ground substance in
connective tissues of the body decreases, while the fibres become thicker and more numerous.
Moreover, calcium salts get deposited in the elastin fibres of all connective tissues and particularly
those of the wall of blood vessels. Consequently, the connective tissues gradually lose elasticity,
resiliency and normal tone. Wrinkles in skin, poor blood supply to various tissues due to hardening of
the wall of blood vessels etc., are the ultimate results of this ageing process.
(ii)Functions
(a) Attachment : Their chief function is to bind other tissues together in the organs.
(b) Storage : Certain connective tissues such as adipose tissues store fat.
(c) Support : Skeletal connective tissues like bones and cartilages provide the body with a
supporting skeletal frame work.
(d) Transport : Fluid connective tissues such as blood and lymph transport various materials in
the body.
(e) Defence and Scavenging : Plasma cells synthesize antibodies, viz., macrophages.
Lymphocytes ingest cell debris, harmful bacteria and foreign matter. Thus these cells of connective
tissues are protective in function.
(f) Shock-proof cushions : The jelly-like ground substance of connective tissues acts as shock
absorber around some organs such as eye balls and kidneys.
(g) Formation of blood corpuscles : The bone marrow produces blood cells.
(h) Packing material : Areolar tissue acts as packing material in various organs.
(i) Repair : Collagen fibres of connective tissue help in repair of injured tissues.

(iii) Classification of connective tissues : It is classified into three types –

Connective tissue

Connective tissue proper Skeletal Vascular

tissue tissue

Areola White Yello Adipos Reticula Cartilag Bone Notochor Blood Lymp
r fibrou w e r e d h
tissue s elastic tissue tissue
tissue tissue

Tendo Sheat Hyaline Fibrous Calcifie

n h cartilag cartilag d
e e cartilag
e
Elastic fibrous White fibrous
cartilage cartilage
1.4 Connective tissue proper.
Connective tissue proper possess soft viscous semisolid or semi-fluid matrix.
(i) Areolar Tissue : Areolar
tissue is loose connective tissue, FIBROCYT
E
possess transparent gelatinous, highly MATRIX
vascular and sticky matrix which have
BUNDLE OF
variety of cells and fibres. It allows WHITE
FIBRES
movement of part connected by it MAST
CELL
(Muscle and their compound). Areolar YELLOW
FIBRES
tissue mainly consist of different
types of cells and fibres.
HISTIOCYTE
(MACROPHAG
(a) Cells of areolar tissue : It E)
has following types –
NUCLEUS OF
FIBROBLAST
(1) Fibroblast : It is most Fig. – Areolar connective
tissue
abundant cells, produces fibres, called
as fibroblasts in their young active phase and fibrocytes when old and inactive. It synthesize proteins
(Collagen, elastin and reticulin). These are undifferentiated mesenchyme stem cells, capable to give
rise other cells of connective tissue. Collagen and elastin are formed by fibroblasts.
(2) Histiocytes or Macrophages or Clasmatocytes : These are polymorphic cells. These are
amoeboid cells and these are main phagocytes of connective tissue. They are having most active
lysosomes and phagocytise dead cells and pathogens. Some of these are called “fixed macrophage”
bearing filopodia (Stellate cells) others called “wandering macrophages”. It perform “mopping up”
operations. Macrophages remove the dead cells and damaged cells and clean the body so called
scavenger cell. All types of macrophages take part in phagocytosis.
Macrophages

(3) Reticular cells : Present only in the reticular tissue and stellate in appearance. Infact they are
Monocyte Alveolar Dust Microglia Astrocytes Reticular cells Kupffers cells
modified fibroblast
(Blood) producing reticular fibres.
Phagocyt cells (Brain) (Spinal (Reticulo (Liver)
e (Lung) cord) endothelial cells
(4) Mast cells : Mast (Alveoli)
cells were discovered by Paul Echrlich. It is large, irregular ovoid cells
found in areolar tissue. and its number increase during allergies. It produces or secretes histamine
(vasodilator), serotonin (vasoconstrictor) and heparin (anticoagulant). Histamine dilate the blood
vessels in allergic and inflammatory conditions. Heparin checks the clotting of blood inside the blood
vessels. Serotonin act as vasoconstrictor to arrest bleeding.
(5) Lymphocytes : These are the smallest, less numerous and spherical or ovoid cells resembling
lymphocytes of blood and lymph. These actively move about by pseudopodia. Their function is to form
and carry antibodies. That is why, they are seen in large numbers of sites of inflammation.
 (6) Plasma cells (Plasmacytes) : These are usually small and rounded, superficially resembling
lymphocytes but are sluggishly amoeboid and short-lived (only 2 or 3 days). These are the most
potential antibody-forming cells of body presumably, mature lymphocytes (B-lymphocytes form
antibody) transform into plasma cells or proliferate to form plasma cells.
(7) Fat or Adipose cells (Adipocytes or Lipocytes) : A few, large and spherical cells occur in
areolar tissue, singly or in clusters around small blood vessels. Each cell contains a large globule of fat
surrounded by a thin peripheral layer of cytoplasm having a nucleus.
(8) Eosinophils : These cells closely resemble the eosinophilic leucocytes of blood. These
probably play a phagocytic role in inflammatory and allergic reactions.
(9) Chromatophores : These are pigment cell present in specialised areas such as skin and eye.
They are much branched and packed with pigment granules. They are stellate (Star like) cells, which
are phagocytic in nature. They phagocytes melanin producing cells and retain melanin hence they
provide colour to the skin and other organs. Melanin is black pigment which protects body from
ultraviolet rays of sun.
(10) Mesenchyme cells : These are reserve undifferentiated cell which can be transformed into
other types of cells when needed.
(b) Fibres of areolar tissue : These are made up with protein and non living structures of protein
produced by fibroblasts and present in matrix of connective tissue and are of three types –
(1) Collagenous fibres : These are the most abundant fibrous element of areolar and other
connective tissues. There are long, unbranched fibres of a soluble and shining collagen protein
(tropo collagen). Some fibres and slender and straight, but most are coarse and wavy. In fact, the
coarse fibres are bundles of slender fibres. Each slender fibre is, in turn, a bundle of fine fibrils, and
a fibril is formed of microfibrils, which are aggregates of filamentous tropocollagen molecules.
These fibres are more strengthful and provide maximum tensile strength. These are colourless and
hyaline, yet called white fibres to distinguish them from yellow elastin fibres. When boiled in
water, collagen (an albuminious protein) changes into gelatin. Collagen protein is the most
abundant protein of the body constitutes 25% the total body protein. Collagen fibre can be stained
by eosin. When collagen fibres are removed from the areolar tissue they become loose and elastic.
(2) Yellow elastin fibres : Formed of elastin protein, these fibres are less numerous, thinner,
branched, anastomosing, and of a pale yellow colour. These are very elastic and remain streched due to
tension in the areolar tissue, when broken in teased preparations, these coil and curl like tense wires.
Elastin is probably the most resistant of all body proteins to chemical changes. Thousands of years old
‘mummies’ still have their arteries intact due to well-preserved elastin fibres. They are the
orceinophilic i.e. stained by orcein.
(3) Reticulin fibres : These are delicate, freely branching and inelastic fibres of reticulin protein,
found interwoven, to form networks. These are very abundant in embryos, new born babies and in
healing and regenerating wounds. In areolar tissues of adults, these are mostly replaced by collagen
fibres, but remain abundant in lymphoid and blood forming tissues and in the stroma of pancreas, liver
etc. Chemically, reticulin is also a type of collagen. Refractive index is similar to ground substance, so
without stain they can’t be seen. They are stained with AgBr and AgNO3 hence are called
Argentophillic or Argyrophillic. On boiling collagen and reticular fibres both convert in glue.
(ii) White fibrous tissue : It is
modified form of areolar tissue. Only HISTIOCYT
MAST E
collagen fibres are present in the CELL WHITE
FIBRES
matrix and cells are mainly fibroblasts,
present at the joints between skull MATRI
X
bones and makes them immovable,
also found in the dermis of higher
mammals. It is of two types : FIBROCYTE

(a) Tendons : A tendon is non-

elastic but flexible tissue consists of
parallel bundles of collagenous fibres
Fig. – White fibrous tissue
between which rows of fibroblasts are
present. It joins the muscles to bones. It also form
chordae tendinae which joins the cusps of
NUCLEUS
atrioventricular valves of heart with the wall of
ADIPOCYTE
ventricles. S

FAT
(b) Sheath : In a sheath, the bundles of white GLOBULE

fibres lie in a criss-cross manner. The fibroblasts BLOOD

VESSEL
are not in rows but are scattered in the areolae.
CONNECTIVE
The sheath form protective covering. TISSUE
FIBRES

(iii) Yellow fibrous tissue : CONNECTIVE

TISSUE CELLS
The matrix is with numerous and THICK
YELLOW
closely packed yellow or elastin FIBRES

fibres which are similar to but Fig. – Adipose connective tissue

thicker than those of areolar
FIBROBLAS
connective tissue. Fibroblasts are T
MATRIX
scattered irregularly in the matrix.
A few bundles of small sized white FINE
WHITE
fibres are also present. It is elastic FIBRES
Fig. – Yellow fibrous tissue
and flexible. It forms wall of blood
vessels, lungs, true vocal chords, trachea, capsule of spleen and bronchioles. It also forms sheet in
ligaments. Ligaments is a modified yellow elastic fibrous tissue and connects bone to bone.
(iv) Adipose tissue : It is modified form of areolar tissue made up of specialized large
spherical fat cells (below the skin) or adipocytes. Mast cells and eosinophils also occur but other
cell types are uncommon. Adipose tissue chiefly act as “Food reserves” or fat depots for storage
and metabolism of lipids. Besides this, they also act as heat insulators and pressure, pull and push
absorbers. Panniculus adiposus under the skin of human beings is partly responsible for difference
in the body contours of man and women. Adipocytes are of two types :
(a) Unilocular adipocyte (White adipose tissue) : Common fat of body, having single large fat
globule, maintain body temperature, found beneath skin subcutaneous fat panniculus adiposus, blubber
of whales and elephants, hump of camel and tail of merino sheep, yellow bone marrow, around kidneys
and blood vessels, mesentries, omenta and the fat bodies of frog.
(b) Multilocular adipocyte (Brown fat) : Each multilocular adipocytes have several small fat
globules, contain more number of mitochondria, found in rats and other rodents, polar bear, penguins,
seal, walrus, in new born human babies and hibernating mammals (rats and other rodents) on oxidation
it yields about 20 times more energy than ordinary fat.
(v) Reticular tissue : It is a modified form of areolar connective tissue characterized by the matrix
is fluidy in nature. The matrix contains large number of stellate-shaped reticular cells, each with a
number of protoplasmic processes. The protoplasmic processes of adjoining cells are interconnected to
form a close network. The reticular cells secrete reticular fibres formed of a protein called reticulin.
Reticular tissue is found in spleen, thymus, tonsils, lymph glands, liver, bone-marrow, lamina propria
of mucosa of stomach and intestine. The reticular cells act as phagocytes and form a part of defence
system of the body. Phagocytic endothelial cells of blood vessels in bone marrow and liver (kupffer
cells), reticular cells of lymph nodes and spleen, macrophages of areolar tissue, dust cells of pulmonary
alveoli and monocytes of blood constitute a reticulo-endothelial system. The latter is an important
defence system of body, because its various components remove infective bacteria, dead cells and
harmful foreign matter from blood, lymph and tissue fluid.

Important Tips
 Argentaffin cells which produce a precursor of serotonin, a potent vasoconstrictor hormone,
occurs in intestinal cells.
 The brown adipose tissue in human is restricted till third month of post natal life.
 White fibres yield gelatin on boiling and are digestible with enzyme pepsin but yellow (elastic)
fibres are not digestible by enzyme trypsin.
 The fat in the globules is stored in the form of triglycerides.
 The Cytoplasmic granules basophils contain histamine.
 Sprain – Excessive pulling of ligaments.
 Myeloid tissue – It is modification of reticular tissue. Its ground substance is plasma. It posses
heavy network of reticular fibres. In active form the cells are myeloblasts. It is found in red bone
marrow or haemopoitic tissue and fat reserve of yellow bone marrow.
 Mucoid tissue – An embryoid tissue found in umbilical cord also called wharton’s jelly. It is
most primitive type of tissue, found in vitreous humour of eye and cock’s comb.
 Heparin – A polysaccharides made of glucosamine, glucoronic acid and sulphuric acid secreted
 by mast cells, also from liver and other organs, prevents conversion of prothrombin into
thrombin, neutralizes the thrombin already formed.
 Plasma cells are also called as “Cart wheel cells”.
 Collagen constitutes about 33% of total body protein.
 Mummies – Preservation of elastic fibres of body by chemical treatment.
 Red muscle fibres are rich in mitochondria.
 The term “blubber” refers to a subcutaneous deposition of fat in whales.
 Aponeurosis – Bands of white fibrous connective tissue in which fibres are thinner and
interwoven. It is flat tendon which also connects muscle to bone or bone to bone. It may also
connect muscle to muscle.
 Brown fat also called “hibernating gland” as found in hibernating mammals. Each brown fat is
polylocular and contains iron containing cytochrome pigments. Brown colour is due to
cytochrome oxidase enzyme.
 Morfan syndrome – It is a genetic disease related to defective connective tissue specially
collagen and elastin fibres. Person have long hands long fingers and have abnormal face and
person may have cardiac problems.
 Ligamentum flava – connects adjacent vertebrae and the ligaments between the phalanges,
fingers and toes.
 Ligamentum nuchae – Found in the neck of quadrapeds to bear the weight of head when
grazing.
 Pigmented connective tissue – Connective tissues of choroid and iris of eyes and skin dermis
(corium) or black people contain large and branched (stellate) pigment cells or chromatophores
(melanophores) which are laden with yellowish brown, black or blue melanin pigment granules.
These are, therefore, called pigmented connective tissues. Melanin is, in fact, produced by other
cells called melanocytes. Chromatophores simply phagocytes the melanin from melanocytes
like macrophages.

1.5 Skeletal tissue.

It provide support and surface for attachment of muscle. Skeletal connective tissue form the frame
work of body. It provide rigidity to body. These protect the various organ and help in locomotion. It is
of three types.
(i) Cartilage : Cartilage is a solid but semi-rigid and flexible connective tissue. Cartilage is a
nonvascular connective tissue, consisting of cells embeded in a resilent matrix of chondrin. Chondrin is
a protein of cartilage. Cartilage differs from other connective tissue in that only one cell type the
chondrocytes is present; Chondrocytes are found in small opening called lacunae. Chondroblast, a
cartilage forming cells are embeded in firm, translucent matrix younger cartilage are possesing
phagocytic cells called chondroclasts which eats up extra matrix of cartilage to provide new shape to
the cartilage. It is a vascular so, nutrient must reach by process of diffusion movement is through the
matrix from blood vessels located in a specialized connective tissue membrane called perichondrium, a
outer covering of cartilage. Regeneration of cartilage can occur from its peri-chondrium. Cartilage is
said to be metabolically nearly inactive. In kids the cartilage cells show 2 types of growth.
• Appositional or Perichondral or Secondary or Exogenous growth : It is due to deposition of
matrix and division of chondrogenic cells of periphery. It leads to growth in thickness.
• Endogenous or Interstitial growth : It is due to deposition of matrix and division in inner cells
of cartilage. It leads to growth in size.
(a) Types of cartilage : It is of following types –
PERICHONDRIU
(1) Hyaline cartilage : It is most primitive and glass like M
cartilage. Its matrix is transparent homogenous and pearly
BLOOD
white or bluish green in colour, contain chondrin. When the VESSEL

chondrocytes or cartilage cells are arranged in groups of two, NUCLEU

S
four etc. in a single lacuna it is called a cell nest. It is slightly CHONDRI
N MATRIX
elastic and also known as articular cartilage because it forms
CHONDROCYTE
the articular surface of joints. Hyaline cartilage is found in S
LACU
trachea, larynx and bronchi, limb bones (called hyaline cap), NAE
A
sternum, in the hyoid apparatus nasal septum, ribs (sternal Fig. – Hyaline cartilage
parts) larynx (cricoid, thyroid), nasal cartilage (nasal septum). (section)

(2) Fibro cartilage (White fibrous cartilage) : In this cartilage, the small amount of matrix of
cartilage is packed with large number of bundles of thick
white (collagen) fibres. So it is toughest and less flexible. CHONDROCYT ELASTIC
ES FIBRES
Between the bundles of white fibres, there are scattered
LACUNAE
lacunae, each containing a chondrocyte. It is found in
intervertebral discs and acts as shock absorber. It is also found
MATRI
in pubic symphysis and helps in parturition (child birth). The X

intervertebral discs remain contracted when the body is active,

but relaxed when the body is at rest. That is why, our body COLLAGE
becomes a bit taller during sleep and after death. N FIBRES

A B
(3) Elastic cartilage (Yellow elastic cartilage) : In this Fig. – Fibrocartilage A. White B.
cartilage, the matrix is packed with yellow or elastic fibres Elastic
which run in all directions to form a network. It appears yellow and opaque. The chondrocytes are
present in lacunae between the yellow fibres. Owing to the presence of yellow fibres, it is very flexible.
It gives recoiling power to structures. It is found in mammalian pinna, pharyngotympanic tube,
epiglottis, some laryngeal and bronchiolar cartilages.
(4) Calcified cartilage : It is modified hyaline cartilage, It is hard and non elastic due to
deposition of calcium salt-hydroxy appetite in matrix. It is found in pubis of old frog, supra-scapula of
frog, quadrate cartilage of frog., shark vertebrae, in man ends of long bone, head of humerus and
femur. Calcification may also occur as a regular growth process of bone due to age. It reduces elasticity
of the cartilage and makes it more rigid.
Differences between Bone and Cartilage
Bone Cartilage
1. Matrix is composed of a tough, inflexible 1. Matrix is composed of a firm, but flexible
material, the ossein. material, the chondrin.
2. Matrix is always impregnated with calcium 2. Matrix may be free or impregenated with
salts. calcium salts.
3. Bone cells lie in lucunae singly. 3. Cartilage cells lie in lacunae singly or in
groups of two or four.
4. Osteocytes are irregular and give off 4. Chondroblasts are oval and devoid of
branching processes in the developing bone. processes.
5. Lacunae give off canaliculi. 5. Lacunae lack canaliculi.
6. There are outer and inner layers of special 6. There are no special cartilage-forming cells.
bone forming cells, the osteoblasts, that Cartilage grows by division of all
produce new osteocytes, which secrete new chondroblasts.
lamellae of matrix.
7. Matrix occurs largely in concentric lamellae. 7. Matrix occurs in a homogenous mass.
8. Bone is highly vascular. 8. Cartilage in nonvascular.
9. Bone may have bone marrow at the centre. 9. No such tissue is present.

(ii) Bone : Bone is a highly calcified (mineralized), hard and rigid connective tissue. It is the
major component of adult vertebrate endoskeleton. Besides its mechanical function of supporting the
body architecture and internal organs as a frame work, of protecting delicate organ like brain, heart, etc.
of forming to muscles to facilitate movement and locomotion, the bone is also a metabolically dynamic
tissue which functions as a homeostatic reservoir of ions of calcium, magnesium, phosphorous, etc.
About 97% of total calcium of body occurs in the endoskeleton.

Structure of bone

Periosteu Matrix Endosteu Bone

m m Marrow

Outer Inner

(a) Periosteum : It is a membrane that forms an envelop around the bone. Periosteum is comprises
of two distinct layers. Outer layer consist of thin white fibrous connective tissue. Inner layer consist of
osteoblasts, osteoblasts are spider like bone cells, also known as bone forming cells, because they
produces new bone materials.
(b) Matrix : Matrix is composed of protein called ossein. The matrix forms thin plates called
lamellae. Lamellae are of three types. Haversian lamellae (occur around Haversian canal) concentric or
circumferential lamellae (inner to periosteum and outer to endosteum) and interstitial, lamellae
(between Haversian system). In the lamellae minute bone cells osteocytes are present.

Composition of matrix

Inorganic 70%
Organic 30%

CaPO4 (60%) CaCO3 Mg3PO4 Citric ions

(c) Endosteum : It is present outer to the bone marrow cavity. Endosteum is a membrane which lines
the marrow cavity. It is comprises of two distinct layers, one is of fibrous connective tissue and another
is osteoblasts.

ARTICULAR
LIGAMENT
SYNOVIAL PERIOSTEU
FLUID M
OUTER
OSTEOBLASTS
ARTICULAR LAMELLAE
EPIPHYOSI
CARTILAGE
S LACUNAE
WITH
SPONGY BONE
OSTEOCYTES
CANALICU
MARROW LI
INNER OSTEOBLASTS
CAVITY (ENDOSTEUM)
MARRO
W MARROW
SHAF
T

COMPACT BONE

PERIOSTEUM

BLOOD
VESSEL

Fig. – Parts of long bone Fig. – T.S of decalcified bone

(d) Bone marrow : Bone marrow is a specialized type of soft, diffuse connective tissue called
“Myeloid tissue”. It takes part in production of blood cells hence known as haemopoietic tissue. It is
composed of adipose tissue, areolar tissue and blood. It is of two types –
 (1) Red bone marrow : Red in colour due to presence of lot of blood vessels. In foetal life and at
birth present in entire skeleton. After 5th year red bone marrow replaced by yellow bone marrow, at 20-
25 years red bone marrow present at ribs, sternum, clavicles, vertebrae, scapula, pelvis, epiphysis of
humerus and femur. Produces RBCs, WBC, monocytes, eosinophils and platelets.
(2) Yellow bone marrow : Yellow in colour and has much fatty tissue (adipose tissue), present in
shaft of long bones. Produces blood cells in emergency i.e. at the time of excessive loss of blood,
yellow bone marrow may be replaced by red bone marrow in anaemia.
(e) Haversian system : A haversian canal, its lamellae and osteocytes form a haversian system.
Haversian canals are found in bone matrix of long bone, like humerus of mammals. Haversian canals
contain artery and veins, osteoblasts in areolar tissue, nerves and lymph. It is also called osteon.
(f) Types of bone cells : Three types of cells are found in bone :
(1) Osteoblast : Bone forming cells found in all bone surfaces. It is small cells synthesize and
secrete osteoid, an important part of ground substance. Process of osteoblast is called canaliculi.
(2) Osteocyte : Mature, nondividing osteoblast surrounded by matrix, lying within lacunae.
(3) Osteoclast : Bone destroying cells take part in resorption of bones, contain large amount of
acid phosphatase enzyme. 4-Osteoprogenitor.

(g) Types of bone

(1) On the basis of their texture : The bones are divided into two categories spongy or
cancellous or tubecular bones and compact or periosteal bones.
Differences between Spongy bone and Compact bone.
Characters Spongy bone Compact bone
Arrangement of There is no regular Haversian system so have Have regular Haversian
lamellae spongy texture. system
Occurrence In skull bones, ribs, centrum of vertebrae and In the shaft (diaphysis) of
epiphyses of long bones long bones
Marrow cavity Broad Narrow
Type of bone Red marrow in the spaces between lamellae Yellow marrow in
marrow marrow cavity
Function Marrow forms RBCs and Granular WBCs Marrow stores fats
(2) On the basis of origin of bone : Ossification or osteogenesis is the process of bone formation.
A bones are classified into four categories.
Differences between Cartilaginous, Dermal, Sesamoid and Visceral bones
Cartilaginous (Endochondrial) Dermal Sesamoid bone Visceral
bone (Intramembranous) bone
bone
These are formed by ossification These are formed by These are formed by They are
directly on the cartilages and ossification in the ossification at the formed in the
formation involves deposition of dermis of the skin. joints of the bones or soft organs.
 body matter by osteoblasts and on the tendon and
resorption by osteoclast. ligament.
These are elongated and hard These are These are small sized Examples :
bones Examples : Vertebrae, membrane-like disc like bones. oscordis,
humerus, femur and fibula. bones. Examples : Example : patella bone ospenis,
skull bones, (knee cap). osclitoris.
phalanges, clavicles.
(3) On the basis of treatment : These are of two types
Differences between Dried bone and Decalcified bone
Characters Dried bone Decalcified bone
Type of treatment Subjected to high temperature. Subjected to dilute solution of
HCl.
Nature of matter left With only mineral matter. With only organic matter.
Marrow cavity Empty. With bone-marrow.
Fate of cells Periosteum, endosteum, osteoblasts Periosteum, endosteum,
and osteocytes are absent being osteoblasts and osteocytes all are
killed by high temperature. present.
Lacunae Lacunae present. Lacunae absent.

(h) Functions of bone :

(1) Support : Bones form the framework of the body and contribute to the shape, alignment and
positioning of the body.
(2) Protection : Bony “boxes” protect the delicate structures they enclose,
(3) Movement : Bones with their joints constitute levers that move as muscle contract.
(4) Mineral storage : Bones are the major reservoir for calcium, phosphorus and other minerals.
(5) Haematopoiesis : Blood cell formation is carried out by myeloid tissue.
(iii) Notochord : It is found in all chordate, It is replaced by vertebral column in vertebrate.
Notochord is rod like structure. Notochord is made up of chordal cells.
(iv) Structure of frog’s bone : A typical long bone of an adult vertebrate, such as a limb bone
(humerus, femur, etc.), is distinguishable into the long, middle, cylindrical shaft (diaphysis) and the
roughly spherical articular heads (Epiphyses). The shaft is hollow. Its cavity, called marrow or
medullary cavity, is filled with a soft and semisolid fatty neurovascular tissue, yellow bone narrow.
The latter is yellow in middle part of the shaft, but red due to abundant blood vessels towards the
epiphysis. In mammals the, red bone marrow contains erythroblast cells which form red blood
corpuscles. A thin single layered epithelium called endosteum, lines the marrow cavity. Cells of
endosteum are young, unbranched and some what flattened bone cells, called osteoblast, which secrete
the osteoid matrix or ossein of the bone when active. The ossein is deposited towards outer side in
concentric rings called lamellae (lamellar bone). The middle line of each lamella is marked by an
angular ring of lacunae. Each lacuna encloses a branched mature bone cell (osteocyte). As new
lamellae are laid down by endosteum, its osteoblasts also divide and form the lacunar rings of the
lamellar matrix. Thus the role of endosteum is to add to the thickness of the bone from its inner side.
The endosteum also contains bone reabsorbing cells called osteoclast. A thick and tough sheath, called
periosteum, forms an envelope around the bone. It comprises two distinct layers – a thin outer layer of
dense fibrous connective tissue with fibroblast and a thin inner layer of osteoblast like those of
endosteum.
(v) Structure of mammalian long bone : Mammalian bones are quite different and complicated
in structure than those of frog and other vertebrates. Since mammals have attained larger body size in
evolution, their bones are thicker and stronger. Osteocytes of deep seated lacunae in those bones
become cut off from the vascular supply of periosteum and bone marrow. Hence, mammalian bones
have a wide spread network of vascular supply embedded in their matrix. Within the matrix of the
compact bone of the shaft of a long mammalian bone, such as humerus, femur, tibia, etc., blood vessels
are lodged in a matrix of slender branching canals. The main canals, called Haversian canals, usually
run parallel to the long axis of a bone. Numerous transverse and oblique Volkmann’s canals connect
the haversian canals with each other and with the marrow cavity and periosteum. Haversian canals or
ventral canals or central canals are possessing nerve, lymphatics, blood vessels (either artery or vein or
both otherwise capillary only), areolar tissue, bone marrow. To provide the osteocytes with maximum
facility of chemical exchange, the matrix of compact mammalian bones is laid down in a very orderly
but highly complicated system of lamellae. On basis of the arrangement of the lamellae, such a bone can be
divided into 4 zones :

CANALICU
LI HAVERSIAN SYSTEM
(OSTEON)
HAVERSIAN
PERIOSTEU
CANAL
M
HAVERSIAN
LAMELLAE OUTER
INNER CIRCUMFERENTIAL
CIRCUMFERENTIAL LAMELLAE
LAMELLAE

HAVERSIAN
CANAL

OSTEOCYTE
WITH PROCESS

BLOOD
CAPILLARY

VOLKMANN
ENDOSTEU HAVERSIAN PERIOSTEU S CANAL
M CANAL M
Fig. – Longitudinal and transverse section of long bone

(a) Zone of Haversian systems or Osteons : Four to twenty concentric rings of lamellae surround
each haversian canal, establishing a cylindrical unit of bone structure, called “Haversian system or
Osteon”. The major, medullary part of the bone is formed of osteons (osteonal bone). All lacunae of an
osteon communicate with their own haversian canal by means of canaliculi. Hence, the osteocytes of
these lacunae carry their chemical exchange with the blood vessel lodged in this haversian canal.
(b) Interstitial zone : Since remodelling of bone in some bones continues throughout life, osteons
are continuously reabsorbed and formed again and again. The narrow gaps, left between completed
osteons are, therefore, remnants of former lamellae or osteons. These are irregular and called interstitial
lamellae.
(c) Outer circumferential zone : This is the thin peripheral zone of compact bone between
haversian zone and periosteum. Lamellae of bone matrix in this zone run parallel to the long axis of the
bone.
(d) Inner circumferential zone : This is the thin zone of bone between haversian zone and
endosteum. This also comprises longitudinal lamellae. Osteocytes of outer and inner circumferential
zones communicate with the blood vessels, respectively of periosteum and bone marrow. Haversian
systems are absent in spongy bone of mammals.
(vi) Formation and growth of bone : The process of bone-formation is called osteogenesis or
ossification. It is a 2-phased process – first the special organic matrix is laid down by osteoblasts and
then, follows its mineralization or calcification. Bone formation starts in foetal life in second month. It
produce four types of bones with regard to their source.
(a) Endochondral ossification : Most bones of the body are more or less elongated. These are all
cartilaginous bones formed by endochondral osteogenesis. Each such bone replaces an elongated, rod
like embryonic model of hyaline cartilage which is usually completely destroyed during osteogenesis.
The cartilaginous model is covered by a functional perichondrium and it continues growing even
during its ossification. Before the onset of ossification, the cartilaginous model undergoes some
regional differentiation of its tissue –
(1) Cartilage cells (chondrocytes) at the centre of diaphysis become large and vacuolated. Their
lacunae also become large. The cartilage
matrix (chondrin) between these lacunae UNCHANGED
CARTILAGE
becomes calcified. This is now the primary
CHAINS OF
centre of ossification. Its chondrocytes CARTILAGE CELLS

gradually die and disintegrate.

(2) The perichondrial sheath around CALCIFIED
MATRIX
the central diaphysial region of the
PRIMARY MARROW
cartilage differentiates into bone sheath or CAVITIES

periosteum; cells of its inner layer become

PERIOSTEUM
osteogenic, i.e., osteoblasts.
(3) Buds containing blood vessels and OSTEOBLASTS
overlying osteoblasts now grow inwards
from the periosteum and erode their way
into the primary center of ossification. BONE
(OSEIN+SALTS)
Destruction of the calcified cartilage
during the erosion is perhaps performed by Fig. – Osteogenesis of bone
certain large, multinucleate and phagocytic bone-eating cells called osteoclasts. The latter are probably
formed by fusion of several osteoblasts which have assumed bone eroding function. Due to irregular
erosion, narrow strips or bars of original calcified cartilage are left here and there, and original lacunae
form an irregular system of intercommunicating medullary spaces, called primary marrow cavities.
Branches of blood vessels and osteoblasts fill up the spaces in the form of an embryonic bone
marrow.Now ossification begins at two sites. The osteoblasts of periosteum lay down a “periosteal
collar” of compact bone around the middle region of the cartilage mode. Simultaneously, the
osteoblasts of embryonic marrow become arranged in linear series and start ossification around the
cartilage bars, forming bone trabeculae of a primary spongy bone. Both of these sites of ossification
progressively thicken and extend towards both ends of the cartilage model. Osteoblasts, which are
entrapped within the bone matrix, become branched osteocytes. The spaces, these cells occupy in the
matrix, become branched lacunae. Owing to a continuous process of bone remodelling i.e., bone-eating
or reabsorption by osteoclasts and bone – laying by osteoblasts. Most of the bony trabeculae in axial
part of shaft region are removed. Hence, a continuous marrow cavity, lined by endosteum, is formed.
Later, new (secondary) centres of ossification establish in the terminal (epiphysial) parts of the
cartilage model. Hence, spongy bone is laid down in these parts. Eventually, the entire cartilage model,
except thin articular surfaces at the two ends, is replaced by bone. That is why, bones formed in this
way are called cartilage or replacing bones. All bones of limbs, girdles (except clavicles) and vertebral
column, and some of the skull are cartilage bones.
(b) Intramembranous ossification : This type of ossification occurs, not in a prior cartilage
model, but in collagenous connective tissue membranes beneath embroyonic skin. It begins at certain
fixed centres which are marked by profuse capillary networks. Fibroblasts in these centres differentiate
into osteoblasts which cluster around the respective capillary network and start forming osteoid bone
around themselves. Mineralization of osteoid bone begins. Some osteoblasts become completely
surrounded by bone. These thus become osteocytes in lacunae. Other osteoblasts remain closely
applied to the surfaces of the bone. These proliferate, spread over the first-formed bone and continue
osteogenesis. The latter is more rapid at certain points than at others. This results in formation of
spongy bone. While spongy bone is, thus, formed around the centre of ossification, the surround cells
of periosteum are potentially osteogenic. These lay down a covering sheet of compact bone upon the
surface. Typical dipolic bones are formed in this way. These become invested upon original
cartilaginous box of skull and at some other cartilages, giving these strength and protection. These are,
therefore, also called investing bones. All flat bones of cranium, facial skeleton, clavicles of pectoral
girdles and terminal phalanges are investing bones. By continued remodelling, some of these may
completely change into compact bones.
(c) Intratendinous ossification : These bones are formed by the ossification of tendons (white
collagen tissue). e.g. – Patella (knee cap) present at knee joint and pisiform (pea shaped) present in
wrist. Tendinous bones are called sesamoid bones.
 Important Tips
 Teeth are made up of dentine (bone) and its crown is covered by enamel, which is the hardest
substance of the body.
 Astronauts pass out calcium in their urine due to faster breaking down of bones, due to absence
of gravitational pull.
 Hardening materials in bones are mainly phosphate of calcium and magnesium.
 Strongest cartilage is fibrocartilage due to collagen fibres.
 Osteoid is the uncalcified matrix of bone.
 Diploic bone – Bone with compact surfaces and cancellous middle e.g., skull bone, vertebrae.
 Calcination – Process of burning of bone till it becomes white.
 Beside calcium phosphate (major constituents) the bones contain pottassium, magnesium
phosphate.
 Bone glister in night due to phosphorence.
 Study of cartilage is called chondrology.
 Study of bone is called osteology.
 Long bones possess pits of Howship.

1.6 Vascular tissues.

As the size and organizational complexity of body increased in evolution, most cells of the body
got separated away from organs that receive external supplies and organs of elimination. Hence,
internal transport of materials between various parts of the body became a highly specialized and
important function. A vascular system, therefore, evolved in higher invertebrates and vertebrates.
Blood and lymph evolved as the fluid transportation media which circulate throughout the body,
carrying materials from one part to the others. These have a common fluid intercellular substance or
matrix, called plasma. Several types of numerous small cells, termed corpuscles, move above or float in
the plasma. There are no fibres in the plasma. Unlike other connective tissues, the plasma is not formed
by the corpuscles themselves.
Vascular tissue

Blood Lymph

Plasma Corpuscl Leucocyte Plasma

es s

RBC WB Platelet
C s

Granulocyt Agranulocyt
es es

Acidophil Basophils Neutrophil Lymphocyte Monocyte

s s s s
 (i) Blood : In chordates, and in annelids amongst the non chordates, the blood is a red and opaque
fluid of salty taste and peculiar smell. It is a little heavier than water. Its specific gravity and viscosity
is 1.04 – 1.07 and 4.7 respectively. Its is 7.4 so it is slightly alkaline. In human beings, the quantity of
blood is about 7% to 8% of total body weight. Thus a person, weighing about 70 kg has about 5 to 6
litres of blood, occupying about 1/13th part of the body by volume. Percentage of blood in women is
slightly lower. The study of blood is called haematology. It is red coloured liquid connective tissue
which originates from the mesoderm. It reaches into the various organs through the blood vessels and
transports various chemical substances between different tissues. During embryonic state, the blood is
mainly formed in the liver but little blood is also formed in the spleen and ribs. In adults, the blood is
formed in the red bone marrow. The blood formation is called as haemopoiesis.
(ii) Plasma : It constitutes about 5% of body weight. It represents matrix of blood. Plasma is
slightly alkaline and transparent. It forms 55-60% by volume of blood. Plasma contains : Water (91-
92%), Solid (8-9%). Plasma solid part consists of organic (7%) and inorganic (1%) substances which
are as follows :
(a) Organic constituents of plasma : Some are its own constituents, while others are those which
are transported by it. All these are divisible into following categories :
(1) Plasma proteins : Protein constitute about 7% part of plasma and remain in it as colloid
particles. These mainly include albumins, globulins, prothrombin and fibrinogen.
(7 %
proteins)

Albumin 4.4% Globulin 2.3% Fibrinogen 0.3%

 globulin  globulin  globulin (IgG, IgE,

IgM)

(1 globulin) (2 globulin)

Globulins are mainly formed by plasma cells in lymphoid organs. Other plasma proteins are
mainly formed in liver. These render the plasma viscous, and maintain its osmotic pressure (7.5
atmospheric) and pH. Prothrombin and Fibrinogen are essential for blood clotting. Albumins are
mainly responsible for maintaining osmotic pressure in plasma and for osmoregulation in cells and
tissue fluids. Globulins help in osmoregulation and transport of proteins and other substances, but most
globulins are immunoglobulins, which act as antibodies, destroying harmful bacteria, virus and toxins
in blood and tissue fluids. Some proteins, acting as enzymes, also occur in the plasma.
(2) Digested nutrients : These include glucose, fats, fatty acids, phospholipids, cholesterol,
nucleosides, amino acids, vitamins etc. These are the supplied by the blood to all cells of body.
(3) Excretory substances : These chiefly include ammonia collected by blood from body cells
and urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine etc., collected mainly from the liver and transported to kidneys
for excretion.
(4) Hormones : These are secreted and released in blood by endocrine glands.
 (5) Dissolved gases : Each 100 ml. of water of blood plasma contains about 0.29 ml of O2, 5 ml.
of CO2 and 0.5 ml of nitrogen dissolved in it.
(6) Defence compounds : Certain immunoglobulins or antibodies and some other substances,
such as lysozyme (a polysaccharide) and properdin (a large protein) always occur in the plasma. These
serve to destroy bacteria, viruses and toxic substances that may enter into the blood from outside, or
from body tissues.
(7) Anticoagulant : Mast cells of connective tissues continuously release, in blood plasma, a
conjugated polysaccharide, named heparin. The latter serves to prevent coagulation of blood while it is
flowing in intact blood vessels.
(b) Inorganic constituents of plasma : Chloride and Bicarbonate salts of sodium are the main
inorganic constituents. Traces of other salts, like phosphates, bicarbonates, sulphates and iodides of
calcium, magnesium and potassium are also found. All salts constitute about 1% of plasma. These
remain as ions (electrolytes) and maintain the alkalinity of plasma. A balanced quantity of salt ions in
the plasma is essential for proper functioning of nervous system, muscles and other tissues.
(iii) Blood corpuscles : Blood corpuscles form 40-50% of the blood and are of three types viz.
Red blood corpuscles, white blood corpuscles and platelets.
(a) Red blood corpuscles (RBC’s or Erythrocytes) : These occur only in vertebrates and are the
most abundant (99%) of blood corpuscles, imparting the characteristic red colour to the blood. The
shape, size and structure of RBCs vary in different types of vertebrates, but their function is the same in
all, namely to transport respiratory gases, especially the oxygen. (O2).
(1) RBCs of frog : Amphibian RBCs are largest amongst the vertebrates. Those of Amphiuma
and Proteus are largest amongst amphibians. Those of frog measure about 35µ by 16µ (µ=1/1000 of a
milimetre, i.e., 0.001 mm) and number about 4 lacs per cubic mm. of blood. These are flattened and
oval, disclike, but slightly biconvex due to a large oval and centrally-placed nucleus.
(2) RBCs of mammals : Mammals have smallest RBCs amongst the vertebrates. Those of Musk
deer are smallest amongst the mammals. Whereas the RBCs of other vertebrates are oval and
nucleated, those of mammals are roughly circular (except those of the family camellidae – camels,
llamas, dromedaries – which are oval in shape) and non-nucleated. Absence of a nucleus imparts a
biconcave, disc-like shape to mammalian RBCs. During the process of their formation, mammalian
RBCs lose, not only their nucleus, but also other important organelles like mitochondria, golgi bodies,
centrosome, ribosomes, etc. This change in mammalian RBCs appears to be an evolutionary
advancement, because it increases the surface area of RBCs and enables these to contain more
heamoglobin.
(3) RBCs of human : They are about 7.4µ in diameter and its thickness is 1 to 1.5µ. It is pale
yellow in colour but appear to be red in group. Surface area of all RBCs of a person totals about 1500
to 2000 times the surface area of the body itself. Erythrocyte count increases during exercise and stress,
and decreases during rest, sleep, menstruation and pregnancy. Hill people have more RBCs, possibly
causing their rosy cheeks. RBCs count sharply falls in anaemia and rises in polycythemia.
(4) Structure of RBCs : Each RBC is bounded by a dynamic, enzyme-containing plasma
membrane. The interior has a cytoskeletal framework of a structural protein, the stromatin, and some
lipids including cholesterol. The corpuscle is soft, flexible and elastic, so that it squeezes through
vessels narrower than its own diameter and resumes its normal shape afterwards. In a human RBC,
about 26.5 crore molecules of haemoglobin are packed in the intracellular framework. Some RBCs are
probably adsorbed upon plasma membrane. Water constitutes about 60% of an RBC. The rest is solid.
Haemoglobin forms about 34% of wet and 90% of dry weight of an RBC. Thus, 100 ml of normal
human blood contains about 15 gm of haemoglobin on an average. An apparatus named
haemoglobinometer is used to determine the haemoglobin contents of blood. Besides stromatin, lipids
and haemoglobin, RBCs contain a number of enzyme systems, vitamins, salts, etc.
(5) Structure of haemoglobin : Haemoglobin is a purple coloured iron [in the form of Fe+2]
containing respiratory pigment of RBCs. It consists of two parts haem (5%) and globin (95%). It is
conjugated protein and made up of 4 globin chains with each attached to haem molecule by Co-
ordinate bond. Globin is formed of 4 polypeptide chains  (141 amino acid),  (146 amino acid),
 (146 amino acid) and  (146 amino acids). Each RBC contains approximately 200 to 300 million
molecules of haemoglobin. One-gram haemoglobin binds 1.34 ml oxygen. Molecular formula of
haemoglobin is C3032 H4816 O780 S8 Fe4 . Amount of Hb is measured with the help of haemometer. A
male has a greater amount of haemoglobin than a female. The amount of haemoglobin in normal man
and woman is 14-16 gm/100 ml and 12–14 gm/100 ml respectively, while in children is slightly higher
about 16.5 gm/100 ml of blood.
(6) Number of RBC : The number of RBC are counted by instrument haemocytometer. The total
number of RBC per cubic mm of blood is called RBC count. RBC count is slightly lower in women
than a man and number of RBC is more in people who live on mountains because there is less oxygen.
RBC are absent in cockroach.

S.No. Organism Number of RBCs

1. Male 5 – 5.4 million / cubic mm
of blood
2. Female 4.5 – 5 million / cubic mm
of blood
3. Infants 65 – 70 lacs/ cubic mm of
blood
4. Embryo 85 lacs/ cubic mm of blood
5. Rabbit 70 lacs / cubic mm of blood
6. Frog 4 lacs / cubic mm of blood

(7) Life span of RBC : The life span of red blood corpuscles circulating in the blood stream
varies in different animals. RBC have longest life span in blood. The mammalians RBC have short life
span due to absence of nucleus, which is disappeared during development.
 S.No. Organism Life span of RBCs
1. Mammals and Human 120 days or 4 months
2. Rabbit 80 days
3. Frog 100 days
4. New born 100 days

(8) Function of RBCs : The major function of erythrocytes is to receive O2 of respiratory surfaces
and then transport and readily deliver it to all cells of body. This important function is performed by
haemoglobin which has a great ability to combine loosely and reversibly with O2 and is, hence, called
“respiratory pigment”. Haemoglobin, in annelids, is dissolved in the plasma because of absence of red
blood corpuscles. In mollusc and some arthropods, etc., a different respiratory pigment, haemocyanin is
found dissolved in the plasma. This pigment is bluish due to presence of copper in place of iron.
(9) Formation of RBC : The process of formation of RBC is known as erythropoiesis and organ
which produce RBC is called erythropoietic organs. In man erythropoiesis takes approximately 72 hrs.
to complete. The process of erythropoiesis is controlled by hormone erythropoietin formed by kidney,
required B12 for maturation of RBC and assisted by Fe2+. The erythrocytes are formed in liver, spleen
and lymph nodes in the embryo; and in the red bone marrow in the adult. The red bone marrow is
present in the cancellous bone at the extremities of long bones and between layers of compact bone in
flat and irregular bones such as the cranium, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, clavicles, scapula and pelvis. The
development of a mature red corpuscles takes about a week, during which the endothelial cell enlarges,
divides, forms haemoglobin and finally loses its nucleus. This process is called maturation and takes
place along the following lines :

Stems cells or Myeloblasts → Proerythroblasts → Erythroblasts → Normoblasts → Reticulocytes

→ Erythrocytes.
Myeloblast is an amoeboid cell with fairly abundant cytoplasm and a relatively primitive,
undifferentiated nucleus. Proerythroblast is larger than the myeloblast. Its nuclear network is slightly
coarser and the cytoplasm is deeply basophilic due to the presence of ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Erythroblasts are half the size of the proerythroblasts due to mitosis in that stage. The nucleus is
checked with coarse chromatin masses. The cytoplasm is losing its RNA and is acquiring haemoglobin.
Normoblasts are derived from erythroblasts by mitosis, hence they are smaller in size. The nucleus
becomes progressively smaller and mitosis ceases after this stage. The cytoplasm stains strongly
acidophilic due to haemoglobin. Reticulocytes are young, immature erythrocytes with a delicate
network of ribonucleic acid in the cytoplasm. The nuclei of normoblasts have been lost by extrusion in
this stage. Erythrocytes are mature, enucleated cells which are also called red blood corpuscles.
The normal maturation of a red blood corpuscles requires the presence of a number of different
chemical substances such as vitamin B12 (cynacobalamin or erythrocyte-maturing factor) and folic acid
are necessary for the development of the proerythroblast successively into erythroblast and normoblast.
Vitamin B12 is present in food (mainly animal protein) but its absorption from the small intestine is
dependent upon a mucopolysaccharide the intrinsic factor, secreated by the parietal cells of the gastric
mucosa. Iron is necessary for the provision of haemoglobin to fill the immature erythrocytes before
they can become the mature red corpuscles. Lack of iron in diet or loss of iron in bleeding causes
iron-deficiency anaemia. In addition to a normal diet containing protein and iron, small amount of
cobalt, copper, nicotinic acid, riboflavin and vitamin C are also essential for erythropoiesis.
The development of red blood corpuscles is controlled by a feed-back mechanism. Deficiency of
oxygen following haemorrhage or because an individual, lives at high altitudes where the oxygen
pressure in the atmospheric air is reduced; and a hormone called erythropoitin, secreted by the kidneys,
are the two main factors that stimulate the bone marrow to increase its production of erythrocytes.
(10) Metabolism of RBCs : The mature mammalian erythrocyte lacks mitochondria; hence the
cytochrome system is absent and the tricarboxylic acid cycle is not evident. The energy of the mature
erythrocyte is supplied primarily by anaerobic glycolysis and the phosphogluconate pathway. RBC are
created and destroyed at approximately 100 million per minute in an adult and homeostatic
mechanisms operate to balance the number of cells formed against the number of cells destroyed. The
excess of erythrocytes (blood) is stored in spleen, which act as a blood bank.
(11) Destruction of RBC : Aged, abnormal or damaged RBCs are phagocytosed by macrophages
in the spleen and liver. Breakdowns of haemoglobin released from the RBCs yields globin and haem or
iron. The globin convert to amino acids and used as an energy source or for protein synthesis. The
released haem is further degraded into iron which may be stored or used immediately to produce new
haemoglobin and bilirubin which is ultimately exerted in the bile.
(12) Haemolysis : Due to bursting of plasma membrane of RBCs. Its haemoglobin comes out.
This process is called haemolysis. Some fat solvent and snake venom cause haemolysis. When RBCs
are placed in hypotonic solution haemolysis take place. When human RBCs are placed in pure water or
distilled water they will swell and burst. Some times in haemolysis, the RBCs lose their contents by
diffusion and hence maintain their emptied forms intact. These are then called “shadows” or “ghosts”
of RBCs.
(13) Rouleaux formation : If a drop of fresh blood is placed on a slide under coverslip. RBCs
adhere together by their concave surfaces like stacks or pile coins. This is called Rouleaux formation. It
occurs probably due to forces of surface tension. It may also occur temporarily in blood vessels
wherever circulation becomes unduly slow for some time.
(14) ESR : It is called erythrocyte sedimentation rate. This test is measured by “Wintrobe’s tube”
and “Western blotting” method. It is the rate of sinking/settling down of RBC in the plasma to form
rouleaux. Man has lower ESR as compared to women and it is lowest in new born. Normal value of
ESR in male is about 5 mm and in female 10 mm in first hour. A rise in ESR indicates the presence of
infective/ destructive/ inflammatory diseases.
(b) White blood corpuscles (W.B.C.) or Leucocytes : They are nucleated, colourless and
complete cells. They are bigger than RBC but their number is less. WBC shown least constancy in
shape. The number of WBC is 8,000 to 10,000 per cubic mm. They are formed in red bone marrow,
spleen, thymus and lymph nodes from myelocytes and the process is called as myelecoeisis. The life of
WBC is of 15 hours to 2 days. The WBC are destroyed outside the blood vessels and the process by
which the come out is called as diapedesis. An increase in the number of white blood corpuscles is
called leucocytosis. More than 12,000 per cubic mm. indicates some disease. A decrease below 6000 is
called leucopenia as in typhoid fever. The leucocytes are divided into two main varieties.
(1) Granular leucocytes : These cells develop in the red bone marrow from the same parent cells
as the erythroblasts, i.e., myeloblast in the red bone marrow. Before entering the blood stream, they
develop through promyelocyte and myelocyte stages. As these cells develop, specific granules appear
in larger number and they retain their nucleus. These are granular leucocytes of roughly spherical
shape, 10µ to 15µ in diameter, actively amoeboid and containing a large number of stainable granules.
Their nucleus is irregular and divided into 2 to 5 interconnected lobes. Hence, these are also called
polymorphonuclear leucocytes.
(i) Eosinophils (Acidophils or Oxyphils) : These comprise 1% to 5% of total WBC count in
blood, i.e., 70 to 300 per cu. mm. of blood. Their nucleus is distinctly bilobed with the lobes connected
only by a thin strand. Their granules (lysosomes) are larger, contain important hydrolytic enzymes and
stain by acid dyes like eosin. These corpuscles play important role in immunity, allergy and
hypersensitivity. A rise in their number in the blood is called eosinophilia which generally occurs in
parasitic worm infestations.
(ii) Basophils : These are the least numerous (only about 0.5 % to 2% of leucocytes (35 to 150 per
cu. mm. of blood). Two or three lobes of their twisted, S-shaped nucleus are less distinct. Their
granules (lysosomes) are larger and fewer. These stain with basic dyes like methylene blue. These
corpuscles contain heparin, histamine and serotonin. Hence, these are related, but not identical, to mast
cells of connective tissues.
(iii) Neutrophils (Heterophils) : These are the most numerous (60 to 70% = 4000 to 5000 per cu.
mm. of blood) and most active type of WBC’s. Their nucleus has 2 to 5 distinct lobes. Their granules
(lysosomes) are small, but most numerous, stain with neutral dyes and contain hydrolytic enzymes
capable of digesting bacteria and other pathogens. These corpuscles are actively motile and most
actively phagocytic. Certain neutrophils in female mammals possess a small spherical lobe attached to
their nucleus by a stalk. This lobe is called drumstick. It is formed by transformation of an X
chromosome like the Barr-body of the cells of peripheral tissues in female mammals of many other
species.
(2) Agranular leucocytes : They have a few non-specific or no granules in the cytoplasm and the
nucleus is spherical to kidney shaped. They comprise about 25–30 % of all leucocyte and have two
varieties.
(i) Lymphocytes : These are small roughly spherical (6µ to 16µ in diameter) corpuscles,
comprising about 20% to 40% of the leucocytes (about 1500 to 2500 per cu. mm. of blood). These are
comparatively less motile, possess a large, subspherical, central nucleus and produce antibodies. The
lymphocytes are produced in the lymphatic tissue of the body which is present in the spleen, lymph
nodes, thymus, tonsils and more scattered nodular masses.
 Functions : Lymphocytes are concerned with the process of immunity. They produce serum
globulin ( and  globulins), one of the plasma proteins, which gives rise to antibodies and antitoxins.
They contribute to scar-formation after injury and thus facilitate wound-healing. Lymphocytes play an
important role in the immunological reactions to tissue transplantation.
(ii) Monocytes : These comprise only about 2% to 7% of the leucocytes (i.e. 200 to 700 per
cu.mm. of blood) but are the largest cells of the blood (12µ to 20µ in diameter). These have a large
reniform or horse-shoe-shaped, excentric nucleus, and are actively motile and phagocytic. After
entering into tissue fluid, these transform into macrophages for phagocytising invading microbes. They
known as big police man of the blood. The monocytes originate from a system of primitive cells, the
rectioulo-endothelial system which is found in organs such as the liver, spleen, lungs and lymphatic
glands.
Functions : Their function closely resembles that of the neutrophils in that they are actively
motile, phagocytic in action and will leave the blood capillaries to ingest micro-organisms and other
foreign material that may be introduced into the tissue. They are the prime scavangers of cells and
tissue debris. They play a vital role in removing damaged tissue and thus preparing the way for
regenerative processes of the body.
(c) Blood platelets : These are protoplasmic disks that are found in mammalian blood (lower
vertebrates have spindle-shaped cells named thrombocytes). Platelets arise as detached tips of
protoplasmic processes extending from the cytoplasm of giant cells, megakaryocytes, of red bone
marrow. The shape is oval to round, often stellate. They are 2-3µ in diameter. The protoplasm is
granular and deeply basophilic in the centre but is pale and homogenous on the periphery. There are
approximately 300,000 platelets in a cubic millimetre of blood. Platelets are non-nucleated. Life span is
about 10 days. Name platelet was given by Bizzazero. Agglutinated platelets are associated with blood
clotting, both inside and outside of blood vessels.
(1) Coagulation or Clotting of blood : Process of formation of blood clot is also known as blood
coagulation. Normal time of blood clotting is 3 to 8 minutes. Blood clotting is checked in blood vessels
by presence of anticoagulant. Anticoagulant removes the cations to check the coagulation. Few
important anticoagulants are heparin formed in liver and mast cells, hirudin found in leech. When an injury
is caused to a blood vessel bleeding starts which is stopped by a process called blood coagulation or clotting.
This process can be described under three major steps.
First step : At the site of an injury, the blood platelets disintegrate and release a phospholipid, called
platelet factor-3 (Platelet thromboplastin). Injured tissues also release a lipoprotein factor called
thromboplastin. These two factors combine with calcium ions (Ca++) and certain proteins of the blood
plasma to form an enzyme called prothrombinase.
Second step : The prothrombinase inactivates heparin (or antiprothrombia anticoagulant) in the
presence of calcium. Prothrombinase catalyzes breakdown of prothrombin (inactive plasma protein)
into an active protein called thrombin and some small peptide fragments.
Third step : Thrombin acts as enzyme and first brings about depolymerization of fibrinogen ( a
soluble plasma protein) into its monomers. Later thrombin stimulates repolymerization of these
monomers into long insoluble fibre like polymers called fibrin. The thin, long and solid fibres of fibrin
 Traumatized Tissues Blood Platelets

Adhere to damaged
Release
tissue and release

Platelet factor 3
Thromboplastin
(platelet thromboplastin)

Ca++ and Protein

Prothrombinase

Inactivates heparin
and catalyzes
Prothrombin Thrombin and Some
Ca++ Peptide Fragments

Catalyzes

Fibrinogen Monomers
Polymerize

Fibrin Polymer

The process of blood-clotting

form a dense network upon the wound and trap blood corpuscles (RBCs, WBCs and platelets) to form
a clot. A clot is formed at the wound in about 2 to 8 minutes after injury. The clot seals the wound and
stops bleeding. Soon after the clot starts contracting and a pale yellow fluid, the serum, starts oozing
out. This serum is blood plasma minus fibrinogen and blood corpuscles.
Recent theory of blood clotting is cascade theory given was Macferlane. According to this theory
13 factors are required for blood clotting.
(2) Coagulation factors
Fact Name Fact Name
or or
I Fibrinogen VIII Antihemophilic factor
II Prothrombin IX Christmas factor or plasma thromboplastin
component (PTC)
III Thromboplastin X Stuart factor or Stuart-Prower factor
IV Calcium ions XI Plasma thromboplastin antecedent (PTA)
V Proaccelerin (Labile factor) XII Hageman factor
VI Hypothetical factor XIII Fibrin stabilizing factor (FSF)
VII Serum prothrombin conversion accelerator
(Stable factor)
 (3) Anticoagulants
(i) Any chemical substance that prevents clotting is an anticoagulant.
(ii) Coagulation of blood in vessels is prevented during normal circulation by heparin, a quick
acting anticoagulant.
(iii) Heparin inhibits conversion of prothrombin to thrombin and is used in open-heart surgery.
(iv) Vitamin K (Phylloquinone) is required for the synthesis of prothrombin necessary for blood
clotting.
(v) Dicumarol acts as an antagonist for the synthesis of prothrombin necessary for blood clotting.
(vi) CPD (Citrate phosphate dextrose), ACD (Acid citrate dextrose) and EDTA (Ethylene diamino
tetra acetic acid) are used by blood banks to prevent blood samples from clotting.
(vii) Blood clotting can be prevented in a test tube by adding a little oxalate or citrate (Na and K)
(viii) Oxalate or citrate react with calcium to form insoluble compound, so free calcium ions
necessary for clotting are not available.
(ix) Blood is stored with an anticoagulant at 4°C At normal temperature due to potassium pump, K
ions are more inside RBC than plasma. Low temperature stops the potassium pump i.e., inhibit active
transport. K ions come out from RBCs resulting in ionic equilibrium.
(x) Hirudin is an anticoagulant present in the saliva of leech.
(4) Functions of blood : On basis of the above account, the general functions of blood can be
briefly enumerated as follows :
(i) Transportation of materials : Blood is the fluid medium which transports different materials
between various parts. It thus acts as the body’s chief “supply line”, and maintains liaison with outside
environment for intake of useful materials and disposal of metabolic wastes. With the help of its
haemoglobin. It takes up oxygen from external environment in respiratory organs and gives off CO2.
Then, it supplies the O2 to the tissues and collects CO2 from these. In intestinal wall, it absorbs digested
nutrients and distributes these to the various tissues. In return, it collects metabolic wastes from the
tissues and transports these to excretory organs. It also receives hormones from endocrine glands and
circulates these into all parts of the body.
(ii) Defense against infection and disease : The leucocytes of blood play the important role of
defense by inactivating and destroying harmful toxins and invaders like bacteria, viruses, fungi and
animal parasites.
(iii) Scavenging : Blood leucocytes phagocytes and destroy cell debris and inert foreign particles
in blood and tissues. Thus, these act as “scavengers” to clean the body’s internal environment.
(iv) Control of body temperature : Blood maintains the normal temperature of body. It prevents
a sharp rise or fall in temperature which may be caused in any tissue due to abnormal rate of
metabolism.
(v) Healing of wounds : By coagulating at an injury, and by stimulating repairing of damaged
tissues, the blood helps in rapid healing of wounds and injuries.
 (vi) Homeostasis : Blood helps in the maintenance of a proper internal environment in the body
by regulating the amount of salts, acids, bases and water, etc. in the tissue fluids.
(iv) Lymph : Blood, tissue fluid and lymph PARACORTEX
MEDULLA (LIGHT (DARK
are almost contiguous parts of the body’s “supply SHADE) SHADE) AFFERENT
LYMPHATIC VESSEL
line”. Infact the tissue fluid is a part of blood
plasma that oozes out of arterial capillaries into MEDULLARY CORTEX
(DARK SHADE)
intercellular substance and lymph is a part of GERMINAL CENTRE
(LIGHT SHADE)
tissue fluid. The blood plasma, tissue fluid and CAPSULE

lymph have a basic similarity. The lymph is like TRABECULA

the blood but, having no RBCs, it is colourless. It

normally has more WBCs than the blood, and of
these the lymphocytes are in large majority. It BLOOD VESSEL AT
HILUM
contains little of O2 , but lot of CO2 and EFFERENT
metabolic wastes. It has the ability to coagulate LYMPHATIC
VESSEL
like the blood. It coagulates outside the body. Fig. – Structure of a lymphatic
node
In mammals, lymph sinuses and lymph hearts are absent which are found in frog. The tissue of the
mammals have lymph capillaries which join to form lymph vessels. In lymph vessel, the lymph flows
from organs into the hearts. They are provided with semilunar valves to prevent reverse flow of the
lymph. The lymph vessels are provided with lymph nodes which are found mainly in the head, neck,
arm pits, near big blood vessels etc. The lymph nodes form lymphocytes, they clean the lymph by
filtration and they form antibodies. Lymph nodes also from Payer’s patches. The lymph vessels finally
open into subclavian veins. The lymph capillaries in the villi of intestine are also called as lacteals.
Cisterna chyle is also called as second heart which is situated just below the diaphragm in the
abdominal cavity.
Functions of lymph : The basic function of lymph is to bring back, into the vascular circulation,
the cell debris, large colloid particles and the part of the blood plasma that had diffused out from
arterial capillaries into the tissue fluid but has failed to return back into venous capillaries. The white
corpuscles of the lymph are the same as those of the blood and have the same functions of defense and
of assistance in tissue repair and healing. In intestinal wall, lymph capillaries, called lacteals, are
specially meant for absorption of fats.
Comparison of blood and lymph
Blood Lymph
1. Red corpuscles present. 1. These are absent.
2. White corpuscles fewer, neutrophils most 2. White corpuscles more; lymphocytes most
numerous. numerous.
3. Soluble proteins more than insoluble 3. Insoluble proteins more than soluble
proteins. proteins.
4. Amount of nutrients and O2 comparatively 4. Amount of nutrients and O2 comparatively
more. less.
 5. Amount of CO2 and metabolic wastes 5. Amount of these much more.
normal.

Important Tips
 Normal blood glucose level is 60 – 80 mgms/100 ml.
 Strontium – 90 is the chemical which causes damage to WBC, bone marrow, spleen, lymph
nodes and lungs.
 Bone marrow is absent in birds due to Pneumatic bones.
 Granulocyte are formed inside Red bone marrow.
 Haemocytometer is used for red cell counting.
 Phagocytosis was first of all seen by Metchnikoff.
 Blood doping or blood boosting is the transfusion of one’s own blood or frozen RBC to increase
haemoglobin content to carry more oxygen.
 Spleen also acts as “graveyard” of RBC. If spleen is removed than filtration of dead RBC will
stop.
 Polycythemia – Abnormal rise in number of RBC.

1.7 Muscular tissues.

Contractility and motility (movement) are fundamental properties of protoplasm. That is why, all
cells possess potential motility. Contraction for motility in the cells results essentially from the
interaction of two contractile proteins, actin and myosin. These proteins enter into the composition of
microfilaments of cellular cytoskeleton. During evolution, organism achieved enhancement in
motility by various means. For example, unicellular organisms and cells of lower metazoans
(mesozoa and parazoa) acquired the ability to form pseudopodia, flagella, or cilia as locomotory
organelles. Then, in eumetazoans began the evolution of specialized contractile cells having much
more of actin and myosin proteins. In the lowest eumetazoans (cnidarians), basal ends of epithelial
cells are drawn out into elongated contractile processes. That is why, these cells are called
epitheliomuscular or myoepithelial cells. In the eumetazoans higher than cnidarians, independent
contractile cells, called muscle cells (myocytes), occur and form muscular tissues (muscles). These
tissues are obviously responsible for movements of organs and locomotion of the body in response to
stimuli. These develop from embryonic mesoderm except for those of the iris and ciliary body of
eyes, which are ectodermal in origin. About 40% to 50% of our body mass is of muscles. The muscle
cells are always elongated, slender and spindle-shaped, fibre-like cells, These are, therefore called
muscle fibres. These possess large numbers of myofibrils formed of actin and myosin. The myofibrils
are obviously stuffed in a small amount of cytoplasm due to thin, fibre-like shape of muscle cells.
Muscle cells are highly contractile (contracting to 1/3 or 1/2 the resting length). Muscle cells lose
capacity to divide, multiply and regenerate to a great extent. Study of muscle is called myology.
Types of muscle are following –
 (i) Striated or striped muscles : Most muscles of body are striated. These generally bring about
voluntary movements under conscious control of brain and, hence, called voluntary muscles. Most of
these are inserted at both ends upon bones in different parts of the body depend upon these muscles.
Hence, these are also called skeletal muscles. Movements of limbs and the body solely depend upon
these muscles. Hence these are also called somatic muscles. These are also called phasic type of
muscles, because contraction in these is rapid, but brief and fatigue occurs quickly.
(a) Structure of striated muscles : Each
striated muscle consists of numerous muscle
fibres segregated into several small and parallel EPIMYCIU
M
bundles, called Fasciculi. Fibres of each fascicule MUSCL
E
are bound together by a connective tissue sheath, FIBRES
ENDOMYCIU
called endomycium. All fasciculi of a muscle are M
FASCICUL
E
bound together by a connective tissue termed
perimycium which also forms a sheath around
PERIMYCIU
each fascicule. Similarly, the whole muscle itself Fig. – T.S. of striated muscle
M

is covered by a connective tissue sheath, called

epimycium. The latter extends as a tendons at each end of the muscle to insert it on to bones.
Endomycium, perimycium and epimycium contain collagen and elastin fibres and also reticular fibres
in some muscles.
(b) Structure of striated muscle fibres : Striated muscle fibres are 0.01mm to 30 cm long,
slender, cylindrical, unbranched (except some of the tongue and facial muscles) and multinucleated.
Their covering envelope is called sarcolemma. The homogeneous, semifluid cytoplasm is called
sarcoplasm. Two types of fibres can be recognized in most striated muscles, viz. white fibres and red
fibres. Three soluble proteins myoalbumin, myoglobin (a haemoglobin like protein capable of binding
oxygen) and myogen, a number of enzymes, glycogen granules and lipid droplets are found in the
sarcoplasm of all fibres. The formed elements include many oval and compressed nuclei, mitochondria
(sarcosomes), a small golgi apparatus, sarcoplasmic (endoplasmic) reticulum, etc. The red fibres are
shorter, have more numerous and more deeply situated nuclei, more myoglobin and more numerous
mitochondria producing more ATP. These are thus, adapted for prolonged and continued muscle
activity required to support the body against gravity and for long continuing athletic events like
marathon races. These are, therefore also called slow fibres. The white fibres (fast fibres) are longer,
peripherally situated nuclei and fewer mitochondria, but these degrade glucose rapidly by glycolytic
process to obtained energy at a faster rate. Thus, these are adapted for very rapid and powerful muscle
contractions required for jumping, fast running etc. Due to multinucleate condition each striated muscle
fibre is regarded a multicellular syncytial body, instead of a single cell. This is so, because each fibre is
formed by fusion of a number of embryonic stem cells, called myoblasts. Most part of each striated
muscle fibre is studded with several hundred to several thousand longitudinally oriented and parallel,
slender myofibrils or sarcostyles.
(c) Fine structure of striated muscle fibres : Striated muscle fibres shows transverse striation in
the form of regular alternate dark A (anisotropic) and light I (isotropic) bands. The ‘A’ band contains
about 120Å thick and 1.8 µ long “myosin filaments”. The I band contains about 60Å thick and 1.0µ
long “actin filament” which are twice as many as myosin filaments. Each I band is divided into two
equal halves by a thin, fibrous and transverse zig-zag partition, called ‘Z’ band (‘ Z’ disc) or Krause’s
membrane. Each segment of a fibril between two adjacent ‘z’ bands is called a sarcomere. It is 2.3µ
long in uncontracted mammalian striated fibres. A slender transverse line, the ‘M’ or Hansen’s line is
visible in middle of each ‘A’ band. The major, middle region of ‘A’ band is comparatively lighter, but
its terminal parts appear darker. The middle lighter region is called ‘H’ zone. Due to the geomatric
bonding pattern, the end of each myosin filament is, thus, encircled by the ends of six actin filaments
(hexagon), while the end of each actin filaments is encircled by the ends of three myosin filaments
(trigon).
(d) Ultrastructure of myofilaments : At MUSCL
E
the molecular level, each myosin filament is TENDO TENDO
N N
composed of about 500 thread-like myosin
molecules. Three different kinds of proteins
participate in the composition of actin filaments.
FASCICULUS OF MUSCLE
The major part of an actin filament is a coiled FIBRES

double helical strand whose each arm is a linear

polymer of small and globular molecules
(monomers) actin protein. Another coiled double
helical, but thiner, strand runs along the whole MUSCLE SARCOMER ‘A’ ‘I’ BAND
FIBRIL E BAND
length of actin strand. Each arm of this strand is A
a polymer of fibre-like molecules of
tropomyosin protein. The third protein is Z DISC

troponin.
(e) Working of striated muscles : H.E. B
Huxley and A.F. Huxley in 1954 proposed a ACTIN
FILAMENT
theory to explain the process of muscular
contraction. This theory is known as sliding
filament theory. It was observed that when a
fibril contracts, its ‘A’ bands remain intact, ‘I’
BAND SPUR M MYOSIN ‘I’ Z DISC
S LIN FILAMEN BAND
while the ‘I’ bands progressively shorten and E T
C
eventually disappear when the fibril has
shortened to about 65% of its resting length. At
this stage. ‘H’ zones also disappear because the
actin filaments of both sides in each sarcomere
reach, and may even overlap each other at the SPUR
D
“M” line, and the ‘Z’ lines now touch the ends S
MYOSIN
FILAMENT
of myosin filaments. It was further observed that
ACTIN
if a fibre is mechanically streched, the zones of FILAMENT

overlap between thick and thin filaments are HEXAGO

N
shorter than in resting condition, resulting in TRIGON

Fig. Ultrastructure of a relaxed striated myofibril

(A) and a sarcomere (B); (C) a contracted
sarcomere; (D) T. S. through terminal part of A
band
wider ‘H’ zones. These observations led Huxley to propose that shortening of the fibrils in contraction
is brought about by sliding movement of actin filaments over myosin filaments towards “M” line by
means of rapidly forming and breaking cross bridges or rachets at the spurs of myosin filaments. Thus,
the sarcomere were recognised as the ‘ultimate units of contraction’.
It was also proved that the ‘A’ band occupies about 2/3 length of a sarcomere, so that as its
maximum contraction, a muscle shortens by about 1/3 of its length. Actin has a strong affinity to
myosin; if uninhibited, it readly combines with myosin to form a contractile complex called
actomyosin. Normally, tropomyosin and troponin of actin filaments inhibit formation of actomyosin.
As a muscle fibre is stimulated by a motor nerve fibre, a large number of calcium ion (Ca++) are
released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Troponin has a strong affinity to (Ca++). As these ions
combine with troponin, the tropomyosin troponin complex is inactivated so that actin is now free to
interact with the spurs of corresponding myosin filaments. Thus cross bridges of actomyosin are
formed at the spurs.
The energy required for this interaction is provided by hydrolysis of ATP molecules in the spurs
of myosin which contain ATPase enzyme for this purpose. Immediately after this process the Ca++
are forcefully pumped back into the endoplasmic reticulum by spending a large amount of energy of
ATP. This reactivates the tropomyosin – troponin complex which, in turn inactivates the actin. The
actomyosin of cross bridges, therefore, split back into actin and myosin and spurs spring back to their
normal position. As it clears from above account, muscle fibres requires a large amount of energy,
not only for contraction, but also for relaxation (pumping back of Ca++ into endoplasmic reticulum).
That is why, these fibres contain more numerous mitochondria and produce more ATP. Besides this,
an additional “high-energy compound” creatine phosphate, acts as a “reservoir of high energy
phosphate bonds” in these fibres.
(f) Stimulation of striated muscles : Striated muscles are neurogenic, i.e., these are stimulated
to contract by somatic motor nerve fibres of central and peripheral nervous systems. A motor neuron
innervates a group of muscle fibres by its axon terminalis, forming a motor fibres by its axon
terminalis, forming a motor end plate. The motor neuron, together with the fibres it innervates,
constitutes a “motor unit (neuromotor unit)”. The junctions of the axon terminalis with the muscle
fibre are called neuromuscular or myoneural junctions. The axon terminals release acetylcholine at
these junctions to transmit excitation impulses to the sarcolemma of the fibres. Acetylcholine
depolarises the sarcolemma and thus triggers a self-propagating action potential spreading towards
both ends of the fibres. The conduction of the impulse in the sarcolemma is electrochemically similar
to that found in the neurons.
(ii) Smooth muscles : These are called smooth, plain nonstriated involuntary or unstriped
muscles due to absence of striations. These occur in the walls of hollow internal organs (alimentary
canal, gall bladder, bile ducts, respiratory tracts, uterus, urinogenital ducts, urinary bladder, blood
vessels, etc.), in capsules of lymph glands, spleen etc., in iris and ciliary body of eyes, skin dermis,
penis and other accessory genitalia, etc. There is no connection of these muscles with bones. Smooth
muscles of skin dermis, called arrector pilli muscles, are associated with hair roots, and are
responsible for goose-flesh (erection of hairs). Those of penis form a muscular network which helps
in its erection and limping.

NUCLEU
SARCOPLAS S
M

MYOFIBRIL
PLASMA
S
MEMBRANE
Smooth
muscle

(a) Structure : Smooth muscle fibre is unbranched spindle shaped, uninucleated and has no
sarcolemma. Contraction is slow, involuntary under the control of ANS. Functionally smooth muscles
are of two types :
(1) Single-unit smooth muscle : Single unit smooth muscle fibres are composed of muscle fibres
closely joined together, contract as a single unit. e.g., urinary bladder and gastrointestinal tract.
(2) Multi-unit smooth muscles : Are composed of more independent muscle fibres, contract as
separate units e.g. – hair root muscle, muscles on the wall of large blood vessels, ciliary muscles and
muscles of iris.
Contractility in smooth muscle fibres also depends upon interaction between myosin and actin
filaments. At chemical and
LIGHT
mechanical levels, the mechanism BANDS
DARK BANDS
of contraction and relaxation in
CONNECTIVE
smooth muscle fibres is basically TISSUE CELL

the same as in striated fibres. INTERCALATED

DISC
Smooth muscles are innervated CELL
MEMBRANE
only by the fibres of autonomic NUCLEUS OF
MUSCLE FIBRE
nervous system. The multiunit
muscles are principally
neurogenic, i.e., these contract on
OBLIQU
nervous stimulations. The visceral E
BRIDGE
or single unit muscles are, on the MUSCLE
FIBRES
other hand, principally myogenic,
A LONGITUDINAL PORTION OF
i.e., self-excitatory, because the INTERCALATED DISK (GAP
JUNCTION)
action potential is generated
spontaneously within the muscles
themselves due to non-nervous
intrinsic factors like mechanical
stretching, temperature, or
chemical stimulation by hormones
and other substances. For example, TRANSVERSE PORTION OF
INTERCALATED DISK
when the gut wall gets stretched B (DESMOSOME-LIKE JUNCTION)

Fig. – A–Cardiac muscle fibres, B–Structure of intercalated

disc
due to arrival of food, its muscles undergo rhythmic contractions and relaxations, bringing about the
well-known peristalsis of gut wall. Similar peristalsis occurs in most other tubular viscera.
(iii) Cardiac muscles : Heart wall (also the wall of large veins just where these enter into the
heart) is made up of cardiac muscles and, hence, called myocardium. Structurally, these muscles
resemble striated muscles but, functioning independently of the conscious control of brain, these are
involuntary like the smooth muscles. Cardiac muscle cells of fibres are comparatively shorter and
thicker, cylindrical, mostly uninucleate with a central nucleus, somewhat branched and covered by a
sarcolemma. The mechanism of contraction and relaxation in fibres of these muscles is the same as in
skeletal muscle fibres, except that the duration of contraction is much longer in cardiac muscle fibres.
Cardiac muscles require a large amount of energy of ATP for their incessant working throughout life.
That is why, fibre of cardiac muscles contain comparatively very numerous, large and elongated
mitochondria. Cardiac muscles cells divided at places by intercalated disc. Cardiac muscles are
contract quickly and do not get fatigued. These muscles continue rhythmic contraction throughout
life under the control of ANS. Heart is composed of three cardiac muscles viz. atrial muscle,
ventricular muscle and self excitatory and conducting muscle.

Differences between three types of muscle fibres

S.No. Feature Striated or Striped or Non-striated or Cardiac muscle fibres

Skeletal or Voluntary Unstriped or Smooth
muscle fibres or Visceral or
Involuntary muscle
fibres
1. Shape Long cylindrical Fusiform (thick in Network of fibres
middle tapering at ends)
(0.02 nm to 0.2 nm long)
2. Stripes Dark A bands and light I Absent Present
bands present
3. Nucleus Many (syncytial) at Single at the centre of Many nuclei between
periphery each cell successive end plates
central position
4. Unit Sarcomeres, cylindrical Fusiform cells with Oblique cross-connecting
long myofibrils placed inconspicuous borders fibres make this muscle an
end to end forming interconnected bundle of
cylindrical myofibrils myofibrils
5. Attachme To bones To soft organs or viscera Not attached to other
nt organs except major blood
vessels which are isolated
and covered by
 pericardium
6. Sarcolem Distinct Absent Absent
ma
7. Sarcoplas Well developed Less extensive Poorly formed
mic
Reticulum
8. Blood Rich Poor Rich
supply
9. Contractio Quick, fatigue fast Slow, sustained Rhythmic, contractions
n contraction originate in heart (pace
maker immune to fatigue)
10. Location Generally peripheral, Central, in hollow Only in heart
tongue, proximal part of visceral organs, iris of
oesophagus the eye, dermis of the
skin
11. Intercalate Absent Absent Present
d discs
12. T-tubule Well developed Lacking Well developed
system
13. Innervated Motor nerves from central Nerves from autonomic Nerves from central and
nerves nervous system nervous system autonomic nervous system
(neurogenic) (neurogenic) (myogenic)
14. Fibres Unbranched Unbranched Fibres join by short oblique
bridges
15. Action Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary

Important Tips
 Antagonistic muscles – The striated muscles occur in antagonistic pairs; one pulls a bone in one
direction, while the other pulls it back in reverse direction to its normal position. For example,
the biceps muscle, extending from shoulder to radius, bends or flexes the arm at the elbow,
whereas the triceps extending from ulna to the shoulder, straightens the arm. Thus, biceps is a
flexor and triceps an extensor for bending the arm.
 Single twitch – When a muscle receives a single excitation impulse, it respond by a sudden
partial contraction (twitch) lasting for about 0.5 second in man. Each twitch is followed by a
refractory period during which the muscle does not respond to next stimulus. The refractory
period is, however, so short (0.002 second) that the muscle can respond to the second stimulus
while still in contraction phase in response to the first stimulus.
 Tetanus – Generally, whole muscles contract, not in a single twitch, but in sustained
 contractions evoked by a series of nerve impulses reaching them in rapid succession. Such a
sustained contraction is called tetanus. Described above should not be confused with the disease
of “tetanus” (lock jaw) caused by tetanus bacillus. This disease is characterised by abnormal
muscular contractions. Nor it should be confused with “tetany” which is muscular spasm
occurring due to deficiency of parathyroid hormone.
 Muscle tone or “Tonus” – Even at rest the striated muscles normally remain in a state of mild
sustained partial contraction to maintain the body posture. This is called muscle tone. It is a mild
state of tetanus.
 Paralysis – When supply of motor impulses to a muscle is completely cut off due to destruction,
either of the control centres in brain, or of the concerned motor nerves, or due to blocking of
myoneural junctions by the use of certain drugs, the muscle function is completely impaired.
This is called paralysis of the muscle.
 Muscle fatigue – A muscle that has contracted many times at short intervals, exhausts its store
of ATP and glycogen and accumulates lactic acid. Hence its contractility gradually decreases
and finally stops.
 Oxygen debt – During active work or exercise, the rate of oxygen supply by the lungs falls
short of the requirement of the muscles. Hence, lactic acid accumulates in the muscles and the
breathing gradually becomes hard to enhance O2 intake by the lungs. This is called oxygen debt.
 Involuntary action of skeletal muscles – Muscles are capable of utilizing, in their mechanical
work, only about 20% to 40% of energy liberated from glucose. The unutilized energy is lost as
“heat” dissipated into the environment. This heat helps in maintenance of body temperature.
“Shivering with cold” in winter is caused by a quick involuntary reaction of striated muscles.
 Rigor mortis – Rigidity that develops in the muscles after death is known as rigor mortis. It is
due to permanent irreversible contraction, establishment of permanent link between actin and
myosin and also fall in the concentration of ATP molecules.
 Cori’s cycle – Lactic acid is transported by blood to liver and there it is converted to glycogen
through Cori’s cycle.
 Contraction period – Time taken in sliding of filament is called contraction time. (10 to 100
milli second).
 Relaxation time – It is time taken in relaxation of fibre i.e. active transport of calcium from
sarcoplasm to cisternae. (10 to 100 milli second)
 Refractory period – It is time in a muscle or nerve fibre when they are non responding to
second stimulus. Infact in this period there is temporary loss of excitability. Refractory period
for skeletal and cardiac muscle is 5 and 300 milli second respectively.
 Latent period – After application of stimulus genesis of impulse and release of calcium from
cisternae take some time within this time there is no contraction in muscle it is called latent
period. (2 milli second)
 Hypertrophy and Atrophy of muscles – Muscles which are put to excessive work become
thick and strong. This is called their hypertrophy. Conversely, if certain muscles are not used for
a long period, those become thin and weak. This is called their atrophy (disuse atrophy). Cardiac
muscle have a poor regenrative power.
 When muscles contract they have squeezing effect on veins running though them. It is termed as
muscle pump.
 T-tubules are present in sarcolemma near the junction between A-band and I-band.
 Tongue – muscles and muscles of upper part of oesophagus are striated muscles, but without
any bone.
 Myoepithelium – They have characteristic of both muscles and epithelium, occur in epithelium
where contract to expel secretions such as saliva, milk and sweat from the respective glands,
salivary gland, milk gland, and sweat gland.
 Cholesterol concentration is highest in cardiac muscle.
 Phospholipids concentration is maximum in cardiac muscle.
 The muscles change gradually from voluntary to involunatry in the upper part of oesophagus.
 Lohman Reaction : ADP + Phospho Creatine → ATP + creatine
 Myokinase Action – 2ADP → ATP + AMP
 Ions needed for single combination are Ca2+, For double combination they are Ca2+, K+, For
Triple combination are Ca2+, K+, Mg2+.
 Speed of muscular contraction – Skeletal muscles = .01 sec per contraction, Involuntary
muscles = 3-180 sec per contraction, Cardiac muscles = .85 sec per contraction
 In shivering only 30-40% energy is utilized in shivering
 Myosin protein is more contractile than actin
 Chronaxie is defined as the shortest duration of stimulus required to excite a tissue by a current
strength.
 Painful contractions of muscles is called muscle cramp.
 Myogram – The graph representing force of contraction in relation to the time is called
myogram.
 Total number of muscles in human body is 639
 Largest muscle is gluteus maximus (Buttock muscle).
 Smallest muscle is stapedius.
 Longest muscle is sartorius.
 Papillary muscle are associated with heart.
 Biceps brachii is associated with forearm.
  Gastrocnemius (calf muscle) is the muscle of shank.
 Pectoralis major is flight muscle in bird.
 Latissimus dorsi is the muscle of shoulder.
 Ciliary muscle is associated with eye-change focal length of lens.
 Masseter – Lower jaw, the strongest muscle in the body.
 Rectus abdominis – Longest visceral muscle found in abdomen.
 Myology – Study of muscles.
 Myogram – Recording of muscular contraction.
 Muscular dystrophy – A hereditary disease of muscle.
 Poliomyelitis – Viral disease that weakens the muscles.

1.8 Nervous tissue.

A most complex tissue in the body, composed of densely packed interconnected nerve cells called
neurons (as many as 1010 in the human brain). It specialized in communication between the various
parts of the body and in integration of their activities. Nervous tissue is ectodermal (from neural plate)
in origin. It forms the nervous system of the body which controls and coordinates the body functions.
Nerve cells (neurons) are specialized to receive the external and internal stimuli. A stimulus of
adequate strength (threshold stimulus) causes the depolarization or reversal of polarity of the neuron
locally and initiates a nerve impulse. The neurons are capable of conducting this depolarization as a
wave along their length in a particular direction either to other nerve cells or to effectors like muscles
and glands which give the response. There response may be in the form of muscle contraction or
glandular secretion. Therefore, excitability and conductivity two fundamental properties of nervous
tissues. There is no intercellular matrix between neurons. These have permanently lost the power of
division as have no centriole and have minimum power of regeneration. So these cannot be cultured in
vitro. Irritability is the main function of nervous tissue.
(i) Composition of nervous tissue : Nervous tissue is formed of four types of cells :
(a) Neurons (nerve cells) (b) Neuroglia
(c) Ependymal cells (d) Neuro-secretory cells
(a) Structure of neurons : A neuron is a NUCLEUS DENDRITES
nerve cell with all its branches. Neuron is
formed from neuroblast. It is the structural
and functional unit of nervous system. It is
the longest cell of the body.
CYTON
(1) Cyton : It is also called
perikaryon or soma or cell body. Its
NISSL’S GRANULES
granular cytoplasm is called neuroplasm
AXON
which has following structures : HILLOCK

(i) A large, spherical, centrally placed

nucleus with a single nucleolus.
NEURILEMM
(ii) Numerous fine threads called COLLATERAL FIBRE A
MYELIN
neurofibrils for the conduction of nerve
impulses. INTERNODE
NUCLEUS OF
(iii) A number of small, basophilic SCHWANN CELL

granules called Nissl’s granules formed of NODE OF RANVIER

rough endoplasmic reticulum with
AXON
ribosomes and are sites of protein MUSCLE

synthesis.
(iv) Neuroplasm has large number of
mitochondria to provide high energy for DENDRITES

impulse conduction.
(v) Neuroplasm may have AXON
melanophores with melanin pigment and SYNAPTIC BUTTONS

lipochromes with orange or yellow Fig. – An Enlarged Neuron and its synapses with
another Neuron
pigment.
(vi) A mature neuron has no centriole, so it cannot divide.
(vii) A “Barr body” is often seen abutting against the inner surface of nuclear membrane of
cytons in females. This has been proved to be a transformed ‘X’ chromosome.
(viii) Certain neurons having flask-shaped cytons and called purkinje cells, occur in the cerebellum
of the brain.
(2) Neuron processes : The processes of neurons, called neurites, extend varying distances from
the cyton and are of two types – dendrites or dendrons and an axon or axis cylinder (neuraxon).
(i) Dendron : These are several short, tapering much branched processes. The dendrites contain
neurofibrils, neurotubules, Nissl’s granules and mitochondria. They conduct nerve impulse towards the
cell body.
 (ii) Axon : This is a single very long, cylindrical process of uniform diameter. It arises from a
conical projection, the axon hillock, of the cyton. The axon contains neurofibrils and neurotubules but
lacks Nissl’s granules. The axon is therefore dependent on the cell body for supply of proteins. The cell
membrane of axon is called axolemma and its cytoplasm is called axoplasm. The axon conducts
impulses away from the cell body. It may give off lateral branches termed collateral fibres. The latter
arise from a node at right angle. Axon is usually branched only terminally into slender branches called
telodendria. The latter have knobbed ends called endbulbs or axon terminals or buttons or synaptic knobs
or end plates. The synaptic knobs contain mitochondria and secretory vesicles.
Differences between Axon and Dendron

Characters Axon Dendron

1. Number Always single May be one or more in number
2. Structure Formed of neuroplasm with Formed of neuroplasm with
only neurofibrils but no Nissl’s both neurofibrils and Nissl’s
bodies. bodies
3. Size Long sized processes Small sized processes
4. Direction of new impulses Always away from the cell Always towards the cell body
body
5. Nature Efferent Afferent
6. Branching Generally absent Generally present

(b) Neuroglia or Glia cells : Neuroglia consists of the supporting and packing cells found in the
brain, spinal chord and ganglia. These are non nervous cells. These are ten times more numerous than
neurons. In some parts of body the neuroglial cells are called by certain other name such as muller cells
in retina, pituicytes in posterior pituitary gland and satellite cells in ganglia.
(1) Types : The neuroglia cells are of three types –
(i) Astrocytes : These are large sized and star-shaped cells with numerous processes.
(ii) Oligodendrocytes : These have a few branched processes which resemble the dendrons of the
neurons.
(iii) Microglial cells : These are small sized and spindle-shaped. The microglia cells act as the
defensive phagocytes in central nervous system. They arise from the monocytes.
 Differences between Neurons and Neuroglia

Neurons (Nerve cells) Neuroglia (Glial cells)

1. Have a relatively small cell body and long 1. Have a relatively large cell body and short
processes. processes.
2. Processes arise from the two opposite ends 2. Processes arise from nearly all over the cell
of the cell body. body.
3. Processes are of 2 types : short dendrons and 3. Processes are all alike.
along axons.
4. Neurons occur end to end in chains. 4. Glial cells are aggregated in masses.
5. Neurons set up and conduct nerve impulses 5. Glial cells form a supporting and packing
tissue that insulates the neurons. Some
(microglia cells) are phagocytic.
6. All neurons arise from the ectoderm. 6. Most glial cells arise from the ectoderm,
microglia cells arise from the monocytes.
7. Neurons form synapses. 7. Glial cells do not form synapses.
(2) Functions :
(i) These are capable of division and help in wear and tear of the central nervous system.
(ii) These insulate the adjoining neurons and prevent the lateral transmission of impulses.
(iii) These provide nutrition to the neurons.
(iv) These act as phagocytes and eat up the microbes.
(v) These help in memory processes.
(vi) They acts as Blood brain barrier (BBB) i.e. they inhibit contact between neuron and blood,
along with endothelium of capillary. The exchange of material between blood and neuron is always
through these neuroglial cells i.e., they are mediator.
(c) Ependymal cells : These are cuboidal and ciliated epithelial cells which lines the cavities of
brain (ventricles) and spinal chord (central canal). These form an epithelium called ependyma.
(d) Neurosecretory cells : These are special type of neurons of the hypothalamus of brain. These
are endocrine in function and secrete neurohormones which are carried by the blood of hypophyseal
portal system to anterior lobe of pituitary gland and stimulate the secretion of their trophic hormones e.g.,
TSH, STH, FSH, LH, ACTH, etc.
(ii) Types of neurons : Neurons are divided into different categories on different basis.
(a) On the basis of functions : Neurons are divided into three categories :
(1) Sensory (afferent) neurons : These are found in sense organs. Their dendrons receive the
nerve impulse from the nerve process of the receptor cell while their axon forms the synapse with
dendron of the next neuron. These may be naked or encapsulated e.g. olfactoreceptors and
gustatoreceptors.
(2) Internuncial neurons : These are located in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Their dendrons
form the synapse with the axon of sensory neuron while their axon forms the synapse with the dendron
of the motor neuron. These are called association neurons (when their axon synapses with the dendron
of motor neuron of same side) or commissural
neuron (when their axon synapses with the DENDRON

dendron of motor neuron of opposite side).

(3) Motor (efferent) neurons : These are
DENDRON
always present in the ventral horn of the spinal
cord. Their axon ends into the muscle fibres or AXON

glands cells. These conduct the nerve impulses

to the effector organs which respond to the AXON
stimuli. AXON

(b) On the basis of number of nerve

processes : Neurons are of three types – A B C
(1) Unipolar neurons : In these neurons, Fig. – Types of Neurons A – Unipolar; B – Bipolar; C –
only one nerve process arises from the cyton Multipolar

which acts as axon but there is no dendron. These are found only in early embryos. The unipolar
neuron of the adult gives rise to a single nerve process, which immediately divides into a dendron and
an axon. Such unipolar neurons are called pseudo-unipolar neurons. These are found in the dorsal root
ganglia of spinal nerves and in the roots of V, IX and X cranial nerves.
(2) Bipolar neurons : In these neurons, the cyton gives rise to two nerve processes out of which
one acts as an axon while other acts as a dendron. These are found in the olfactory epithelium of nasal
chamber and retina of eye. These may be isopolar or heteropolar (dendrons being irregularly branched).
(3) Multipolar neurons : In these neurons, the cyton gives rise to several nerve processes out of
which one acts as an axon while remaining nerve processes act as dendrons. These are found in the
central nervous system and the ganglia of autonomic nervous system.
(iii) Nerve fibres : Axon or dendron of a nerve cell covered with one or two sheath is termed as
nerve fibre. The nerve fibres are of two types – medullated or myelinated and non medullated or non
myelinated regarding their structure.
(a) Medullated nerve fibres : A medullated nerve fibre typically consists of a central core, the
axis cylinder, or neuraxis, surrounded by two sheaths : inner thick medullary sheath and outer thin
neurilemma.
(1) Axis cylinder : The axis cylinder is simply the axon or dendron of a nerve cell. It contains
longitudinal neurofibrils and mitochondria in its neuroplasm, called axoplasm, limited by cell
membrane termed axolemma. It is the axolemma that conducts the nerve impulses.
(2) Medullary sheath : The medullary sheath is composed of a shinning, white, fatty substance
called myelin. This sheath perhaps serves as an insulating layer, preventing loss of energy of the nerve
impulse during its passage along the fibre. The medullary sheath is continous around the fibres in the
central nervous system, but in the fibres of the peripheral nerves it is absent at certain points known as
the Node of Ranvier. The part of a nerve fibre between two successive nodes is termed the internode.
(3) Neurilemma : The neurilemma consists of tubular sheath cells (Schwann’s cells) placed end to
end. The neurilemma is continuous over the Nodes of Ranvier. The function of the Schwann’s cells is
to produce the myelin sheath around the neuraxis. Outside neurilemma is a thin layer of connective
tissue. It is called endoneurium. It keeps the nerve fibre held to the others in a nerve. The medullated
nerve fibres within the brain and spinal chord lack neurilemma. Instead, they have an incomplete
covering of neuroglia cells, which probably produce the myelin sheath. Neurilemma present around the
peripheral nerve fibres enables them to regenrate after injury. Nerve fibres in the brain and spinal chord
do not regenrate after injury due to lack of neurilemma. The medullated nerve fibres occur in the white
matter of the brain and spinal chord and in the cranial and spinal nerves.
(b) Non medullated nerve fibres : A non medullated nerve fibre consists of an axis cylinder
enclosed by neurilemma and connective tissue. These fibres appears grey in colour in the fresh state.
The non-medullated nerve fibres occur in the autonomic nerves.
Difference between medullated and non-medulated nerve fibre
Characters Medullated nerve fibres Non-medullated nerve fibres
1. Occurrence Found in white matter of Found in grey matter of brain
brain, spinal cord, cranial and and spinal cord, and in
spinal nerves autonomic nervous systems.
2. Sheaths. Neuraxis covered by inner Neuraxis covered by only
medullary sheath and outer neurilemma. Medullary sheath
neurilemma is absent
3. Nodes of Ranvier and Present Absent
internodes
4. Diameter More Less
5. Colour White Grey
6. Speed of conduction of Faster due to saltatory Slower
nerve impulses. conduction of nerve impulses
7. Collateral branches Present Absent
(iv) Nerves
BUNDLE OF NERVE FIBRES
(a) Structure : The nerves are thread like structures
ENDONEURIUM
extending between the central nervous system and the EPINEURIUM

receptor of effector organs of the body. These conduct the PERINEURIUM

nerve impulses to and from the central nervous system. BLOOD

VESSEL
Each nerve is formed of several bundles of nerve
fibres, called fasciculi. Each nerve fibre of the bundle is
covered by a thin sheath of connective tissue called
endoneurium, while each fasciculus is enclosed by another
sheath of white fibrous connectiveS

Fig. – T.S. of Nerve

 tissue called perineurium. All the fasciculi are held together by the connective tissue and are enclosed
by a thick coat of white fibrous connective tissue called epineurium. On average, a nerve contains
about twice as many unmyelinated fibres as myelinated fibres.
(b) Types of nerves : The nerves are of three types according to the nature of the nerve fibres they
are composed of
(1) Sensory or afferent nerves : The nerves with sensory fibres are called sensory nerves.
Example – Olfactory, optic and auditory nerves.
(b) Motor or efferent nerves : The nerves having efferent fibres are termed motor nerves.
Example – Oculomotor, Pathetic and abducens nerves.
(c) Mixed nerves : Some nerves have both afferent and efferent fibres. These are known as mixed
nerves. Example – Trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves.

Important Tips
 The value of resting membrane potential is – 60 to – 90 mV.
 Na+ and K+ Ions are required for nerve conduction.
 GABA is slow neurotransmitter substance.
 Synapse is a junction between dendrites and Axons ends.
 Neuro glial cells differs from neurons in having no Nissls granules.
 Nerve fibres are different from the muscles fibres due to the presence of dendrites.
 Branched ends of nerve cells are called telodendria which establish the functional contact with
other nerve cell this connection is called synapse.
 Most of the neurons of our body are multipolar.
 Nissil’s bodies is absent in axon and axon hillock.
 ASSIGNMENT
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Basic Level
1. Cells of the epithelial tissue rest on a basement membrane which is made up of
(a) Monosaccharides (b) Mucopolysaccharides (c) Disaccharides (d) Lipids
2. The cells of a tissue are similar in
(a) Structure (b) Function (c) Origin (d) Both (a) and (b)
3. The intercellular matrix is negligible or absent in which of the following tissue
(a) Connective tissue (b) Epithelial tissue (c) Muscular tissue (d) Cardiac tissue
4. The basement membrane acts as
(a) Plasma membrane (b) Plasmalemma (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
5. The filaments arising from desmosomes are called
(a) Tonofibril (b) Tonofilament (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
6. Pseudostratified epithelium is always
(a) Single layered (b) Double layered (c) Multilayered (d) Uncertain
7. Most of the glands of the body are of
(a) Holocrine type (b) Merocrine type (c) Apocrine type (d) None of these
8. Reproductive cells (germinal epithelium) are made up of which of the following epithelial tissue
(a) Cuboidal (b) Columnar (c) Squamous (d) Sensory
9. In chordates the peritoneum covers
(a) Heart (b) Skin (c) Kidney (d) Liver
10. Covering of lungs is called
(a) Pericardium (b) Pleura (c) Peritoneum (d) Serosa
11. Schneiderian membrane is found in
(a) Nasal passage (b) Trachea (c) Bowman’s capsule (d) Loop of Henle
12. Cells of squamous epithelium are
(a) Tall with elongated nuclei (b) Cube like
(c) Flat and tile like (d) Columnar or cuboidal in shape
13. Which of the following makes heart wall more thick
(a) Pericardium (b) Epicardium (c) Myocardium (d) Endocardium
14. Internal surface of large intestine is
(a) Lined by muscular tissue (b) Lined by epithelial tissue
(c) Lined by both types of tissue (d) Lines by all four types of tissue
15. Desmosomes are the feature of
(a) Epithelial tissue (b) Nervous tissue (c) Muscular tissue (d) None of these
16. Simple epithelium is
(a) One cell thick (b) Two cells thick (c) Two or three cells thick (d) All of these
17. The cellular layers in epidermis of skin consists of
(a) Glandular cells (b) Columnar cells
(c) A squamous stratified cornified epithelium (d) A complex stratified epithelium
18. Pavement epithelium is another name for
(a) Cuboidal epithelium (b) Ciliated epithelium
(c) Simple squamous epithelium (d) Stratified epithelium
19. Rapid healing of wounds is found in
(a) Epithelial tissue (b) Muscular tissue (c) Connective tissue (d) Nervous tissue
20. Microvilli are present in
(a) Stratified squamous epithelium (b) Cuboidal epithelium
(c) Columnar epithelium (d) Ciliated epithelium
21. Stereocilia are present on
(a) Epithelial cell of respiratory tract (b) Epithelial cells of female genital tracts

(c) Epithelial cells of epididymis (d) None of these

22. Gland which is both exocrine and endocrine is
(a) Tubular glands (b) Saccular glands (c) Apocrine glands (d) Heterocrine
glands
23. Nature of mammary gland is
(a) Apocrine (b) Merocrine (c) Holocrine (d) None of these
24. Kinocilia are
(a) Motile (b) Non-motile
(c) Both (a) and (b) according to function (d) None of these
25. Stratified keratinized squamous epithelium is found in
(a) Trachea (b) Epidermis
(c) Mouth cavity (buccal) (d) Lining of blood vessels
26. Compound stratified squamous non keratinised epithelium is found in
(a) Stomach (b) Intestine (c) Trachea (d) Pharynx
27. Epithelial tissue serves as
(a) Protective covering (b) Reproductive structures (c)Corpuscles (d) Nerve cells
28. Which tissue evolved first in the animals
 (a) Muscular tissue (b) Connective tissue (c) Epithelial tissue (d) Skeletal tissue
29. Basement membrane is made up of
(a) Epidermal cell only (b) Endodermal cell
(c) No cell product of epithelial cell (d) Both (a) and (b)
30. The endothelium of blood vessel is composed of
(a) Cuboidal epithelium (b) Squamous epithelium
(c) Columnar epithelium (d)Ciliated epithelium
31. Ciliated cells are found in
(a) Bronchus (b) Pancreas (c) Liver (d) Uterus
32. Outer layer of skin is made up of keratinized epithelium, this is because
(a) It is exposed thus subjected to wear and tear (b) It covers the whole body
(c) It is thick (d) It prevents the entry of pathogens
33. Brush bordered epithelium is found in
(a) Fallopian tube (b) Small intestine (c) Oesophagus (d) Trachea
34. Epithelial cells involved in the process of absorption of digested food have on their surface
(a) Pinocytic vesicles (b) Microvilli (c) Zymogen granules (d) Phagocytic
vesicles
35. The name ‘tissue’ was given by
(a) Bichat (b) Mayer (c) Robert Hooke (d) A Maximow
36. Which of the following is non living substance
(a) Protoplasm (b) Cytoplasm (c) Nucleus (d) None of these
37. The basis for the classification of various types of tissues is its
(a) Function (b) Structure
(c) Location and function (d) Intercellular material
38. Study of living tissue in situ is known as
(a) Innate (b) Ecesis (c) In vivo (d) In vitro
39. Pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium is found in
(a) Mouth (b) Stomach / Oesophagus (c)Kidney (d) Trachea
40. Cells lining the blood capillaries are called
(a) Oxyntic cells (b) Endothelial cells (c) Parietal cells (d) Haemocytes
41. The epithelium found in the lining layer of stomach and intestine is
(a) Columnar (b) Squamous (c) Stratified (d) Pseudostratified
42. Germinal epithelium of ovary is formed of
(a) Columnar epithelium (b)Squamous epithelium
 (c)Cuboidal epithelium (d) Stratified epithelium

43. Ciliated epithelium is found in

(a) Ovary and trachea (b) Nephron and trachea (c) Lung and trachea (d) Liver and trachea
44. Blood vessels are internally lined by
(a) Ciliated epithelium (b) Columnar epithelium
(c) Squamous epithelium (d) Striated epithelium
45. In cuboidal epithelial cells the nuclei are situated
(a) Centrally (b) Apically (c) Basally (d) Accentrically
46. Brush border is characteristic of
(a) Secretory cells (b) Absorptive cells (c) Osteocytes (d) Nerve cells
47. Schneiderian membrane is for
(a) Gustation (b) Rheoreceptor (c) Olfaction (d) Thigmoreceptor
48. Glandular epithelium is found in
(a) Mouth (b) Oesophagus (c) Lungs (d) Liver
49. Another name for transitional epithelium is
(a) Tessalated epithelium (b) Urothelium (c) Pigmented
epithelium (d) All of these
50. Transitional epithelium is found in
(a) Trachea (b) Urethra (c) Kidney pelvis (d) Both (b) and (c)
51. Squamous epithelial cells are found in
(a) Lungs (b) Stomach (c) Uriniferous tubule (d) Testis
52. The word epithelium was coined by
(a) Malpighii (b) Ruysch (c) Bichat (d) None of these

Advance Level
53. Only tissue which is originated from all the three layers of embryo
(a) Connective tissue proper (b) Epithelial tissue
(c) Muscular tissue (d) All of these
54. When the cell membrane of cells at certain places fuses, they are called as
(a) Nexus (b) Macula occludens (c) Zonula occludens (d) All of these
55. Simple cuboidal epithelium is found in
(a) Sweat gland (b) Choroid of eye (c) Thin bronchioles (d) All of these
56. The cells of sensory epithelium are found
 (a) Singly (b) In groups
(c) Interspersed between epithelial cells (d) All of these
57. The ducts of mammary gland are lined by
(a) Stratified columnar epithelium (b)Stratified cuboidal epithelium
(c) Transitional epithelium (d)All of these
58. The function of villi in the intestine is
(a) Absorption of food (b) Increase in the absorptive surface of food
(c) Control of intestinal movement (d) Hinderance in the movement of food
59. Peritoneal layer of body cavity is made up of
(a) Squamous epithelium (b)Ciliated epithelium
(c) Columnar epithelium (d)Glandular epithelium
60. The ciliated epithelium in our body may be found in
(a) Ureter (b) Trachea (c) Bile duct (d) Uterine tube
61. Vagina and oesophagus have a common inner lining of
(a) Squamous epithelium (b)Ciliated epithelium
(c) Columnar epithelium (d)Stratified squamous non keratinised epithelium
62. Epithelial tissue performs the following functions
(a) Protection, secretion, absorption only (b) Protection, secretion, sensation, absorption
(c) Protection, secretion, absorption, digestion (d) None of these
63. Epithelium in case of serous membranes is called
(a) Ectothelium (b) Endothelium (c) Mesothelium (d) Serothelium
64. Normal wear and tear of cells in simple epithelia is negligible because
(a) Epithelial cells are very tough
(b) Epithelial cells are closely fitted like tiles of a mosaic
(c) Epithelial cell are kept moist due to the material that diffuse through it
(d) Epithelial cell is protective in function
65. A gland cell and an epithelial cell perform different function, because
(a) They are located differently
(b) Different genes of each of these cells are active while others are not
(c) They do not contain all the necessary genes
(d) During early and fast differentiation of these cell types some genes of each are destroyed
66. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is found in
(a) Wall of cloaca (b) Upper part of male urethra
(c) Oviduct (d) Oesophagus
67. Sweat, salivary and pancreatic ducts are lined by
(a) Stratified squamous epithelium (b)Non keratinized stratified cuboidal epithelium
(c) Stratified columnar epithelium (d)Stratified ciliated columnar epithelium
68. Tissue which has power of division and regeneration throughout life
(a) Epithelial tissue (b) Muscular tissue (c) Connective tissue (d) Nervous tissue
69. Epithelial tissues arise from
(a) Ectoderm (b) Endoderm (c) Mesoderm (d) All of these
70. The epithelium in the bronchioles is
(a) Pseudostratified and columnar (b) Squamous and sensory
(c) Pseudostratified and sensory (d) Cuboidal and columnar
71. Epithelial tissue which lines the spinal cord is known as
(a) Endothelium (b) Endocardium (c) Ependymal cells (d) Mesothelium
72. Which type of epithelium is found in oesophagus, cornea and vagina
(a) Transitional epithelium (b) Columnar epithelium
(c) Non-keratinized stratified epithelium (d) Keratinized stratified epithelium
73. Stratum germinativum is an example of which kind of epithelium
(a) Cuboidal (b) Ciliated (c) Columnar (d) Squamous
74. Transitional epithelium is found in
(a) Lungs (b) Liver (c) Urinary bladder (d) Stomach
75. Which of the following is the characteristics of epithelial tissues
(a) They are highly vascularised (b) They never produce glands
(c) They have large intercellular spaces (d) They have a rapid rate of cell division
76. The type of epithelium found in conjunctivas of eye is
(a) Stratified cuboidal (b) Stratified columnar
(c) Stratified squamous (d) Transitional epithelium
77. Which of the following in mammalian tissues is associated with filtration and diffusion
(a) Simple columnar (b) Simple squamous (c) Stratified squamous (d) Stratified
columnar
78. Ciliated epithelium occurs in frog in
(a) Buccal cavity and oviduct (b) Stomach and urinary bladder
(c) Blood vessels and lymph vessels (d) Kidney and stomach
79. Epithelial tissue with thin flat cells appearing like packed tiles occurs on
(a) Inner lining of cheek (b) Inner lining of stomach
(c) Inner lining of fallopian tubes (d) Outer surface of ovary
80. Inner lining of gut, stomach and liver is made of
(a) Simple squamous epithelium (b)Simple columnar epithelium
(c) Simple cuboidal epithelium (d)All of these
81. Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium is found in
(a) Epidermis of skin of land vertebrates (b) Oral cavity and pharynx
(c) Vagina and cervix (d) Both (b) and (c)
82. Stratum germinativum is an example of which kind of epithelium
(a) Cuboidal (b) Ciliated (c) Columnar (d) Both (a) and (c)
83. Ciliated epithelium lines the
(a) Tracheal and fallopian tube (b) Bile duct and ureter epithelium
(c) Trachea and oesophagus (d) Pharyngeal and stomach mucosae
84. Macula adherens is a kind of
(a) Desmosome (b) Mesosome (c) Filament (d) Membrane
85. Vertebrate salivary glands and exocrine part of pancreas are
(a) Apocrine (b) Holocrine (c) Epicrine (d) Merocrine
86. Layer of columnar cells with uneven appearance and lining trachea is
(a) Brush border epithelium (b) Pseudostratified epithelium
(c) Stratified epithelium (d) Ciliated epithelium

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Basic Level
87. Abnormal rise in number of R.B.C. is called
(a) Anaemia (b) Polycythemia (c) Leukemia (d) All of these
88. Average life span of human R.B.C. is
(a) 100 days (b) 90 days (c) 120 days (d) None of these
89. The tendon are formed of
(a) White fibrous tissue (connective) (b) Yellow fibrous tissue (connective)
(c) Areolar tissue (d) Adipose tissue
90. Which of the following tissue is more elastic
(a) Bone (b) Cartilage
 (c) Both are equally elastic (d) Both are not elastic
91. All the cartilaginous bones are previously
(a) Elastic cartilage (b) Hyaline cartilage (c) Calcified cartilage (d) Fibrous cartilage
92. Lacunae are connected with
(a) Canaliculae (b) Sublacunae (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
93. The fibrous tissue which connects the two bones is
(a) Connective tissue (b) Tendon (c) Ligament (d) Adipose tissue
94. Long shaft of a bone is called as
(a) Epiphysis (b) Diaphysis (c) Metaphysis (d) None of these
95. Monocytes are how much percent of total W.B.C.
(a) 5.3% (b) 30% (c) 0.4% (d) 1.3%
96. Ligaments and tendons are
(a) Connective tissue (b) Muscular tissue
(c) Fibrous connective tissue (d) Skeletal tissue
97. The matrix of hyaline cartilage contains
(a) Collagen (b) Chondrin (c) Ossein (d) All of these
98. R.B.C. in adult are formed
(a) In the red bone marrow of long bones (b) In the spleen
(c) In the thymus (d) In the liver
99. Sprain is caused due to stretching of
(a) Muscle (b) Ligament (c) Tendon (d) Nerve
100. Collagen fibres of connective tissue are
(a) White (b) Yellow (c) Colourless (d) Red
101. Covering around bone is called
(a) Perichondrion (b) Periosteum (c) Epiosteum (d) Endosteum
102. Cartilage is formed by
(a) Osteoblast (b) Fibroblast (c) Chondrocyte (d) Submucosa
103. Ligament is a structure which joins
(a) Two bones (b) Two muscles (c) Muscle and bone (d) Nerve and Muscle
104. Mast cells are found in
(a) Connective tissue (b) Muscular tissue (c) Nervous tissue (d) Blood
105. Erythrocytes in camel are
(a) Oval and non-nucleated (b) Oval and nucleated
 (c) Circular, biconcave and non-nucleated (d) Circular, biconvex and nucleated
106. Shape of the nucleus of WBC is usually
(a) Spherical (b) Irregular (c) Oval (d) Spindle shaped
107. Lymph differs from blood in having
(a) No W.B.C. (b) No protein (c) Much more of water (d) No R.B.C.
108. Which of the following is not the cell of areolar tissue
(a) Macrophages (b) Schwann cell (c) Plasma cell (d) Adipose cell
109. Lymph nodes are to fight against
(a) R.B.Cs (b) Germs (c) W.B.Cs (d) None of these
110. pH of human blood is
(a) 7.4 (b) 6.2 (c) 9.0 (d) 10.00
111. The strongest cartilage is
(a) Fibrous cartilage (b) Hyaline cartilage (c) Elastic cartilage (d) None of these
112. Below the skin, the fat is in the form of
(a) Lipoproteins (b) Adipose tissue (c) Mucous layer (d) Lymphoid tissue
113. Usually chordates have red blood containing red blood corpuscles. The blood is red due to the
presence of the following pigment
(a) Myoglobin (b) Anthocyanin (c) Anthocyanin (d) Haemoglobin
114. Red marrows of the bone produce
(a) Lymphocytes (b) Eosinophils (c) Plasma (d) RBC
115. In the matrix lies the bone cells, called
(a) Chondroclasts (b) Osteoclasts (c) Osteoblasts (d) Osteocytes
116. The skeletal tissue consists of organic matrix called as
(a) Hyaline (b) Chondrin (c) Osteoblast (d) Chondroblast
117. The types of fibres found in connective tissues are
(a) Collagen fibres (b) Elastic fibres (c) Reticular fibres (d) All of these
118. The membrane that covers cartilage is known as
(a) Periostium (b) Perichondrium (c) Perineurium (d) Pericardium
119. The major protein of the connective tissues is
(a) Keratin (b) Collagen (c) Melanin (d) Myosin
120. A connective tissue
(a) Has no matrix (b) Covers the skin (c) Has abundant matrix (d)None of these
121. Most of the cells in areolar tissue are
 (a) Fibroblasts (b) Macrophages (c) Mast cells (d) All of these
122. The white fibrous tissue occurs in
(a) Ligaments (b) Tendons (c) Cartilage (d) Bone
123. External ear (pinna) contains a hard, flexible structure composed of
(a) Bone (b) Cartilage (c) Tendon (d) Ligament
124. The cells of cartilage are
(a) Osteocytes (b) Chondriocytes (c) Pinnacocytes (d) Oenocytes
125. Marrow cavity present at the ends of long bone is internally lined by
(a) Periosteum (b) Endosteum (c) Epiosteum (d) Sarcolemma
126. Histiocyte is a connective tissue cell, the function of which is
(a) Phagocytic (b) Secretion (c) Fibre production (d) None of these
127. Mineral present in red pigment of vertebrate blood is
(a) Magnesium (b) Iron (c) Copper (d) Calcium
128. Humerous and muscles are connected with
(a) Ligament (b) Tendons (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
129. Fats are richly found in
(a) Alveolar tissue (b) Lymph glands (c) Adipose tissue (d) Liver cells
130. Blood is formed of
(a) Plasma and bone marrow cells (b) Plasma, white and red blood cells
(c) Plasma and white blood cells (d) Plasma and red blood cells
131. The rate of erythropoiesis is controlled by
(a) An enzyme (b) A harmone (c) Spleen (d) Brain
132. “Graveyard of RBCs’ is
(a) Liver (b) Spleen (c) Kidney (d) All of these
133. Articular cartilage is
(a) Hyaline cartilage (b) White fibrous cartilage
(c) Yellow elastic fibrous cartilage (d) Calcified cartilage
134. Alkalaemia is
(a) Blood pH less than 7 (b) Blood pH is 7.3 – 7.4
(c) Blood pH more than 7.45 (d) Removal of inorganic salts from plasma
135. The main difference in white and yellow fibres is of
(a) Protein (b) Colour of the fibres (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
136. Sarcoplasm is the
(a) Cytoplasm of nerve fibres (b) Cytoplasm of muscle fibres
 (c) Unit of muscle contraction (d) None of these

137. White adipose tissue contains

(a) Multilocular fat cells (b)Bilocular fat cells (c) Unilocular fat cells (d) Alocular fat cells
138. Osteon is found in the
(a) Femur of frog (b) Femur of bird
(c) Femur of rabbit (d) Femur of man and rabbit
139. Formation of cartilage is known as
(a) Diapedesis (b) Chondrogenesis (c) Haemopoiesis (d) Ossification
140. Vascular tissue or fluid tissue is made up of
(a) RBC, WBC and plasma (b) RBC, plasma and platelets
(c) RBC, WBC, plasma and platelets (d) WBC, plasma and platelets
141. The life span of human WBC is approximately
(a) Less than 2 days (b) Between 20 to 30 days
(c)Between 2 to 3 months (d) More than 4 months
142. Leucocytes (WBCs) are considered as true cells because
(a) They possess nucleus (b) They do not contain haemoglobin
(c) They show great power of movement (d) They are responsible for phagocytic
activity
143. Phagocytosis was first of all seen by
(a) Huxley (b) Haeckal (c) Metchnikoff (d) Strasburger
144. Highest content of iron is found in
(a) WBC (b) Bone cells (c) RBC (d) Protein
145. Role of bone-marrow in mammals is
(a) To assist kidneys (b) To act as haemopoietic tissue
(c) To assist liver (d) To control blood pressure
146. Where would you find mast cells
(a) Adipose tissue (b) Areolar tissue
(c) Yellow fibrous tissue (d) White fibrous tissue
147. Platelets released during blood clotting is
(a) Thrombin (b) Prothrombin
(c) Thrombokinase (Thromboplastin) (d) Fibrinogen
148. Which of the following have longest life in blood
 (a) Eosinophils (b) Red blood corpuscles (c) Basophils (d) Neutrophils
149. The connective tissue that connects the skin to the underlying structures is
(a) Areolar tissue (b) Serous membrane
(c) Reticular tissue (d) Dense connective tissue
150. Which one occurs in greatest proportion
(a) Neutrophils (b) Eosinophils (c) Basophils (d) Lymphocytes
151. Hyaline cartilage forms
(a) Tracheal rings (b) Pubic symphysis (c) Epiglottis (d) External ear
152. Cells which secrete the bone matrix are
(a) Osteoblast cells (b) Osteoclast cells
(c) Bone cells (d) Bone cells and osteoclast cells
153. Connective tissue originates from
(a) Ectoderm (b) Endoderm (c) Mesoderm (d) Meso-endoderm
154. The ground substance of connective tissue is basically composed of
(a) Mucopolysaccharides (b)Lipids (c) Monosaccharides (d) Phospholipids
155. Adipocytes are mainly found in
(a) Bones (b) Cartilages (c) Connective tissue (d) Nerves
156. The largest corpuscles in mammalian blood are
(a) Basophils (b) Erythrocytes (c) Monocytes (d) Lymphocytes
157. Ends of long bones are covered with
(a) Cartilage (b) Muscles (c) Ligaments (d) Blood cells
158. Fluid part of blood after removal of corpuscles is
(a) Plasma (b) Lymph (c) Serum (d) Vaccine
159. Which is the correct explanatory word for composition of protoplasm
(a) Emulsion (b) Suspension
(c) Complex colloidal solution (d) Molecular solution
160. The main function of tendon is
(a) To join two bones (b) To join two muscles
(c) To join muscles and bones (d) To join muscles and nerves
161. Antibody is produced by
(a) B-Lymphocyte (b) Heparin (c) T-Lymphocyte (d) Both (a) and (b)
162. Ligament is a
(a) Modified white fibrous tissue (b) Modified yellow elastic fibrous tissue
 (c) Inelastic white fibrous tissue (d) None of these
163. Which of the following is loose connective tissue
(a) Areolar (b) Adipose (c) Blood (d) Nervous tissue

164. Bone-forming cells are known as

(a) Chondroclasts (b) Osteoblasts (c) Chondroblasts (d) Osteoclasts
165. In mammals, histamine is secreted by
(a) Fibroblasts (b) Histiocytes (c) Lymphocytes (d) Mast cells
166. Protein present in cartilage is
(a) Chondrin (b) Oesein (c) Cartilagin (d) Ossein
167. Which of the following is agranulocyte
(a) Lymphocyte (b) Eosinophil (c) Basophil (d) Neutrophil
168. Which of the following cells is phagocytic in nature
(a) Mast cells (b) Podocytes (c) Macrophages (d) Fibroblast cells
169. Which of the following is not a granulocyte
(a) Basophils (b) Monocytes (c) Acidophils (d) Neutrophils
170. Processes from osteoblasts are called
(a) Dendrites (b) Lamellae (c) Canaliculi (d) Haversian canals
171. Cartilage is made up of
(a) Collagen (b) Dermin (c) Matrigen (d) None of these
172. Which of the following is a transparent tissue
(a) Tendon (b) Ligament (c) Fibrous cartilage (d) Hyaline cartilage
173. Volkmann’s canals are found in
(a) Bones of birds (b) Bones of amphibians
(c) Bones of mammals (d) Cartilage of mammals
174. During an injury, nasal septum gets damaged and for its recovery which cartilage is prefused
(a) Hyaline cartilage (b) Elastic cartilage (c) Calcified cartilage (d) Fibro cartilage
175. Red muscle fibres are rich in
(a) Golgi bodies (b) Mitochondria (c) Ribosome (d) Lysosomes
176. Which of the following is enucleate
(a) Squamous epithelial cell (b) Mature human erythrocyte
(c) Mature frog erythrocyte (d) Human osteocyte
177. Which of the following cartilage is present on the end of long bones
(a) Elastic cartilage (b) Fibrous cartilage (c) Calcified cartilage (d) Hyaline cartilage
178. What will happen, if the ligaments are cut or broken
(a) No movement at joint (b)Bone will become unfix
(c) Bone will become fixed (d)Bones will move freely at joints

179. Collagen is
(a) Lipid (b) Carbohydrate (c) Globular protein (d) Fibrous protein
180. Which one of the following contains the largest quantity of extra cellular material
(a) Myelinated nerve fibres (b)Striated muscle (c) Areolar tissue (d) Stratified
epithelium
181. An antibody is a
(a) Component of the blood
(b) Secretion of mammalian erythrocyte
(c) White corpuscle which attack invading bacteria
(d)Molecule that specifically inactivate an antigen
182. Which of the following work as phagocytes
(a) WBCs (b) RBCs (c) Enzymes (d) Hormones
183. Resorption of bone is carried out by
(a) Osteoclasts (b) Osteoprogenitors (c) Osteoblasts (d) None of these
184. Regeneration of cartilage can occur from its
(a) Matrix (b) Plasma
(c) Perichondrium (d) A piece without perichondrium
185. Processes of osteocytes lie in
(a) Dendrites (b) Haversian canals (c) Canaliculi (d) Lamella
186. Large irregular ovoid cells found in areolar tissue are
(a) Fibroblasts (b) Macrophages (c) Mast cells (d) Chromatophores
187. B- and T- cells required for immune system are produced in
(a) Bone marrow (b) Liver (c) Spleen (d) Lymph nodes
188. Number of erythrocytes per mm3 of human blood is
(a) 4 million (b) 5 million (c) 6 million (d) 0.5 million
Advance Level
189. When the count of W.B.C. falls below the optimum number in blood, it is called
(a) Leukopenia (b) Leukemia (c) Anaemia (d) All of these
190. Glisson’s capsule is a delicate connective tissue capsule covering the
(a) Spleen (b) Liver (c) Kidney (d) Gall bladder
191. Haversian system is a diagnostic feature of
(a) Avian bones (b) All animals
(c) Mammalian bones only (d) Reptilian bones
192. Which part of body’s weight is formed by connective tissue
(a) 40% (b) 30% (c) 20% (d) 60%
193. In connective tissue, the tissue fluid is trapped between
(a) Hyaluronic acid (b) Lactic acid (c) Sphygmomyelin (d) None of these
194. The mast cells secrete the following substance
(a) Heparin (b) Histamine (c) Serotonin (d) All of these
195. The giant cell is formed by the fusion of
(a) Macrophage (b) Plasma cell (c) Mast cell (d) All of these
196. Which of the following cell forms all other cells of connective tissue
(a) Fibroblast (b) Macrophage (c) Glial cell (d) Adipocyte
197. Which of the following tissue is called as “homeostatic reservoir”
(a) Cartilage (b) Bone (c) Calcified cartilage (d) All of these
198. Inorganic phosphate found in the bones are called
(a) Hydroxy apatite (b) Ossein (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
199. Achondroplasia is a disease related with the defect in the ossification of
(a) Membrane (b) Cartilage (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
200. Atavistic epiphysis is a/an
(a) Cartilage (b) True epiphysis (c) Independent bone (d) None of these
201. In embryonic stage R.B.C. are formed in
(a) Liver (b) Spleen (c) Yolk Sac (d) All of these
202. The areolar tissue connects
(a) Two bones (b) Muscle and the bone
(c) Muscle and the fat tissue (d) Muscle and their compound
203. Bone marrow is made up of
(a) Muscular fibre and fatty tissue (b) Fatty tissue and areolar tissue
(c) Fatty tissue and cartilage (d) Fatty tissue, areolar tissue and blood
204. Phagocytic cells of liver are called
(a) Kupffer cells (b) Deiter cells (c) Hensen cells (d) Aciner cells
205. Haversian canals of long bones have
(a) One vein and one artery (b) One nerve and one lymphatic
 (c) Some bone cells, fat and areolar tissue (d) All of these
206. In mammals Haversian canals are connected with each other by transverse canals, which are
called
(a) Semicircular canals (b) Volkmann’s canals (c) Inguinal canals (d) Bidder’s canals

207. Camel’s hump is made up of

(a) Skeletal tissue (b) Muscular tissue (c) Cartilage (d) Adipose tissue
208. Exchange of materials between blood and tissue cells occur through
(a) Lymph (b) Plasma (c) Water (d) Tissue fluid
209. Major constituent of bone is
(a) Calcium phosphate (b) Magnesium phosphate
(c)Calcium carbonate (d) Sodium chloride
210. White blood corpuscles divide by
(a) Mitosis (b) Meiosis (c) Amitosis (d) None of these
211. A tendon gets ossified to form a type of bone called
(a) Sesamoid (b) Membranous (c) Dermal (d) Cartilage
212. Concave surface of mammalian R.B.Cs is helpful in
(a) Formation of more haemoglobin (b)Increasing surface area of R.B.Cs
(c) Reducing surface tension of plasma membrane (d)Providing more space for haemoglobin
213. Least constancy of shape is shown by
(a) Epithelial cells (b) White blood corpuscles
(c)Red blood corpuscles (d) Blood platelets
214. If kept in 0.8% NaCl, R.B.Cs will
(a) Shrink (b) Remain same (c) Burst (d) None of these
215. Lymph can be defined as
(a) Blood minus RBCs (b) Blood minus plasma (c) Blood minus WBCs (d) Corpuscles
216. Blood clotting can be prevented in a test tube by adding a little
(a) Sodium oxalate (b) Sodium chloride
(c) Sodium hydroxide (d) Ammonium chloride
217. Growth of young cartilage take place by
(a) Division of young chondrocytes (b)Formation of more intercellular
substance
(c) Deposition of new layer of cartilage at its surface (d)All of these
218. Intervertebral disc is made up of
(a) Elastic cartilage (b) Fibrous cartilage (c) Calcified cartilage (d) Hyaline cartilage
219. If red blood cells are placed in distilled water, they will
(a) Shrink and collapse (b) First increase in volume and then burst

(c) Stick together (d) None of these

220. Adipose tissue is found in mammals

(a) In epidermis (b) In muscles (c) In dermis (d) Below dermis
221. Which of the following helps in maintaining body hot
(a) Sweat glands (b) Connective tissue (c) Adipose tissue (d) Hair
222. Whale is a warm-blooded animal which lives in cold sea. Which organ of its body makes it hot
(a) Blubber (b) Pelage (c) Muscles (d) Blood vessels
223. Primary function of subdermal fat in the skin of mammals is
(a) To preserve collected sum (b) To act as a heat-proof matter
(c) To prevent the jerks (d) To protect the body
224. Elastic pads at the ends of articular end of the bones are made up of
(a) Hyaline cartilage (b) Muscle (c) Ligaments (d) Tendons
225. A bone is different from cartilage due to the presence of
(a) Collagen (b) Blood vessels (c) Lymph vessels (d) Haversian canals
226. Which of the following cells are associated with immune system of body
(a) Neutrophils (b) Macrophages (c) Lymphocytes (d) All of these
227. Egyptian mummies are having still intact artery, it is due to
(a) Resistivity of elastin protein to chemical changes (b)Cold weather conditions of Egypt
(c) Hot weather conditions of Egypt (d)It is only a God gift
228. Cartwheel arrangement of heterochromatin is found in
(a) Macrophages (b) Plasma cells (c) Adipocytes (d) Mastocytes
229. The chemical which causes damage of WBC, bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes and lungs is
(a) Iodine – 131 (b) Calcium (c) Strontium – 90 (d) Iodine – 127
230. The term “blubber” refers to
(a) A substitute for natural rubber (b)A subcutaneous deposition of fat in whales
(c) The irregular heart-beat sound (d) None of these
231. The connective tissue of the vertebrate body is built up from fibres of the protein collagen,
 embedded in a polysaccharide matrix to form
(a) Cartilage (b) Blood vessel (c) Heart (d) Lung
232. Polymorphonuclear leucocytes are
(a) Monocytes (b) Lymphocytes (c) Granulocytes (d) Agranulocytes
233. A femur is kept in dilute HCl for three days, it becomes
(a) Brittle (b) Soft and elastic (c) Remains as it is (d) Harder

234. The intercellular substance found in connective tissue is

(a) Fatty in nature (b) Muco-polysaccharide
(c) Mainly protein in nature (d) All are correct
235. The lymph resembles composition of blood plasma, but contains
(a) Less amount of protein, same number of leucocytes and a few erythrocytes
(b) More protein, same number of leucocytes but mainly lymphocytes and a few erythrocytes
(c) Less amount of protein, large number of leucocytes chiefly granulocytes and a few
erythrocytes
(d) Less amount of protein, large number of leucocytes chiefly lymphocyte and a few
granulocytes
236. In human embryo, main haemopoietic tissue is
(a) Spleen (b) Liver (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Kidney
237. The colour in the brown fat is due to
(a) Its larger capacity for generating heat (b) Large number of mitochondria present
(c) A high concentration of iron containing cytochrome pigments
(d) Presence of chromatophores
238. Red marrow is found in
(a) Amphibians (b) Reptiles (c) Mammals (d) All of these
239. During sleeping the rate of RBC formation
(a) Increases (b) Decreases (c) Remains constant (d) None of these
240. When collagen fibres are removed from the areolar tissue
(a) Tissue becomes hard (b) Tissue becomes loose and elastic
(c) Tissue becomes hard and inelastic (d) Remains unchanged
241. Lymphocytes are seen in large numbers at sites of inflammation because
(a) Their function is phagocytic (b) They prevents clotting of blood
(c) Their functions is to form and carry antibodies (d) All of these
242. The tissue present in umbilical cord is
 (a) Fatty connective tissue (b) Reticular connective tissue
(c) Mucous connective tissue (d) Pigmented connective tissue
243. Diploic bone is
(a) Compact bone found in ribs (b) Spongy bone found in skull
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these

244. The main function of connective tissue is

(a) Binding together other tissues (b) Supporting various parts of the body
(c) Forming a packing around organs (d) All of these
245. Oedema is
(a) An abnormal accumulation of tissue fluid in intercellular spaces
(b) An abnormal accumulation of tissue fluid in epithelial tissue cells
(c) An abnormal accumulation of extra cellular fluid in intercellular spaces
(d) Allergic disease of skin
246. Intracellular fluid and extra cellular fluid forms
(a) 24% and 40% of body weight respectively (b) 40% and 24% of body weight respectively
(c) 6 – 10% of the body weight (d) 30 – 35% of the body weight
247. Match the following
Types of leucocytes Function
A. Neutrophils 1. Heparin and histamine secretion
B. Basophils 2. Antibodies formation
C. Acidophils 3. Scavanger
D. Monocytes 4. Phagocytes
E. Lymphocytes 5. Antiallergic and healing of wounds
The correct pairing sequence is
(a) 3, 1, 5, 4, 2 (b) 1, 4, 5, 3, 2 (c) 3, 2, 1, 4, 5 (d) 2, 3, 1, 4, 5
248. Function of adipose tissue is
(a) Fat storing tissue (b) Helps in homeothermy
(c)Acts as shock absorber (d)All of these
249. Choose the correct
(a) Haversian canals are transverse canals
(b) Volkmann’s canals are longitudinal canals
(c) Haversian canals are longitudinal whereas Volkmann’s canals are transverse canals
 (d) None of these
250. Patella bone is an example of
(a) Cartilaginous bone (b) Dermal bone (c) Spongy bone (d) Sesamoid bone

251. Match the following

Disease Cause
A. Diabetes 1. Rise in WBC count
B. Uraemia 2. Deficiency of vitamin B12
C. Anaemia 3. Rise in RBC count
D. Polycythemia 4. Fall of WBC count
E. Pernicious or Megaloblastic anaemia 5. Fall in RBC count
F. Leukemia 6. Increase in blood sugar level
G. Thrombocytopenia 7. Urea is in excess in blood
H. Leucopenia 8. Pathological increase in WBC
I. Leucocytosis 9. Decrease in the number of platelets
The correct matching sequence is
(a) 1, 3, 4, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 8 (b)6, 7, 5, 3, 2, 8, 9, 4, 1
c)6, 7, 3, 5, 8, 2, 9, 1, 4 (d)7, 6, 5, 3, 2, 9, 8, 4, 1
252. New born mammals generally do not shiver inspite of lower temperature outside because of
(a) Brown fat which has larger capacity for generating heat
(b) White fat which has larger capacity for generating heat
(c) Chromatophores present in them (d) Skeletal tissue present in them
253. An osteon contains
(a) One Haversian canal and Haversian lamellae (b) Haversian canal and Volkmann’s canal
(c) Haversian canal and circumferential lamellae (d) Haversian canal, Haversian lamellae and
osteoblast layer
254. Reticular connective tissue is found in
(a) Stomach (b) Spleen (c) Kidneys (d) Skin
255. Pits of Howship are present in
(a) Nervous tissue (b) Striated muscle fibres (c) Long bones (d) Fibrocartilage
256. Reticulocytes may also be called
(a) Blood platelets (b) Immature erythrocytes (c)Lymphocytes (d) WBCs
257. Which of the following is a living substance
(a) Protoplasm (b) Cytoplasm (c) Nucleus (d) All of these
258. Amount of nucleic acids in protoplasm is about
(a) 2% (b) 10% (c) 20% (d) 35%

259. Ca++ ions are needed for

(a) Muscular contraction (b)Blood coagulation (c) Bone formation (d) All of these
260. The percentage of inorganic and organic salts in the matrix of a bone is
(a) 40% inorganic, 60% organic (b)67% inorganic, 33% organic
(c) 80% inorganic, 20% organic (d)85% inorganic, 15% organic
261. Lymph contains
(a) Only leucocytes (b)99% lymphocytes, no RBCs and other
leucocytes
(c) 50% leucocytes and 50% erythrocytes (d)99% of erythrocytes and 1% small
lymphocytes
262. Blood does not clot inside the blood vessels due to the presence of
(a) Heparin (b) Fibrinogen (c) Vitamin K (d) Thrombin
263. Which is the principal cation in the plasma of the blood
(a) Calcium (b) Sodium (c) Potassium (d) Magnesium
264.  – globulins are synthesised inside
(a) Liver (b) Bone marrow
(c) Lymph and lymphoid tissue (d) Kidney
265. Which of the following in not the main function of lymph glands
(a) Forming WBC (b) Forming antibodies (c) Sping RBC (d) Destroying
bacteria
266. Haversian canals are found in
(a) Bone marrow (b) Hyaline cartilage (c) Bone matrix (d) Calcified cartilage
267. Which cells are not true in blood
(a) Platelets (b) Monocytes (c) Neutrophils (d) Basophils
268. In the diagram of the section of bone tissue given below, certain parts have been indicated by
alphabets; choose the answer in which these alphabets have been correctly matched with the
 parts which they indicate D

E
I.
B

(a) A = Interstitial lamellae, B = Lacuna with osteocytes, C = Blood vessels, D = Nerve, E =

Canaliculi, F = Haversian canal, G = Lamellae
(b) A = Interstitial lamellae, B = Osteocytes in the lacuna, C = Blood vessels, D = Nerve, E =
Canaliculi, F = Haversian system, G = Canaliculi
(c) A = Lamellae, B = Lacuna with osteocytes, C = Artery, D = Lymphatic vessels, E =
Canaliculi, F = Vein, G = Haversian canal
(d) A = Interstitial lamellae, B = Osteocytes, C = Nerve, D = Blood Vessel, E = Lamellae, F =
Haversian canal, G = Canaliculi
269. Connective tissue is
(a) Ectodermal in origin with intercellular spaces
(b) Mesodermal in origin without intercellular spaces
(c) Ectodermal in origin without intercellular spaces
(d)Mesodermal in origin with intercellular spaces
270. Pubis in the frog’s pelvic girdle is actually a
(a) Calcified cartilage (b) Cartilaginous bone (c) Membrane bone (d) None of these
271. Vitreous humour is
(a) Mucoid connective tissue (b) Solid crystalline
(c) Watery fluid (d) All of these
272. Which one of the following is not a fibrillar protein
(a) Elastin (b) Collagen (c) Myosin (d) Albumin
273. Enzyme causing lysis of fibrin during fibrinolysis is
(a) Fibrinogen (b) Plasmin (c) Thrombin (d) VIII Platelet
factor
274. In mammals yellow fibres are found in
 (a) Ear pinna (b) Tip of nose (c) Epiglottis (d) All of these
275. In which state iron is present in haemoglobin
(a) Un-ionic (b) Fe2+ (c) Fe3+ (d) None of these
276. In which bones shall have Haversian system
(a) Panther (b) Python (c) Pigeon (d) Pipe Fish
277. Blood platelets occur in the blood of
(a) Birds (b) Mammals (c) Reptiles (d) Amphibians
278. Ruptured blood cells are not trapped in
(a) Liver (b) Spleen (c) Bone marrow (d) Both (a) and (c)
279. Structure absent from fresh frozen blood plasma is
(a) Immunoglobulin (b) Plasma (c) Albumin (d) Platelets
280. Granules contain histamine in
(a) Neutrophils (b) Eosinophils (c) Acidophils (d) Basophils
281. Number of cell types present in human bone are
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
282. Mast cells of connective tissue contain
(a) Heparin and calcitonin (b)Serotonin and melanin
(c)Vasopressin and relaxin (d)Heparin and histamine
283. Match the types of WBC listed in column I with the shape of nucleus given under column II.
Choose the answer which gives the correct combination of alphabets of two columns

Column I Column II
Type of WBC Shape of Nucleus
a Neutrophils p Kidney shaped
b Eosinophils q S-shaped
c Basophils r 3 – 5 lobes
d Monocytes s 2 lobes
t Disc shaped

(a) a = r, b = t, c = p, d = q (b) a = t, b = r, c = q, d = s
(c) a = q, b = p, c = t, d = r (d) a = r, b = s, c = q, d = p
284. In which of the following tissue is the matrix not product of synthesis of its cells
(a) Vascular tissue (b) Osseous tissue
(c) Loose connective tissue (d) Adipose tissue
285. Assertion (A) : RBC production is regulated by kidneys.
Reason (R) : Erythropoietin hormone produced by kidneys reaches red bone marrow where it
increases stem cells mitosis and speeds up development of RBCs.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
(c) (A) is true but (R) is wrong
(d) (A) and (R) both are wrong

286. Assertion : Histamine is involved in allergic and inflammatory reactions.

Reason : Histamine is vasodilator.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
(c) (A) is true but (R) is wrong
(d) (A) and (R) both are wrong
287. Assertion : Mast cells in human body release excessive amount of inflammatory chemicals
which cause allergic reactions.
Reason : Allergens in the environment on reaching human body stimulates mast cells in certain
individuals.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
(c) (A) is true but (R) is wrong
(d) (A) and (R) both are wrong
MUSCULAR TISSUE
Basic Level
288. Which of the following muscles gets into fatigue very early
(a) Skeletal muscle (b) Smooth muscle (c) Cardiac muscle (d) All of these
289. Unstriped muscles are found in
(a) Neck (b) Urinary bladder (c) Arms (d) Fingers
290. Cardiac muscles are having characters of
(a) Striped muscle (b) Unstriped muscle (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
291. Unstriped smooth muscles are found in
(a) Thigh (b) Eye muscles (c) Iris (d) Tongue
292. Sarcolemma is the covering of
(a) Nerve fibres (b) Muscle fibres
(c) Bone marrow (d) Liver, kidney and stomach
293. Who propounded the “Sliding filament theory” for muscles contraction
(a) Cori (b) H.E. Huxley
(c) A.F. Huxley (d) H.E. Huxley and A.F. Huxley
294. Striped muscles have
(a) One nucleus (b) Many nuclei (c) Two nuclei (d) No nuclei
295. The protein which maintains the muscular storage of oxygen is
(a) Myoglobin (b) Actomyosin (c) Myosin (d) Haemoglobin
296. Authorythmicity is a special property of the muscles of the
(a) Liver (b) Intestine (c) Heart (d) Kidney
297. Voluntary muscle is present in
(a) Lung (b) Liver (c) Hind limb (d) Heart
298. The muscles immune to fatigue are
(a) Striped (b) Unstriped (c) Cardiac (d) None of these
299. The muscles involved in the movement of the arm are
(a) Unstriped (b) Striped (c) Cardiac (d) All of these
300. Striated and voluntary muscle fibres are found in
(a) Lungs (b) Leg muscles (c) Gall bladder (d) Blood vessels
301. Bundles of striated muscle fibres called fasciculi are enclosed by sheath called
(a) Epimysium (b) Endomysium (c) Perimysium (d) Peritoneum
302. Refractory period of a muscle fibre in mammals is
(a) 0.8001 seconds (b) 0.002 seconds (c) 0.004 seconds (d) 0.005 seconds
303. Strongest muscles in human body are found in
(a) Jaws (b) Thighs (c) Neck (d) Hands
304. The structural and functional unit of the striated muscle fibre is called
(a) Sarcolemma (b) Sarcomere (c) Sarcoplasm (d) Myofibril
305. Which fibres, contractile in nature are found in muscles
(a) White fibres (b) Myofibrils (c) Microfibrils (d) Elastic fibres
306. Unstriated muscle are found in
 (a) Veins (b) Arteries (c) Uterus (d) All of these
307. Striped and branched muscle are found in
(a) Iris (b) Heart (c) Leg (d) Brain
308. The ready source of energy in living cells is
(a) Glucose (b) ATP (c) Glycogen (d) ADP
309. Muscular tissue is differentiated into
(a) Unstriped, striped (b) Striped, cardiac
(c) Cardiac muscle, unstriped (d) Unstriped, striated and cardiac
310. Active transport
(a) Requires energy (b) Liberates energy
(c) Is a non-cellular process (d) Needs oxygen

311. Myoglobin is found in

(a) Muscles (b) Blood (c) Liver (d) Spleen
312. Striped muscles are present in
(a) Lungs (b) Gall bladder (c) Blood vessels (d) Limb muscles
313. The stored food material found in muscles is
(a) Protein (b) Glycogen (c) Lipid (d) Phosphogen
314. Striped muscles are
(a) Syncytial (b) Uninucleate (c) Binucleate (d) Anucleate
315. Glycogen is stored in
(a) Liver (b) Muscles (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Blood
316. Cardiac muscles are different from that of skeletal muscles as
(a) They are striated and involuntary (b) They are non striated
(c) They are smooth (d) They are voluntary
317. The functional unit of contractile system in striated muscle is
(a) Cross bridges (b) Myofibril (c) Sarcomere (d) Z-band
318. In metazoa one of the following is responsible for locomotion and movement of organs
(a) Nervous tissues (b) Epithelial tissues (c) Connective tissues (d) Muscular tissues
319. Ensheathing of muscles is called
(a) Tendon (b) Ligament (c) Peritoneum (d) Epimycium
320. The outermost sheath of connective tissue that surrounds a skeletal muscle is
(a) Epimer (b) Epimere (c) Epimerite (d) Epimysium
321. Largest smooth muscles occur in
(a) Urethra (b) Uterus of pregnant woman(c)Leg (d) Thigh
322. Cross-bridges occur in
(a) Mid brain of Rabbit (b) Mid brain of Frog (c) Cranial nerves (d) Muscle fibres
Advance Level
323. Rigor mortis is the contraction of muscle but without action potential development
(a) After death (b) Before death (c) In childhood (d) In embryo
324. The triceps and biceps muscles are of
(a) Antagonist type (b) Involuntary type (c) Smooth type (d) Sphincter type
325. Smooth muscles are not
(a) Spindle shaped (b) Under control of autonomic nervous
system
(c) Very simple in structure (d) Multinucleated
326. Cardiac muscle fibres are
(a) Striated involuntary (b) Striated voluntary
(c) Non-striated involuntary (d)Non-striated voluntary
327. Shivering in cold is a method for
(a) Prevention of radiation of heat from the body (b) Production of healthy muscle friction
(c) Production of heat by muscular contractions (d) Increasing blood supply to skin
328. Cardiac muscles are characteristic in that they contract
(a) Slowly and get fatigued (b) Quickly and get fatigued
(c) Slowly and do not get fatigued (d) Rhythmically and do not get fatigued
329. Cardiac muscles are stripped muscles with
(a) Syncytial muscle fibres which are involuntary in function
(b) Nucleated involuntary fibres
(c) Nucleated voluntary fibres (d) Syncytial involuntary fibres
330. Protein which is both structural and enzymatic
(a) Troponin (b) Myosin (c) Trypsin (d) Actin
331. Which of the following muscles are ectodermal in origin
(a) Muscles of the iris (b) Ciliary body (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
332. In the myofibrils of muscle fibre
(a) Myosin is found (b) Actin is found (c) ATP is found (d) All of these
333. The single unit smooth muscles are
 (a) Neurogenic (b) Myogenic (c) Cardiogenic (d) None of these
334. Skeletal muscles show resemblance with visceral muscles in one aspect. It is in
(a) Shape of muscle fibres (b) Number of nuclei in muscle fibres
(c) Presence of actin and myosin filaments (d) Presence of light and dark band
335. Smooth muscle fibres are
(a) Cylindrical, unbranched, striated, multinucleate and voluntary
(b) Spindle-shaped, unbranched, non-striated, uninucleate and involuntary
(c) Cylindrical, unbranched, non-striated, multinucleated and involuntary
(d) Spindle-shaped, unbranched, striated, uninucleated and voluntary
336. The most abundant tissue in the body is
(a) Nervous (b) Muscular (c) Vascular (d) Epithelial

337. Ciliary muscles are which

(a) Move cilia of some protozoans
(b) Keep valves of heart intact
(c) Change the focal length of human eye and at joint of sclera and iris
(d) Cause erection of human hairs in cold and are situated in skin
338. Energy comes for muscle contraction from
(a) Oxidation of glucose (b)Break down of ATP
(c) Enzymatic action of myosin (d)All of these
339. The heart continuous beating normally even when its nervous supply is completely obliterated
because it is
(a) Myogenic (b) Neurogenic (c) Natural process (d) None of these
340. Function of ATP in muscle fibres is
(a) It acts as an enzyme
(b) It keeps the muscle supple and extensible
(c) It is essential for subsequent contraction of rigid muscles by providing energy
(d) Both (b) and (c)
341. In relaxation of muscles
(a) Ca++ concentration increases (b) Ca++ concentration decreases
(c) Actin filaments slide over myosin filaments (d) Actin filaments form cross bridges
342. Chronaxie is
 (a) Abnormal muscle contractions
(b) Minimum time required to bring about excitation of muscle fibres
(c) Maximum time required to bring about excitation of muscle fibres
(d) None of these
343. At 0ºC and below it
(a) There is increase in muscle contraction (b) There is decrease in muscle contraction
(c) There is loss of irritability in a muscle (d) Coagulation of muscle proteins take place
344. Delayed heat is
(a) Heat required for muscle contraction (b) Heat liberated during relaxation
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
345. ‘Oxygen debt’ is amount of oxygen required for
(a) Muscle contraction (b) Muscle relaxation (c) Muscle recovery (d) All of these

346. Involuntary muscles are

(a) Under the control of will (b) Not under the control of will
(c) Controlled by autonomic nervous system (d) Both (b) and (c)
347. Muscle cramp is
(a) Displacement of muscle from its original position (b)Painful contractions of muscles
(c) One muscle overlaps the other (d)All of these
348. Smooth muscle fibre differ from striated muscle fibre in external covering by
(a) Presence of sarcolemma (b) Presence of plasma membrane
(c) Absence of covering (d) None of these
349. Threshold stimulus is
(a) Stimulus of specific strength which can excite muscle or nerve fibre
(b) Capacity of muscle to contract
(c) Stimulus to indicate the contraction
(d) None of these
350. Hypertrophy of muscle is
(a) Muscles become thin and weak due to excessive work
(b) Muscles become thick and strong due to excessive work
(c) Muscles become thin and weak due to no work
(d)Muscles become thick and strong due to no work
351. Krause membrane or Z-line is a myofibril which separates two adjacent
 (a) Sarcomeres (b) H–zones (c) I–bands (d) A–bands
352. In strained muscle contraction
(a) H-band is lengthened (b) H-band is obliterated
(c) A-band decreases in length (d) Z-line moves away from A-band
353. The muscle fatigue occurs due to accumulation of
(a) Lactic acid (b) Creatine triphosphate (c) Glycogen (d) CO2 and water
354. Ciliary muscles are contractile structures which
(a) Cause standing of hairs in human skin in cold (b) Keep the valves of heart in position
(c) Move cilia of some ciliated protozoans (d) Change focus of lens in human eye
355. Which of the following is the contractile protein of a muscle
(a) Tubulin (b) Myosin (c) Tropomyosin (d) All of these
356. Which of the following proteins is found in the thick filaments of skeletal muscle
(a) Myosin (b) Actin (c) Tropomyosin (d) Troponin
357. Muscles of alimentary canal are chiefly
(a) Striated and Neurogenic (b) Unstriated and Neurogenic
(c) Striated and Myogenic (d) Unstriated and Myogenic
358. Actin filament is made up of
(a) Actin, troponin and tropomyosin (b) Actin, troponin
(c) Myosin, troponin (d) Actin, tropomyosin
359. In skeletal muscle Z-line is connected to
(a) Actin (b) Myosin (c) Tropomyosin (d) Henson’s line
360. What is not true of smooth muscle fibres
(a) Spindle shaped (b) Under ANS (c) Syncytial (d) Structurally
simple
361. Multi-unit smooth muscles are found in the wall of
(a) Large blood vessels (b) Intestine (c) Stomach (d) Urinary bladder
362. In the region of joining of two cardiac muscle cells is present
(a) Ligament (b) Basement (c) Intercalated disc (d) Fibres
363. ATPase enzyme needed for muscle contraction is located in
(a) Myosin (b) Actin (c) Actinin (d) Troponin

NERVOUS TISSUE
Basic Level
364. Most of the neurons of our body are
(a) Unipolar (b) Bipolar (c) Pseudounipolar (d) Multipolar
365. Schwann cells and Node of Ranvier are found in
(a) Nervous tissue (b) Osteoblast (c) Chondrioblast (d) Gland cells
366. Least power of regeneration is found in
(a) Muscle cells (b) Nerve cells (c) Liver cells (d) Bone cells
367. Longest cell in human body may be
(a) Nerve cell (b) Leg muscle cell (c) Bone cell (d) Heart muscle cell
368. Nerve fibre is different from the muscle fibre due to the presence of
(a) Myofibrils (b) Lines (c) Sarcolemma (d) Dendrites
369. The neurons arise from the embryonic cell is called
(a) Neuroblast (b) Cytoblast (c) Dendrocyte (d) All of these
370. The value of resting membrane potential is
(a) – 90 mV (b) – 100 mV (c) +100 mV (d) + 90 mV
371. Reversal potential
(a) Is always negative (b) Is always positive (c) Is always neutral (d) Never develops
until death
372. The junction between Schwann cells is known as
(a) Plasmalemma (b) Node of Ranvier (c) Dendrons (d) Synapse
373. Some cells of our body can be over a metre long. These are
(a) Nerve cells (b) Muscle cells (c) Bone cells (d) Gland cells
374. The afferent process of neuron is known as
(a) Axon (b) Dendrite (c) Cyton (d) Neurofibrillae
375. Neurons are classified on the basis of
(a) Number of nucleus present (b)Number of processes arising from the cell body
(c) Number of dendrites present (d)Number of axons present
376. Velocity of impulse is greater in
(a) Thin nerve (b) Thick nerve
(c) Does not depend on thickness (d) Afferent nerve
377. Function of Neuroglial cells is
(a) Acts as packing cells
(b) Provide nutrition to the neurons
(c) Help in memory processes as these store information in the form of an RNA code
 (d) All of the above
378. Dendrites are
(a) Afferent in nature and conduct nerve impulse towards cyton
(b) Efferent in nature and conduct nerve impulse towards cyton
(c) Both the above (d) None of these
379. Axon hillock is
(a) Group of axons (b) A swelling of axon
(c) The part of cyton from where the axon arises (d) Plasma membrane of axon
380. Neurohormones are secreted by
(a) Nerve fibre (b) Neuroglia (c) Ependymal cells (d) Neurosecretory
cells
381. Which of the following structures, are the specialty of nerve cells
(a) Nucleus and cytoplasm (b)Axon and dendrites
(c)Vacuoles and fibres (d)Synapse and ganglia

382. The entire nerve is enclosed by a white thick sheath of a connective tissue, called
(a) Endoneurium (b) Epineurium (c) Neurilemma (d) Perineurium
383. Active transport involves
(a) Against concentration gradient and require ATP
(b)Against concentration gradient and not require ATP
(c) With concentration gradient and not require ATP (d)None of the above
384. The function of nervous tissue is
(a) Irritability (b) Sensibility (c) Responsiveness (d) Contraction
385. A nerve impulse will travel through a nerve fibre only if the membrane suddenly becomes more
permeable to
(a) Chloride ions (b) Potassium ions (c) Sodium ions (d) Calcium ions
386. Two system which exerts opposite influence on the same organs are
(a) Endocrine and exocrine gland systems (b) Muscular and nervous system
(c) Endocrine and nervous system (d) Sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
387. Which type of neurons are found in the retina
(a) Unipolar (b) Pseudo-unipolar (c) Multipolar (d) Bipolar
388. Efferent process of the neuron is called
(a) Synapse (b) Dendrite (c) Buttons terminaux (d) Axon
389. The brain develops from
(a) Ectoderm (b) Mesoderm (c) Endoderm (d) Meso-endoderm
390. Which of the following is regarded as a unit of nervous tissue
(a) Axons (b) Dendrites (c) Neurons (d) Myelin sheath
391. The junction between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of the next is called
(a) A joint (b) A synapse (c) Constant bridge (d) Junction point
392. Saltatory conduction occurs in
(a) Myelinated nerve fibres (b) Non- myelinated nerve
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
393. Which of the following pairs of elements/ions required for nerve conduction
(a) Na+ and K+ (b) Ca++ and Mg++ (c) Mg and K (d) Na and Mg
394. Which one of the following is not essentially a part of nervous system
(a) Cyton (b) Axon (c) Myelinated (d) Intermedin

395. Node of Ranvier is found in

(a) Right auricle (b) Muscle bundles (c) Dendrite (d) Axon
396. Myelin sheath is covering of
(a) Muscle cells (b) Axon of neurons (c) Blood vessels (d) Osteocytes
397. Schwann cell is found around
(a) Axon (b) Cyton (c) Dendrite (d) Dendron
398. Which is correct
(a) A medullated nerve fibre appears grey (b) A nonmedullated nerve fibre appears
white
(c) Neurilemma is composed of Schwann cells (d) Neurilemma is composed of neuroglia
cells
399. Secretion of parasympathetic nerve endings is
(a) Hydroxy triptamine (b) Acetylcholine (c) Glycine (d) Noradrenaline
400. White matter of spinal cord is given this name because it is mainly made up of
(a) Nerve cells (b) Non-myelinated nerve fibres (c) Myelinated nerve
fibre (d) Areolar tissue
401. Afferent nerve fibre carries impulses from
(a) Effector to central nervous system (b) Receptor to central nervous system
(c) Central nervous system to muscles (d) Central nervous system to receptors
402. Communication lines in the body are
(a) Muscles (b) Bones (c) Nerves (d) Blood vessels
Advance Level
403. Synapses store
(a) Stimulating chemicals (b)Inhibitory chemicals
(c)Conducting chemicals (d)All of these
404. Branched ends of nerve cells are called telodendria which establish the functional contact with
other nerve cell. This connection is called
(a) Sinongium (b) Synapse (c) Synapsis (d) Synapta
405. Largest number of cell bodies of neuron in our body are found in
(a) Retina (b) Spinal cord (c) Brain (d) Tongue
406. Axons form nerve in
(a) Autonomic nervous system (b) Central nervous system
(c) Peripheral nervous system (d) All of these
407. The function of repairing in nervous tissue is done by
(a) Glial cells (b) Nerve cells (c) Cytons (d) Only axons
408. To start conduction of impulse, the value of action potential must not be
(a) Less than threshold value (b)More than threshold value
(c) Equal to threshold value (d)All of the above
409. The interval between the beginning of electrical response and peak of tension recorded is the
(a) Latent period (b) Contraction time (c) Relaxation time (d) None of these
410. Myelin sheath is a layer covering
(a) A nerve fibre in an insect (b)A chick embryo
(c) A muscle fibre in a vertebrate (d)A nerve fibre in a vertebrate
411. Neuroglia cells differ from neurons in having
(a) No Nissl’s granules (b) No radiating processes (c)No cyton (d) No nucleus
412. Nissl’s granules are characteristically found in
(a) Nephrons (b) Neurons (c) Cytons (d) Dendrites
413. Nissl’s granules are found in cyton of nerve cells. These have affinity for basic dyes. The
granules are made up of
(a) Mitochondria (b) Cell metabolites (c) Fate granules (d) Ribosomes
414. Which of the following tissues in mammals show the least capacity for regeneration
(a) Epithelial tissue of the skin (b) Endothelium of blood vessels
 (c) Skeletal tissue of long bones (d) Nervous tissue of brain
415. Poisons like cyanide inhibit Na+ efflux and K+ influx during cellular transport. This inhibitory
effect is reversed by an injection of ATP. This demonstrates that
(a) ATP is the carrier protein in the transport system
(b)Na+ – K+ exchange pump operates in the cell
(c) ATP is hydrolysed by ATPase to release energy
(d)Energy for Na+ – K+ exchange pump comes from ATP
416. Cell bodies or cyton is found in
(a) Brain (b) Spinal cord
(c) Brain and ganglia (d) Brain, spinal cord and ganglia
417. Nerve fibres conduct impulses in
(a) One direction (b) Two direction (c) Multidirection (d) None of these
418. To stop the impulse
(a) Acetylcholine or sympathin are quickly supplied by enzymes
(b) Acetylcholine or sympathin are quickly destroyed by enzymes
(c) It is an automatic process (d)None of the above
419. Neurons found in early embryos are
(a) Unipolar neurons (b) Bipolar neurons
(c) Pseudo-unipolar neurons (d) Multipolar neurons
420. The axon contains in its axis cylinder a fibrilar component of 90 Å thick called
(a) Axial fibrils (b) Myofibrils (c) Neurofibrils (d) Myelinfibrils
421. The neurilemma surrounds the
(a) Axis cylinder (b) Cell body (c) Myelin sheath (d) Endoneurium
422. Neurons divide
(a) Amitotically (b) Mitotically (c) Meotically (d) None of these
423. Saltatory conduction of nerve impulse means
(a) Action potential jumping from node to node
(b) Action potential transmitting along membrane
(c) Simple transmission of action potential (d) All of these
424. Which cell type does not divide in mammals after birth
(a) Neurons and osteocytes (b)Muscle cells (c) Germ cells (d) Nerve
425. Which one of the following acts as slow neurotransmitter
 (a) GABA (b) Adrenaline (c) Epinephrine (d) Acetycholine
426. A bipolar neuron has
C D F
(a) Two axons and two dendrons (b)One axon and one dendron
(c) Two axons and one dendron (d) One axon and two dendrons
427. In the diagram of multipolar myelinated neuron given below, different parts have been indicated
by alphabets; choose the answers in which these alphabets have been correctly matched with the
parts which they indicate
E G
B
A

(a) A = Cell body, B = Nissl bodies, C = Nucleus, D = Dendrites, E = Naked portion of axon, F =
Myelin sheath, G = Node of Ranvier
(b) A = Cell body, B = Nissl bodies, C = Naked portion of axon, D = Dendrites, E = Nucleus, F =
Myelin sheath, G = Node of Ranvier
(c) A = Cell body, B = Nissl bodies, C = Naked portion of axon, D = Nucleus, E = Dendrites, F =
Myelin sheath, G = Node of Ranvier
(d) A = Cell body, B = Nissl bodies, C = Dendrites, D = Nucleus, E = Naked portion of axon, F =
Myelin sheath, G = Node of Ranvier
428. The most appropriate definition of neuroglial cells are that they are
(a) Nonsensory supporting cells (b) Secretory cells
(c) Sensory cells (d) Sensory and supporting cells
429. Thick sheath of connective tissue enclosing the entire nerve is
(a) Neurilemma (b) Endoneurium (c) Epineurium (d) Perineurium
430. Which cells do not form any layer but remain structurally separate
(a) Nerve cells (b) Gland cells (c) Muscle cells (d) Epithelial cells
431. Transmitter substance released at the synapse is
(a) Secretin (b) Cholecystokinin (c) Cholesterol (d) Acetylcholine
432. In nerve cells, proteins are synthesised in
(a) Cell body (b) Axon (c) Dendron (d) Synapses
433. Soma of sensory neuron is located in
 (a) Grey matter of spinal cord (b) Receptor organ
(c) Dorsal root ganglion (d) Ventral root ganglion
434. Glial cells forming blood brain barrier are formed of
(a) Ranvier cells (b) Schwann cells
(c) Astrocytes (d) Oligodendroglial cells
435. Direction of nerve impulse is reversed in nerve with
(a) Axo-axonic (b) Axo-dendritic (c) Axo-axondendritic (d) None of these
436. Nonmyelinated nerve fibres occur in
(a) Cranial nerves (b) Autonomic nerves (c) Optic nerves (d) Spinal nerves
437. Neuroglial cells are present in
(a) CNS and spinal cord(b) Kidney (c) Liver (d) All of these
438. The non-excitable, variously shaped and rounded structure between neurons are
(a) Dendrites (b) Nissl bodies (c) Glial cells (d) Schwann cell
439. Axon is a part of neuron, modified for
(a) Transformation of impulse (b) Reception of stimuli
(c) Stimuli of neurons (d) Conduction
440. Acetylcholine is secreted by
(a) Button terminaux of telodendria (b) Parasympathetic nerve endings
(c) Both the above (d) None of these
441. Nissl’s granules are absent in
(a) Soma (b) Cyton (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Schwann cells
 ANSWER

ASSIGNMENT ( BASIC & ADVANCE LEVEL )

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

b d b c c a b a d b a c c b a a c c a c

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

c d a a b d a c c b a a b b a d c c d b

41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

a c b c a b c d b d a b b c d d a b a b
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80

d b c c b b b a d d c c a c d c b a a b
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

d d a a d b b c a b b a c b a c b a b a
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120

b c a a b b d b b a a b d d d b d b b c
121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140

d b b b b a b b c b b b a c c b c d b c
141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160

a a c c b b c b a a a a c a c c a a c c
161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180

a b a b d a a c b c a d c a b b d d d c
181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200

d a a c c c a b a b c b a d a a b a b c

201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220

d d d a d b d d a d a b b b a a d b b d

221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240

c a b a d d a b c b a c b d d c c c b b

241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260
 c c b d a b a d c d b a a b c b d a d b

261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280

b a b c c c a c d a a d b d b a b c d d

281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300

d d d a a a c a b c c b d b a c c c b b

301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320

c b a b b d b b d a a d b a c a c d d d

321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340

b d a a d a c d d b c d b c b b c d a d

341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360

b b c b c d b b a b a b a d b a d a a a

361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380

a c a d a b a d a a b b a b b b a a c d

381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400

b b a a c d d d a c b a a d d b a c b c

401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420

b c d b c d a a a d a c d d d d a b a c

421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440

c d a a a b d a c a d a c c a b a c d c

441