SAARC

SAARC stands for South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, is an

intergovernmental organization for the development of economic and regional integration.
The organization has the support of different countries known as member-state.
The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was established on 8
December 1985 at Dhaka. The Secretariat of the Association was set up in Kathmandu,
Nepal, on 17 January 1987. It was established by seven countries, namely Bangladesh,
Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka as its original members. After the
inclusion of Afghanistan at the 13th summit held at Dhaka in 2006, there are now eight
members. There are currently nine Observers to SAARC, namely: Australia, China, The
European Union, Iran, Japan, The Republic of Korea, Mauritius, Myanmar, The United States
of America.
SAARC respects the principles of sovereign equality, territorial integrity, and national
independence as it strives to attain sustainable economic growth. SAARC Heads of State are
scheduled to meet at annual Summits. The 18th SAARC Summit held in Kathmandu in 2014
concluded with the adoption of the SAARC Declaration. Since then, Nepal has been
organizing informal meetings of SAARC Foreign Ministers every year. The last one was
hosted virtually by Kathmandu in September 2020 in the margins of the UNGA.
Objectives
SAARC Charter Day is observed every year on December 08. On this day in 1985, during the
first summit of the group in Dhaka, the SAARC Charter was adopted.
As enshrined in the charter SAARC aims to promote economic growth, social progress and
cultural development within the South Asia region. The objectives of SAARC, as defined in
its charter, are as follows:
 Promote the welfare of the peoples of South Asia and improve their quality of life
 Accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region
by providing all individuals the opportunity to live in dignity and realise their full
potential
 Promote and strengthen collective self-reliance among the countries of South Asia
 Contribute to mutual trust, understanding and appreciation of one another’s problems
 Promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in the economic, social, cultural,
technical and scientific fields
 Strengthen co-operation with other developing countries
 Strengthen co-operation among themselves in international forms on matters of
common interest; and
 Cooperate with international and regional organisation with similar aims and
purposes.
Decisions at all levels are to be taken on the basis of unanimity; and bilateral and contentious
issues are excluded from the deliberations of the Association.
Principles
The principles of SAARC are as follows:
• Cooperation within the framework of the Association shall be based on respect for the
principles of sovereign equality, territorial integrity, political independence, noninterference
in the internal affairs of other states and mutual benefit.
• Such cooperation shall not be a substitute for bilateral and multilateral cooperation but shall
complement them
• Such cooperation shall not be inconsistent with bilateral and multilateral obligations.
Areas of Cooperation
The Member States agreed on the following areas of cooperation:
Agriculture and rural development, Education and culture, Biotechnology, Economic,
trade and finance, Energy, Environment, Tourism, Science and Technology, Information,
Communication and Media, Poverty alleviation, Security aspects, People-to-People
Contacts, Funding mechanism, Social development
SAARC – Structure
SAARC has the following structure:
1. Council – It is the apex policy-making body. The council is represented by
government heads of the respective member countries.
2. Council of Ministers – The Council of Ministers comprises the foreign ministers and
they meet generally two times annually.
 Council of Ministers – Functions
1. Policy formulation
2. Reviewing the progress of regional cooperation
3. Identifying newer areas of cooperation, and
4. Setting up additional mechanisms as required
 Standing Committee
It comprises the foreign secretariat of the member countries. The major functions of the
standing committee are stated below:
1. To monitor and coordinate the programs
2. To deal with modalities of financing
3. To mobilize cooperation within and outside the region
 Programming Committee
It comprises senior officials of the member governments. The major functions of this
committee are as follows:
1. Finalizing the annual meet schedule
2. Budget scrutinization
3. External activities assigned by the standing committee
 Technical Committee
It consists of representatives of the member nations. The major functions of the committee
are as follows:
1. To formulate projects and monitor the same
2. To submit reports
 Secretariat
It is headed by the Secretary-general appointed by the Council of Ministers.The main
functions of the Secretariat are as follows:
1. Coordination and execution of activities conducted by SAARC
2. Monitoring the SAARC meetings
3. Work as a communication link between SAARC and other international summits and
forums.
SAARC – Specialized Bodies
The specialized bodies are created by the member states and their structure is different from
the regional centers. The management is taken care of by the representatives of the member
states, ministry of foreign affairs of the host government.
The different SAARC specialized bodies are given below:
1. SAARC Arbitration Council (SARCO) – Pakistan
 It is an inter-governmental body having its office in Pakistan is mandated to provide a
legal framework/forum within the region for fair and efficient settlement of
commercial, industrial, trade, banking, investment, and such other disputes, as may be
referred to it by the member states and their people.
2. SAARC Development Fund (SDF) – Bhutan
 Its primary objective is the funding of project-based collaboration in social sectors
such as poverty alleviation, development, etc.
3. South Asian University (SAU) – India
 Degrees and Certificates awarded by the SAU are at par with the respective Degrees
and Certificates awarded by the National Universities/ Institutions.
4. South Asian Regional Standards Organization (SARSO) – Dhaka
  It was established to achieve and enhance coordination and cooperation among
SAARC member states in the fields of standardization and conformity assessment and
is aimed to develop harmonized Standards for the region to facilitate intra-regional
trade and to have access in the global market.
Significance of SAARC
1. SAARC is the world’s most densely populated region and one of the most fertile
areas. It comprises 3% of the world’s area, 21% of the world’s
population and 3.8% (US$2.9 trillion) of the global economy.
2. SAARC countries synergize their actions as they have the common tradition, dress,
food and culture, and political aspects.
3. The SAARC nations have problems and solutions to the problems in common such
as poverty, illiteracy, malnutrition, natural disasters, internal conflicts, industrial and
technological backwardness, low GDP, and poor socio-economic condition. These
nations uplift their living standards by creating common areas of development.
4. SAARC is a game-changer for India’s Act East Policy. It links South Asian economies
with Southeast Asian that will further boost economic integration and prosperity to
India mainly in the Services Sector.
5. Primacy to the country’s immediate neighbors.
6. Nations of SAARC help in the creation of mutual trust and peace within the region
thus promoting stability.
7. SAARC can engage Nepal, Bhutan, the Maldives, and Sri Lanka in economic
cooperation and development process to counter China (OBOR initiative).
8. SAARC offers a platform to India to showcase its leadership in the region by taking
up extra responsibilities.
Achievements of SAARC
1. A Free Trade Area is established by the member countries to increase their internal
trade and lessen the trade gap of some states considerably. SAARC is comparatively a
new organization in the global arena.
2. SAARC Free Trade Agreement – SAFTA was signed to reduce customs duties of all
traded goods to zero by the year 2016. The agreement was confined to goods, but
excluding all services like information technology.
3. South Asia Preferential Trading Agreement – SAPTA for promoting trade amongst the
member countries came into effect in 1995.
4. SAARC Agreement on Trade in Services – SATIS is following the GATS-plus
‘positive list’ approach for trade in services liberalization.
5. SAARC University – Establish a SAARC university in India, a food bank, and also an
energy reserve in Pakistan.
Challenges with SAARC
 1. Relation between India and Pakistan escalated tensions and conflicts
severely hampers the prospects of SAARC.
2. The frequency of SAARC meetings is low. More engagements between member
nations are required instead of biennial meetings SAARC nations should meet
annually.
3. The energy and resources are diverted due to the Broad area of cooperation.
4. The implementation of the SAARC Free Trade Agreement has not been satisfactory.
INDIA’S CONTRIBUTION TO THE SAARC
India, as one of the founding members, supports various initiatives in the SAARC framework
to achieve closer cooperation in diverse areas. Out of the eighteen SAARC Summits held so
far, India has hosted three, viz. the second (Bengaluru, November 1986), the eighth (New
Delhi, May 1995) and the fourteenth (New Delhi, April 2007)
India has enhanced its engagement with all SAARC countries both bilaterally and through the
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). India continues its efforts to
build peaceful cooperative ties with Pakistan to address the outstanding issues through
peaceful bilateral dialogue.
India has signed 13 Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs)/Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) with
countries of SAARC on July 20, 2022.
India has been steadfast in its commitment towards sharing the fruits of technological
advances with like-minded countries in its neighbourhood. In this context, India's initiative of
extending its National Knowledge Network (NKN) to the countries of South Asia has been
extended to Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Bhutan. India launched a South Asian Satellite (SAS)
in May 2017 from Sriharikota.
In January 2019, the Union Cabinet, chaired by the Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi had
given ex-post facto approval for amendment to the ‘Framework on Currency Swap
Arrangement for SAARC Member Countries’ to incorporate a ‘Standby Swap’
India also hosted the Interim Unit of SAARC Disaster Management Center (IU) at the
Gujarat Institute of Disaster Management (GIDM), Gandhinagar.
India is home to South Asian University (SAU). It was established through an Inter-
Governmental Agreement at the 14th SAARC Summit (April 2008) to provide world class
educational facilities & professional faculty to students and researchers from SAARC
countries.
 COVID-19
At the initiative of the Prime Minister, a Video Conference of SAARC Leaders on combating
COVID-19 was held on March 15, 2020. India created a COVID-19 Emergency Fund with an
initial offer of USD 10 million to meet the costs of immediate actions. India’s humanitarian
relief in the region included supply of essential drugs, antibiotics, medical consumables,
COVID protection and testing kits, and other laboratory and hospital equipment.
SAARC Disaster Management Centre (Interim Unit) in Gandhinagar, with the assistance of
Ministry of External Affairs (MEA), Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (MoHFW) and
other Missions, had set up a dedicated website on Covid-19 ( http://www.covid19- sdmc.org/)
for use by SAARC countries
India developed a ‘SAARC COVID19 Information Exchange Platform (COINEX)’ platform
for use by all SAARC countries to facilitate exchange of specialized information and tools on
COVID-19 among designated health professionals.
Way Forward with SAARC
1. In a region increasingly targeted by Chinese investment and loans, SAARC could be a
common platform to demand more sustainable alternatives for development, or to
oppose trade tariffs together, or to demand better terms for South Asian labour around
the world.
2. SAARC, as an organisation, reflects the South Asian identity of the countries,
historically and contemporarily. This is a naturally made geographical identity.
Equally, there is a cultural, linguistic, religious and culinary affinity that defines South
Asia.
3. The member countries should explore the potential of SAARC in maintaining peace
and stability in the region.
4. SAARC should be allowed to progress naturally and the people of South Asia, who
make up a quarter of the world’s population should be offered more people-to-people
contact.
5. The future prospects of SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation)
hinge on addressing existing challenges and harnessing untapped potential.
Collaborative efforts in economic integration, environmental sustainability, and
counter-terrorism measures hold promise. By overcoming political differences and
fostering deeper cooperation, SAARC can play a pivotal role in shaping a more
integrated, stable, and prosperous South Asia.

BIMSTEC
The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation
(BIMSTEC) is a regional organization that was established on 06 June 1997 with the signing
of the Bangkok Declaration. Initially known as BIST-EC (Bangladesh-India-Sri Lanka-
Thailand Economic Cooperation), the organisation is now known as BIMSTEC and
comprises seven Member States with the admission of Myanmar on 22 December 1997, and
Bhutan and Nepal in February 2004.
PRINCIPLES OF BIMSTEC
 Sovereign Equality
 Territorial Integrity
 Political Independence
  No-interference in Internal Affairs
 Peaceful Co- existence
 Mutual Benefit
 Constitute an addition to and not be a substitute for bilateral, regional or multilateral
cooperation involving the Member States.
MAIN OBJECTIVES OF BIMSTEC
 Creating an enabling environment for the rapid economic development of the sub-
region.
 Encouraging the spirit of equality and partnership.
 Promoting active collaboration and mutual assistance in the areas of common interests
of the member countries
 Accelerating support for each other in the fields of education, science, and
technology, etc.
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF BIMSTEC
 BIMSTEC Summit:
Summit is the highest policy making and decision making body in the BIMSTEC process
which is comprised of head of state/government of member states. As per the decision of the
6th BIMSTEC Ministerial Meeting held in Thailand in 2004, the Summit should be held in
every two years, as far as possible. Till date only three Summit meetings have been held in
2004, 2008 and 2014
 Ministerial Meetings (MM):
Ministerial Meeting is the second apex forum of BIMSTEC next to the Summit Meeting, and
the second highest policy-making body attended by the External/Foreign Ministers of
Member States. The Ministerial Meeting is preceded by the Senior Official’s Meeting and is
represented by the Senior Official’s (Foreign Secretaries) of the Member States.
Ministerial Meeting is divided into the area of Foreign Affairs (MM) and the area of Trade
and Economic Affairs (TEMM). While the Foreign Ministerial Meeting acts as prime mover
determining the overall policy as well as recommendations for the Leaders' Summit, Trade
and Economic Ministerial Meeting monitors the progress in the Trade and Investment Sector
as well as FTA policy
 Secretariat /Secretary General
BIMSTEC secretariat was established in August 2014 in Dhaka Bangladesh. Mr. Sumith
Nakandala of Sri Lanka is the first Secretary General of BIMSTEC (Aug 2014- Aug 2017).
 Senior Officials’ Meeting – represented by Senior Officials of Foreign Ministries of
the Member States.
  BIMSTEC Working Group – attended by Ambassadors of BIMSTEC Member
Countries to Bangladesh or their representatives on a monthly basis at the BIMSTEC
Secretariat in Dhaka.
 Business Forum & Economic Forum – the two important forums to ensure active
participation of private sector.

PRIORITY AREAS OF COOPERATION

 Cooperation within the BIMSTEC had initially focused on six sectors in
1997 (trade, technology, energy, transport, tourism, and fisheries) and
expanded in 2008 to other areas.
 In 2021, a reorganization led to each of the Member States leading certain
sectors.
 India focuses on security, along with counterterrorism and
transnational crime, disaster management and energy.
ACHIEVEMENTS AND CHALLENGES
ACHIEVEMENTS
 Much has been achieved in Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief and security
including counterterrorism, cyber security and coastal security cooperation.
 The academic and strategic community has shown ample enthusiasm through the
BIMSTEC Network of Policy Think Tanks and other fora.
 India’s initiatives have resulted in some important developments, including the setting
up of the BIMSTEC Energy Centre in Bengaluru and the BIMSTEC Business
Council, a forum for business organisations to promote regional trade.
 Various committees have been formed to oversee developments in various sectors,
e.g. the BIMSTEC Transport Connectivity Working Group, which held its inception
meeting in Bangkok in 2016.
 Some key agreements signed by BIMSTEC members include aconvention for
combating terrorism, transnational organised crime and illicit drug trafficking.
However, this awaits ratification.
 Another is the BIMSTEC Grid Interconnection, signed during the BIMSTEC Summit
in Kathmandu, Nepal, in 2018, which aimsto promote an optimal power transmission
in the BIMSTEC region.
 Later in 2016, India held a joint BRICS-BIMSTEC Summit in Goa for the latter’s
regional outreach. After this, the support for BIMSTEC gained further momentum.
CHALLENGES FACED BY BIMSTEC
 BIMSTEC didn’t have an official head office and meetingswere held at the Thai
foreign ministry in Bangkok until it was given headquarters in Dhaka in 2011.
  A landmark achievement for BIMSTEC was the establishment of a permanent
secretariat in Dhaka. However, the secretariat faces a severe resource crunch, both in
terms of money and manpower, which has adversely affected its performance.
 the lack of leadership as the major drawback. In the past few years, this concern has
been addressed as India has shown increased interest in the grouping.
 BIMSTEC presupposes cordial and tension-free bilateral relations, but this has not
been the case, given the trajectory of India-Nepal, India-Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh-
Myanmar ties in recent years.
 There are perceptible differences as Nepal and Sri Lanka want SAARC Summit
revived, even as they cooperate within BIMSTEC, though on a low key.
 China’s decisive intrusion in the South-Southeast Asian space is casting dark
shadows. Some argued that BIMSTEC would make progress, if China is accepted as
its principal interlocutor and partner, but there are few takers for this in India.
 Military coup in Myanmar, brutal crackdown on the protestors is major challenges. If
at all BIMSTEC Summit is held, then the Commander-in-Chief of Myanmar, may
create lot of unease in the Summit.
 BIMSTEC has been slow on the come-up because unlike bodies like the EU or
ASEAN, it is based on consensus-building which takes time.
 Other countries in the Bay of Bengal like Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia have not
been involved even as dialogue partners have also been a point of contention.
 In 2018, India aggressively pushed for the conclusion of a long-pending FTA among
BIMSTEC nations but differences between India and Thailand over market access for
professionals, duty cuts on traded goods and policy relaxation stalled the process.
FUTURE PROSPECTS
Potential of BIMSTEC
 Bridge between South and South East Asia and represents a reinforcement of
relations among these countries.
o The Bay of Bengal region has the potential to become the epicentre of the
Indo-Pacific idea, a place where the strategic interests of the major powers of
East and South Asia intersect.
 Platform for intra-regional cooperation between SAARC and ASEAN members.
 Home to around 1.5 billion people that constitute around 22% of the global
population and a combined Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of USD 3.8 trillion,
BIMSTEC has emerged as an influential engine of economic growth.
 A fourth of the world’s traded goods cross the bay every year.
 Important Connectivity Projects:
o Kaladan Multimodal Project – links India and Myanmar.
 o Asian Trilateral Highway - connecting India and Thailand through Myanmar.
o Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal (BBIN) Motor Vehicles Agreement - for
seamless flow of passenger and cargo traffic.
INDIA’S ROLE IN BIMSTEC
With this new framework, India can engage with its neighbours:
 Neighbourhood First – priority to the immediate neighbour of India.
 Act East – connecting India with Southeast Asian countries.
 Linking India’s northeastern states with the Bay of Bengal region via Bangladesh and
Myanmar will contribute to the development of these states.
India actively pursues new paths of geo-economic cooperation with countries in the region
through BIMSTEC. India’s involvement in making the Bay of Bengal community more
integrated is also a reaction to China’s growing influence in the region. It could be a
potentially game-changing initiative in the quest for the prosperity of the landlocked
northeastern states if India’s role in BIMSTEC is given a boost.
Challenges for India as a member of BIMSTEC
As a strategic challenge, India is confronted with two key issues: the first is realising that
regional integration in South Asia would only be successful without Pakistan’s involvement.
It is, therefore, difficult for India to make BIMSTEC appear more relevant despite its overlap
with SAARC in terms of its mandate and membership.
The second factor is China’s influence over BIMSTEC members from a strategic and
economic standpoint, so that BIMSTEC can become a pawn in the Indo-China rivalry.
Therefore, the Indian government will need to carefully navigate through this new
geopolitical environment in South Asia and work together towards common goals, with India
playing its appropriate role.
As of 2017-18, India contributed Rs. 2 crore (32% of the total budget) to the BIMSTEC
secretariat’s budget. With the secretariat planning to enhance its capabilities, India may need
to consider allocating additional resources. An important test of India’s commitment to the
sub-region would be its generosity.
BIMSTEC is also plagued by the fact that it is dominated by India. Despite this, because of
the changes in geo-economics, most of the smaller neighbours are more open to interacting
with India as it grows economically. Those countries need to see India as a constructive
partner.
BIMSTEC for India
The BIMSTEC initiative for India stands at the crossroads of the ‘Neighbourhood First’ and
‘Act East Policy’. Among its key advantages to India are the potential economic rewards of
greater regional connectivity. The second is Asia’s fast-changing geostrategic situation.
Indian policymakers should take advantage of the Bay of Bengal to contain a more assertive
and capable China.
Only BIMSTEC unites India’s strategic peripheries under one umbrella, unlike SAARC,
which focuses on sub continental countries. BIMSTEC is a more natural means of Indian
regional integration than SAARC, which is dominated and hindered by tensions between
India and Pakistan. BIMSTEC also allows India to put forward a positive agenda to combat
Chinese investments.
As a result of projects pending with BIMSTEC, the region, especially India, is likely to
undergo a revolution.
One such project is the multimodal Kaladan project, which connects India and Myanmar. By
river and road, Kolkata would be linked to Myanmar’s Sittwe port and then to Mizoram. A
framework agreement was signed between India and Myanmar in 2008, which has yet to be
implemented.
In addition, Myanmar is part of the Trilateral Highway, which connects India and Thailand.
By connecting Moreh in Manipur with Mae Sot in Thailand via Myanmar, the highway will
establish connectivity between India and Southeast Asia. Construction has already begun.
Way Forward
 BIMSTEC member countries should focus on deepening cooperation in various
sectors such as trade, technology, energy, transport, tourism, fisheries, security,
counterterrorism, disaster management, and energy.
 The organization should work towards implementing existing agreements and
exploring new avenues for collaboration.
 BIMSTEC should work towards enhancing trade facilitation, reducing
barriers, and promoting economic integration among member countries.
 The organization should explore opportunities for a free trade agreement (FTA) to
boost regional trade and investment.

GLOBALISATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Globalization refers to the process by which economies, societies, and cultures from different
countries become integrated with one another. South Asia as a region is peculiar. Its trade,
capital flows, and economic management differ from other regions in how the region has
globalized, although it must be mentioned that there is a lot of diversity within the region.
South Asian countries have much larger service sectors. They seem to have benefitted more
from modern service exports and traditional service exports such as remittances.
The economies of the countries that make up South Asia, which include India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, have been significantly impacted by the spread of
globalization in recent decades. The effects of globalization on the economies of South Asian
countries have been mixed, with some positive and some negative results.
1. Economic Growth: Globalization has contributed to economic growth in South Asia
by opening up markets and promoting international trade. Countries like India,
Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka have experienced increased foreign direct investment,
expanded export opportunities, and overall economic development.
 India's information technology (IT) and software services industry has experienced
significant growth due to globalization. The country has become a major outsourcing
destination for global companies, leading to the creation of jobs and economic
development.
2. Trade and Investment: South Asian countries have become active participants in the
global economy, engaging in trade agreements and attracting foreign investment. This
has led to the diversification of economies and increased integration into global
supply chains.
Bangladesh's ready-made garment industry has expanded through increased global
trade. The country has become one of the world's largest exporters of textiles and
garments, attracting foreign investment and contributing to its economic growth.
3. Technology and Innovation: Globalization has facilitated the transfer of technology
and knowledge, particularly in the field of information technology. South Asia has
witnessed advancements in telecommunications, software development, and other
high-tech industries, contributing to innovation and entrepreneurship.
The growth of India's pharmaceutical industry is a result of globalization. Indian
companies have adopted and adapted technologies, producing generic drugs for the
global market and contributing to advancements in healthcare.
4. Employment Opportunities: The globalization of industries has created new job
opportunities, especially in sectors such as information technology, business process
outsourcing, and manufacturing. This has positively impacted the employment
landscape in South Asia.
The business process outsourcing (BPO) industry in countries like India has
flourished, providing employment opportunities for a large number of skilled
professionals in customer service, technical support, and other fields.
5. Poverty Reduction: Economic growth resulting from globalization has contributed to
poverty reduction in some South Asian countries. The creation of jobs and improved
infrastructure has lifted many people out of poverty.
Microfinance initiatives in countries like Bangladesh, such as the Grameen Bank
founded by Muhammad Yunus, have used global financial networks to provide small
loans to empower entrepreneurs, especially women, and alleviate poverty at the
grassroots level.
6. Urbanization: Globalization has been associated with increased urbanization in
South Asia. Growing economic activities and job opportunities in urban centers have
led to migration from rural to urban areas, transforming the demographic and social
landscape.
The rapid urbanization of cities like Bangalore in India can be attributed in part to
globalization. The city has become a hub for IT and technology companies, attracting
a skilled workforce and leading to urban development.
 7. Cultural Exchange: Globalization has facilitated cultural exchange by allowing the
flow of ideas, art, and information across borders. South Asian societies have been
exposed to diverse cultures, influencing lifestyles, fashion, and entertainment.
the influence of Bollywood films from India on global cinema and the popularity of
Indian cuisine worldwide are examples of cultural exchange facilitated by
globalization. This has not only contributed to the soft power of South Asian countries
but has also created economic opportunities in the cultural industries.
8. Education and Skill Development: Access to global markets has emphasized the
importance of education and skill development. South Asian countries have focused
on enhancing their educational systems to meet the demands of a globalized economy.
The emphasis on education and skill development in South Asia, particularly in fields
like engineering and technology, is a response to the demands of the global job
market. Many South Asian professionals contribute to global industries after receiving
education and training in the region.
However, it's important to note that globalization has also brought about challenges and
concerns in South Asia:
1. Inequality: The benefits of globalization have not been evenly distributed, leading to
increased income inequality within and among South Asian countries.
Despite economic growth, income inequality persists in South Asia. In countries like
India, there is a significant gap between the wealthy elite and the impoverished
population.
2. Environmental Impact: Rapid industrialization and increased economic activities
have raised concerns about environmental degradation, pollution, and resource
depletion.
The environmental challenges faced by South Asian countries, such as air and water
pollution, are often linked to rapid industrialization and globalization. For instance,
the textile industry's effluent discharge in rivers poses environmental threats in
countries like Bangladesh.
3. Labor Exploitation: Some industries in the region have faced criticism for labor
exploitation, with concerns about low wages, poor working conditions, and violations
of labor rights.
Reports of poor working conditions and low wages in some South Asian industries,
like the garment sector, highlight the issue of labor exploitation. This has led to
debates about workers' rights and the need for better labor practices.
4. Cultural Homogenization: There are worries that globalization may lead to the
erosion of local cultures and traditions, as the influence of global media and consumer
culture becomes more prominent.
The dominance of global media, especially Western content, has raised concerns
about the potential erosion of traditional cultures in South Asia. The influence of
global fashion trends and lifestyles may contribute to cultural homogenization.
In summary, the impact of globalization on South Asia is a nuanced combination of positive
developments and challenges. While it has spurred economic growth, technological
advancements, and cultural exchange, addressing issues such as inequality, environmental
sustainability, and labor rights is crucial for a more balanced and sustainable development.

ENVIRONMENT
South Asian is a geographical as well as ethno-cultural entity consists of the countries
of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
The mighty Himalayas in the North and the vast Indian Ocean in the South. The Arabian
Sea to its West and the Bay of Bengal in East provide a natural insularity to the
region covering climatic zones as diverse as its physical landscape.
Abnormal monsoon patterns induced by climate change has impacted South Asia in recent
years including events like glacial lake outburst, forest fires, mountain and coastal soil
erosion and most recently flooding (Pakistan) presenting opportunities for cooperation
among South Asian nations.
Cooperation and conflict in South Asia regarding the environment are influenced by shared
resources, transboundary issues, and the varying economic and developmental priorities of
the countries in the region. Here are some key aspects of cooperation and conflict in South
Asia concerning the environment:
Cooperation:
1. Transboundary Rivers:
 The Indus Water Treaty between India and Pakistan is a significant
cooperative effort. While the relationship between the two countries is often
tense, the treaty has stood the test of time, facilitating the sharing of water
resources from the Indus River system.
2. Biodiversity Conservation:
 The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) countries
collaborate on biodiversity conservation through initiatives like the Regional
Biodiversity Program. This involves sharing information, best practices, and
coordinating efforts to protect the diverse ecosystems in the region.
3. Climate Change Mitigation:
 South Asian countries have participated in international climate change
agreements such as the Paris Agreement. Joint efforts to address climate
change include adopting renewable energy sources and developing regional
strategies to adapt to changing climatic conditions.
4. Natural Disaster Response:
 After natural disasters like earthquakes or cyclones, South Asian countries
often come together to provide humanitarian assistance and disaster relief.
Regional cooperation is essential to managing the impact of such events.
Conflict:
1. Water Scarcity and River Disputes:
 Disputes over the sharing of river waters, such as the Brahmaputra River
between India and Bangladesh, can lead to tensions. Differing priorities and
water usage patterns can result in conflicts over water resources.
2. Transboundary Pollution:
 Industrial pollution and untreated sewage flowing across borders can lead to
disputes. For instance, the pollution of the Ganges River, which flows through
multiple South Asian countries, has been a source of contention.
3. Deforestation and Land Use:
 Conflicts may arise due to differing approaches to land use and deforestation.
The sharing of forested areas, wildlife habitats, and concerns about
biodiversity loss can lead to disagreements.
4. Cross-Border Environmental Impact:
 Large-scale infrastructure projects, such as dams and highways, can have
cross-border environmental impacts. Differences in environmental regulations
and standards may lead to conflicts over the ecological consequences of such
projects.
5. Climate-induced Migration:
 Climate change-induced displacement of populations can strain relationships
between countries. Disagreements may arise over responsibility, resettlement,
and compensation for climate-induced migration.
6. Resource Extraction:
 Disputes over the extraction of natural resources, such as minerals and fossil
fuels, can lead to conflicts. Competing economic interests and environmental
concerns may contribute to disagreements.
 Mountain ranges, river basins, and climate change do not respect international
borders. However, defying geography, nation-states use territorial sovereignty
to claim natural resources within their borders. This leads to the potential for
interstate conflict over natural resources as global warming, climate
catastrophes, and glacier melt simultaneously make these regions and South
Asia vulnerable to floods and droughts in the short and medium run, and dry
rivers in the long run.
WAY FORWARD
 Optimum Utilisation of Resources: Himalayan countries of Afghanistan, Bhutan,
India, Nepal, and Pakistan have large, unutilised hydropower resources.
 o Collaboration on technologies and finances, and the development of
a common South Asian power market can lead to increased energy
security while reducing power costs and greenhouse gas emission.
 India’s lead on solar power can help other countries develop this
renewable resource as a cheap and principal energy source.
 Leading from the Front Opportunity for India: India has the opportunity to act as
the Voice of South Asia in global forums as well as provide timely humanitarian
assistance to its neighbours as part of its Neighbourhood First policy.
o In addition, India has a rich experience in developing economically productive
and sustainable cities to share with other south Asian nations, including
programmes like the Smart Cities Mission and the Atal Mission for Urban
Transformation.
 Learning from One Another: Along with collective focus on innovation,
technology transfer, knowledge exchange, and capacity building. There are existing
initiatives that have lessons for all countries of South Asia to tackle climate change
and grow as a unit.
o It includes:
 Adaptation strategies of Bangladesh (including its Delta Plan 2100)
 Sustainable Management of forests by Bhutan
 Fisheries management by Bangladesh and India
 Micro-hydropower in Nepal
 Ecotourism in Maldives and Sri Lanka
 Climate-smart agriculture in Bangladesh, India and Pakistan.
o Data sharing mechanisms on river flows, flood alert systems, even a
common renewable energy-dominated electricity grid, could substantially
reduce the climate vulnerability in South Asia.
 Creation of South Asia Association for Regional Cooperation Climate Fund: A
South Asia Association for Regional Cooperation Climate Fund can be established by
South Asian countries to help with adaptation and mitigation measures especially
in disaster-prone areas.
 The World Bank Group’s South Asia Climate Roadmap: The South Asia Climate
Roadmap will support the development of key cutting-edge analytical tools for
climate-resilient planning and development strategies in South Asia with key areas:
o The Agriculture, Food, Water, and Land Systems Transition
o The Energy and Transport Transition
o The Urban Transition
 FUTURE PROSPECTS
South Asia is the southern region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-
cultural terms. The region consists of the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
India's vision of regional economic integration in South Asia is based on enhanced intra-
regional trade, investment flows and regional transport and communication links in South
Asia. South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and India’s
Neighbourhood First Policy are the two vehicles in this process.
Culturally, there are many similarities, but there are a number of cross-sub regional
challenges like political and economic instability (Sri Lankan Crisis and Afghanistan
Crisis) , high inflation, depleting foreign exchange reserves (Pak’s forex reserves have
fallen to USD 4.3bn -its lowest since 2014) and domestic unrest that continue to simmer in
the South Asian region, which hosts around a quarter of the world's population.
The future prospects for cooperation and conflict in South Asia will be shaped by a
combination of regional dynamics, geopolitical factors, economic considerations, and shared
challenges. While there are opportunities for increased cooperation, several longstanding
issues could continue to pose challenges. Here are some future prospects for cooperation and
conflict in South Asia:
Cooperation:
1. Trade and Economic Integration:
 Prospect: Enhanced economic cooperation and trade integration could
contribute to regional stability. Initiatives like the South Asian Free Trade Area
(SAFTA) and efforts to address non-tariff barriers could promote economic
collaboration among South Asian countries.
2. Energy Cooperation:
 Prospect: Collaborative efforts to address energy security and promote
renewable energy sources could foster cooperation. Cross-border energy
projects, such as the development of hydroelectric power, may provide mutual
benefits.
3. Connectivity and Infrastructure:
 Prospect: Investments in regional infrastructure projects, such as transport
networks and cross-border connectivity, could improve trade, people-to-people
contacts, and overall regional integration.
4. Climate Change and Environmental Collaboration:
 Prospect: As climate change impacts become more pronounced, South Asian
countries may find common ground in collaborative efforts to address
environmental challenges, including water scarcity, natural disasters, and
sustainable resource management.
5. Counterterrorism and Security Cooperation:
  Prospect: The shared concern about terrorism could lead to increased
cooperation in intelligence sharing, joint counterterrorism operations, and
efforts to address the root causes of extremism.
6. Health and Pandemic Response:
 Prospect: The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the need for regional
cooperation in health emergencies. Future prospects include collaborative
efforts in vaccine distribution, healthcare infrastructure development, and
pandemic preparedness.
Conflict:
1. Water Disputes:
 Challenge: Ongoing and potential water disputes, such as those involving the
sharing of rivers like the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra, could lead to
conflicts over water resources.
2. Border Disputes:
 Challenge: Persistent border disputes, such as the India-Pakistan Kashmir
issue and territorial disagreements between India and China, may continue to
be sources of tension and conflict.
3. Political Differences:
 Challenge: Political differences and historical grievances may hinder
cooperation. Bilateral and regional political tensions could escalate, impacting
diplomatic relations and regional stability.
4. Cross-Border Terrorism:
 Challenge: The threat of cross-border terrorism, especially involving non-state
actors, could strain relations and lead to conflicts if not effectively addressed
through cooperative measures.
5. Internal Conflicts and Ethnic Tensions:
 Challenge: Internal conflicts and ethnic tensions within some South Asian
countries may have spillover effects, affecting neighboring countries and
contributing to regional instability.
6. Geopolitical Influences:
 Challenge: Geopolitical competition and the involvement of external actors in
the region may contribute to tensions and conflicts, particularly in strategic
areas.
 Smaller neighboring countries are quite predictable in seeking to balance
India's influence through closer relations with external powers, in the past this
was the US at the moment it is China.
  Recent Chinese actions and policies in South Asia as well as its maritime
neighbours, including Indian Ocean island nations, have made it necessary
for India to take its neighbours very seriously.
INDIA CAN LEAD SOUTH ASIA DEVELOPMENT?
 Boosting Regional Trade: India can leverage regional trade, connectivity and
investment, and strengthen the South Asian Free Trade Agreement as a game-
changer for the region.
o Galvanizing economic energies, which would lower barriers to intra-regional
food trade and encourage regional supply chains.
 Providing Ecological Blueprint: South Asian countries can benefit from India's eco-
blueprint by focusing on the protection of biodiversity and responding to the climate
crisis. The linkage between effective governance and sustainable development also
needs to be acknowledged in South Asian countries.
 Highlight the Need of Food Security: Regional food security is another area that
India could take a major initiative in with an eye to the future and can be an integral
facilitator and component to this economic bloc for food security.
o Increasing the capacity of the SAARC Food Bank that currently stands at less
than 500,000 MT.
 Promoting Sub-Regional Initiatives: India can increase the convening capacity of
sub-regional initiatives such as the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral
Technical and Economic Cooperation.
o The border regions can be effective partners in shaping India’s regional
engagement by steering sectoral regional dialogues on cross-border trade,
transport and health.
o By extending necessary assistance, India can strengthen its position in the
region and achieve both economic and strategic depth vis-à-vis China.
 Voice of South Asia in International Forums: To promote the interests of South
Asian nations as a group, India can be the voice of South Asia in international forums.
A secure regional environment will also help India reach its ambitious development
goals.
WAY FORWARD
 Strengthening Existing Associations: Existing associations like South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) haven’t been able to significantly
advance regional cooperation here.
o Delinking domestic sentiments from the economic rationale, engaging in
diplomacy to allay concerns should be the way forward for South Asian
countries which do have qualms about the integration.
 Towards Self-Reliant South Asia: Self-reliance of South Asia range from offers of
freer transit trade through the region, the development of supply and logistic chains,
 digital data interchange, single-window and digitized clearance systems, risk
assessment and minimisation measures, wider use of trade lines of credit (presently
abysmally low), denser connectivity, smoother cross-border inspections.
 People-to-people Connect: Priority should be given to people-to-people connections
and deep cultural affinities for sustained cordiality and stability. Further, focus should
be given to prompt delivery of multilateral commitments for the overall development
of the region.
 Countering Terrorism: Countries in the region needs to improve their cooperation
on intelligence sharing and law enforcement, in order to more effectively target
terrorist networks and disrupt their operations.
o Additionally, addressing poverty and inequality, and promoting economic
development and opportunities for marginalized groups, can help to reduce the
appeal of extremist ideologies.

RUSSIA IN SOUTH Asia

The end of the cold war and the disintegration of the USSR destroyed the whole fabric of
post-war security arrangements on the periphery of the USSR in Europe as well as in Asia.
in the initial period Russia failed to identify its national interests in the vast Central and South
Asian regions.
COLD WAR TIME
According to Bhutto, Russian intelligence agencies have always been concerned about South
Asian security as the most potent influencer, and implementer in the region is its military and
industrial power because South Asia is Russia's most significant arms market. India being an
arms market for Russia is the central contribution to the bilateral economic relation of India
and Russia. However, with the world's ever-changing scenario, the nature of this cooperation
is unclear because the Indo-US nuclear deal has threatened Russia's interests in South Asia by
threatening Russia's dominance in the Indian arms market.
Russia has deep strategic interests regarding its engagement in Afghanistan; even after the
defeat in the Soviet-Afghan war, it did not completely leave the region. The main reason for
Soviet intervention in Afghanistan was its national interest, that is; its interest in the Indian
ocean and oil-rich Middle East and Central Asian states and its objective of halting the loss of
the Soviets itself, the primary aim of which was to cease the depose of an existing
Communist government in the neighboring country of Soviet Union by insurgency as it can
give rise to vexation in the Central Asian residents of the Soviet Union itself.
Today South Asia is perhaps one of the most challenging regions for Russia from the point of
view not only of security in its traditional meaning but also of Russia’s prospects of emerging
as an economic power able to act as a bridge between the developed ‘North’ and the
developing ‘South’ in such a way as to assure its vital economic security interests in the
emerging world order.
Russian Foreign Policy towards the South Asian States
From the very history, three factors have shaped Russia's foreign policy towards South Asia:
firstly, its quest for warm water; secondly, its competition with rising China; and finally, its
thirst to counter the United States influence in the area. As Russia has a land-locked location,
so it has an excellent quest for warm water ports from the very beginning. In fact, its
centuries-old quest for warm water is the most crucial reason for its invasion of Afghanistan
during the Cold War. Keeping in view the Russian quest for warm water, it cannot be
assumed that Russia's quest for warm water is diminished after its withdrawal from
Afghanistan Regarding these long-term objectives in the region, Russia has always followed
pro-India policy in both phases, i.e., in Cold War and post-Cold War .However, in the current
scenario, changes in the international political environment have fetched Pakistan and Russia
closer. The United States withdrawal of Afghanistan in 2014 has further improved their
relation in the post-withdrawal scenario.
Keeping its strategic interests in the region, Russia's significant attention is devoted to South
Asian countries, particularly Afghanistan, India, and Pakistan.
China FACTOR
The most important alliance to be reinforced and prolonged is Russia’s alliance with China.
China’s position has grown stronger economically as well as strategically in Asia while it also
sees Russia as a potential partner against U.S. hegemony. The timing is right for a nexus of
sorts of which Russia can be an integral part. The Russian economy may be weak but its
political acumen is what China can benefit the most from.
The triangular relationship involving Russia, China, and India adds another layer of
complexity. As Russia deepens its strategic partnership with China, it navigates the delicate
balance of maintaining its historical ties with India.
Diplomatic Initiatives:
 Multilateral Engagement: Russia participates in multilateral forums involving South
Asian countries. For example, it is a member of the Shanghai Cooperation
Organization (SCO), where it collaborates with India and Pakistan, among other
regional players. The SCO facilitates discussions on security, economic cooperation,
and regional stability.
 By participating in multilateral forums, Russia underscores its commitment to
regional collaboration while leveraging its influence in shaping the geopolitical
discourse.
Conclusion:
Russia's role in South Asia is dynamic, reflecting historical ties, strategic partnerships, and
evolving geopolitical considerations. While historical alliances with India remain central,
Russia's engagement with Pakistan and involvement in regional diplomatic initiatives
demonstrate a nuanced approach to navigating the complexities of South Asian geopolitics.
Looking ahead, Russia's role in the region will be shaped by its ability to balance diverse
relationships, address regional challenges, and capitalize on economic opportunities. The
trajectory of its engagement will depend on its capacity to navigate historical tensions,
contribute to regional stability, and adapt to the evolving geopolitical landscape. In an era of
global shifts and regional transformations, Russia's role in South Asia will continue to unfold,
influenced by a complex interplay of historical legacies and contemporary geopolitical
imperatives.