AGR 302: WEED SCIENCE I

COURSE OUTLINE
WEEK Content
1-5 1.0. Overview
2.0 Weed Defined
3.0 Characteristics of weeds: individual weed characteristics and collective
characteristics of weed groups
4.0 Classification of weeds: life cycle, habitat, growth habit, degree of
undesirability, morphology and scientific classification
5.0 Economic importance of weeds: losses caused by weeds in agriculture and
beneficial effects of weeds
6 6.0 Reproduction in weeds: weed seed reproduction, seed dispersal, seed
germination and vegetative reproduction
7 Mid-trimester examination
8 7.0 Principles of weed ecology: persistence and survival mechanism of weeds;
crop mimicry; and factors affecting crop persistence
9 8.0. Weed-crop interaction: interference – competition and allelopathy. Factors
that affect competition and allelopathy
10 - 12 9.0. Principles and methods of weed control: cultural, chemical, biological and
preventive weed management. Brief review of herbicides.

NB. For further reading consult: Akobundu, I. O. (1987). Weed Science in the Tropics:
Principles and practices. pp 522. John Wiley and Sons Ltd. Great Britain.

1.0 Overview:
Weed science I involves the study of the biology and ecology of weeds, their impacts on food
production and the available management strategies. A good understanding of weed biology and
ecology is required to develop sound control or management strategies to reduce the adverse
effects of weeds on the environment, humans and domesticated animals.

Problems with Pests: Look at a field of corn, and it appears to be just corn. But the corn shares
the field with other living things—plants, animals, and microbes. Crops are part of an ecosystem
of living and non-living things.

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Some of a crop’s field mates can be beneficial, while others can be downright dangerous and
even wipe out an entire crop. They are pests—weeds, damaging insects, and disease-causing
microbes.

Weeds: There’s no such thing as a weed in nature! However, we think of weeds as plants
growing where we don’t want them. As an example, a rose bush in a garden isn’t a weed but if it
was growing in the middle of a cornfield, it would be a weed! And, by their nature, weeds are
survivors.

Weeds can outcompete crops because they have one or more of these qualities:

 Produce lots of seeds, which often can survive buried in soil for a long time and grow
when conditions become favorable,
 Have roots that spread quickly,
 Adapt to sites that have been disturbed by people, such a plowed fields or vacant lots.

They cause problems because they:

 Rob crops of light, water, and nutrients,

 Grow faster than crops and crowd them out,
 Can produce certain chemicals that are toxic to crops or grazing animals.

But the same plant not in a garden or farm field can be beneficial. A “weed” can:

 Hold soil in place and enrich it with organic matter,

 Provide habitat for wildlife,
 Produce nectar for bees.

Controlling Pests

Controlling pests is challenging. But agronomists love challenges, solving complex problems. To
deal with pests, they map out a plan that begins with trying to prevent the pest in the first place.
They use their knowledge of pest biology and habitats—where they live. When agronomists need
to control a pest, they make decisions that will have the least effect on the farmer’s budget,
people, and the environment. In “agronomy-speak,” that is called integrated pest management, or
IPM for short.

Costs of weed management

Weeds are common on all croplands, range and pasture. Since weeds are so common, people
generally do not understand their economic impact on crop losses and control costs. In 1991, the
estimated average annual monetary loss caused by weeds with current control strategies in the 46
crops grown in the United States was $4.1 billion. If herbicides were not used, this loss was
estimated to be $19.6 billion. Losses in field crops accounted for 82% of this total (Bridges;
WSSA, 1992).

Another source estimates that U.S. farmers annually spend $3.6 billion on chemical weed control
and $2.6 billion for cultural and other methods of control. The total cost of weeds in the United
States could approach $15 to $20 billion dollars (Ashton and Monaco, 1991). Also, weed control
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and other input costs (e.g., seed, fertilizer, other pesticides, fuel) vary with the crop. For
example, in the mid-90s, herbicides for soybeans cost $30/acre or about 47% of the $63/acre in
total purchased input. For corn, the cost was $32/acre or about 28% of the $114/acre in total
purchased input. And for wheat it was $6 or about 6% of the total $96/acre inputs. Several
factors help determine the relative costs of herbicides from one crop to another and include the
competitive ability of the crop, the weeds present, the contribution of non-chemical control
practices, the tillage method, management decisions, and the value of the crop (Ross and Lembi,
1999)

2.0 Weed Defined

Quite a number of definitions have been coined for weeds. It includes:
(a) Plants growing out of place in a specific time and interfering with human activities and/or
in some way intruding upon the welfare of humans.
By this definition, weeds constitute a nuisance to man, considering the time, location and where
it is found/sited. e.gs. A plant(s) in an irrigation channel, Oryza barthii in a field of rice.
(b) A plant which is not valued for use or beauty, growing wild and rank and encumbering
the ground, or hindering the growth of other vegetation. Egs
1. Cynodon dactylon, 2. Rottboellia cochinchinensis.
(c) A herbaceous plant growing where it is not wanted and therefore interfering with the
utilization of land and water resources or otherwise adversely intruding upon human welfare.
NB: The definition of a weed is predicated by man’s need, perception and desire at any point in
time. The key phrase is: interference with man’s activity in time and place and requiring an
intervention.

3.0 Characteristics of Weeds

There is a reservoir of weed seeds and/or propagules which are highly adapted to their habitat.
When weeds are removed, the ecology (situation in the environment) is reversed. Naturally,
weed growth in the environment is controlled by climatic and edaphic factors such as, rainfall,
temperature, light, soil microbial population etc. Man’s interventions may therefore give rise to
shifts in weed flora as observed in cropping systems.

3.1 Weediness- It is the condition of a field in which there is an abundance of weeds. The term
therefore indicates the presence and number of weeds.

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Quadrat Sampling of weeds
A quadrat is a square of a convenient size, perhaps 1m x 1m in which species of interest are
counted. Later relate the totals to the area on interest-perhaps and entire forest.

Counting Rules
50m

in
in

in

40m in

in

out

1. Species richness
2. Percent cover by cover types
3. Percent cover of dominant species
N= n x A/a
Where N= Total population
n=Number in quadrat
A=Total area
a=Area of quadrat

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 Species abundance
Quadrat

1 0 1 1 1 1
2
3
4 0 5 4 1 10
5
6
7
8

Species frequency

- How often a species occurs

in a sample

Patterns of dispersion
Dispersion and density both depend on resources.
Distribution (Random dispersion, Uniform dispersion, Clumped dispersion)

Sampling Techniques
1. How can we eliminate bias?
2. How can we promote precision and accuracy?

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The weediness of a field can be quantified based on a scale of 0 – 4 (Table 1).
Table 1. Quantitative scoring of weed abundance (weediness) based on weed density.
Density rating Number of species per 1m2 Quadrat
0 = Species not seen 0
1 = Species is rare 1
2 = Occasional occurrence of species 2–5
3 = Common species0 6 –20
4 = Abundant species >20

Steps:
1. Field is surveyed to determine the density of weed species present.
2. The standard sampling unit is 1 x 1 m2 quadrat.
3. Assuming a uniform spread and distributions of flora, a random sampling method may be
used
4. If flora has a inform distribution the less the number of samples taken; about 5% of the
field is covered
5. Assuming a uniform distribution of flora a transect walk along the two opposite diagonals
of the field and taking at least 5 samples well distributed along the 2 diagonals is ideal.
Table 2. Weediness of field (hypothetical numbers, f = frequency of occurrence and d =
density of occurrence of a weed species).
Weed species No of quadrat
1 2 3 4 5 F d %
Weed density (m2) (scale 0-4)
Ageratum conyzoides 1 0 2 3 4 4 10 12
Andropogon contortus 2 4 2 2 2 5 12
Andropogon gayanus 3 3 4 1 4 5 15
Commelina bengalensis 0 2 1 4 4 4 11
Euphorbia hirta 4 1 0 2 2 4 9
Hyptis lanceolata 1 0 4 3 3 4 11
Setaria pallide-fusca 0 2 1 2 2 4 7
Tridax procumbens 0 2 1 3 1 4 7
Total 34 82

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Weediness = ½ (f/Σf +d/Σd )*100, Weediness of ½ (4/34 +10/82)*100. Species A : ½
(0.118+0.122)*100 = 12% i.e. the percent occurrence of weed species A in the field.

Cyperus rotundus

Cuperus alternifolius
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Cyperus eragrotis

3.2 Individual characteristics of weeds

a). Harmful nature: They are harmful to man and animals. Weeds with this characteristic may
contain poisonous alkaloids (eg. Leaves of stinging nettle-Fleurya aestuans), and pods of
Mucuna pruriens; high level of nitrates (eg. Amaranthus spp.) or are parasitic on crops (eg.
Striga spp., etc). Some have thorns and spines with which they injure man and animals. eg.
Acanthospermum hispidum, Amaranthus spinosus or the thorny pigweed; with which they injure
man. Members of Euphorbia cease are poisonous to animal eg. Lemon grass, some wild garlic
etc.

b). Wild and rank growth: - These weeds tend to grow rapidly, branch or tiller profusely, and
cover extensive areas eg. Rottboellia cochinchinensis, Andropogon spp Chromolaeana odorata,
etc. Such weeds pose high competition in crops for light, nutrients, water, space some are
harmful parasites and alternate hosts to harmful insects and pathogens.

c). Persistence and resistance to control or eradication:

Weeds that possess these characteristics have diverse forms or propagules such as seed and
tubers or rhizomes. Eg. Purple and yellow nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus and C esculentus
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respectively.). They combine a well-developed tuber system with moderate production of viable
seeds. Imperata cylindrica has extensive rhizome systems and still produces large quantities of
viable seeds.
d) High and efficient reproductive capacity:- We still find weeds despite all efforts to control
them. The reason for this is they are very prolific. Many weeds have the ability to produce large
quantities/number of seeds. Moreover, many weeds are hermaphrodites ie they have both male
and female structures in their flowers. As such there is no loss in any of the sexes (pollen grains)
eg. Amaranthus and those from the compositaceae family can produce about 200,000
seeds/plant. Striga produces between 70,000 to about 400,000 seeds/plant. In addition, they
posses special modes of seed production. Eg.
i. Parthenogenesis: - Development of seed from egg without fertilization e.g.
Solanaceae and Compositae families.
ii. Apogamy: - Development of seeds from any cell of the reproductive organ eg. Wild
Onion (Allium lilim)
iii. Apospory: - The development of egg cells from vegetative cells eg. Ferns (pteridium).
iv. Polyembryony: - The development of more than one embryo from one seed.

The above reflect the special mode of reproduction of weeds. Weeds have high and efficient
reproduction capacity.

3.3. Collective characteristics of weed groups

(a) Growth in undesirable location
The ability of weeds to grow in undesirable location is a major attribute of most weeds. For
example weeds are found in cultivated fields, tennis courts and other recreational sites. They are
also known to grow through cracks in concrete and asphalt pavements.

(b) Large populations: This type of weeds tends to grow densely around economic plants. Such
weeds are adapted to overcrowding. Examples of annual weeds having large populations are –
Euphorbia heterophylla, Ageratum conyzoides, Aspilia africana.
(c). Humans often find them useless, unwanted and undesirable
These type of weeds have morphological features such as thorns, prickles, etc that make them
objectionable. Egs. Are Amaranthus spinosus, Ficus exasperata etc.
(d) Spontaneous growth, appearing without being sown

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This characteristic is common among annual weeds with very small or obscure seeds, that are
fumed in the soil. Egs are 1. Amaranthus spinosus, Striga hermonthica and Talinum
triangnare
(e) Aggressiveness:
Weeds that are aggressive have one or more of the following attributes. 1. Rapid seedling
growth, 2. wide tolerance to edaphic and environmental factors; 3. deep – rooted, 4. exhibit
intraspecific variations and 5. exhibit great plasticity of growth.
For eg. Euphortia heterophlla is very competitive in the food legumes such as cowpea and
soybeans because of its rapid growth and ability to form canopy cover over these crops.
(f) Unsightly - Weeds with this characteristics generally have unattractive flowers
and foliage and tend to disfigure the landscape. Egs are grasses such as Panicum spp, Andropon
spp and Penmisetum spp.
(g). Seed dormancy- when a seed fails to germinate under environmental conditions optimal for
its germination, it is said to be undergoing dormancy, many weed species exhibit varying forms
of dormancy condition. Dormancy characteristics are survival mechanisms in weeds.

4.0 CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS:

Weeds can be classified or grouped according to their life cycle or life history, habitat, growth
habit, degree of undesirability or noxiousness, morphology and taxonomy or scientific grouping.
4.1 Life cycle: Two groups of weeds occur in the tropics; they are
a. Annuals and perennials
Annuals: They are weeds that complete their life cycles (from seed germination to seed
production) in one or two growing seasons in a calendar year. Annuals die off during the dry
season after completing their life cycles. Eg.s Ageratumm conyzoides, Acanthospermun
hispidium, Euphorbia heterophylla and Rottboellia cochinchinensis Characteristics of annual
weeds that they:
 Produce large quantities of seeds
 Occur in high density
 Possess efficient methods of seed dispersal
 Undergo the phenomenon of seed dormancy. This prevents all the seeds produced by the
weed in one year from germinating at once.

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b.Perennials: Live for more than one calendar year in spite of producing seeds in the growing
season preceding a dry season. They survive the dry season with the help of special perennating
structures. eg. Include Imperata cylindrica, Cynodon dactylon, C. esculentus, and C. rotundus.
Eg. Of perennials reproducing by perennating propagules and seed include: Imperata cylindrica,
Talinum triangulare, Smilax kraussiana and C. rotundus.
 Perennial weeds resist attempts to eradicate them by manifesting special adaptations for
weediness. These adaptations include:
(a) Longevity of (1) tubers, corms bulbs, rhizomes and stolons.
(b) Presence of deep roots that make it difficult to destroy the weeds by tillage eg.
Stachytarpheta spp.
(c) Presence of buds that can sprout from the basal portions of the stem at or below ground
level. Eg Andropogon spp.

4.2 Habitat
A habitat is a special kind of environment occupied by the individuals of a species. A weed
habitat is a place where a weed or groups of weeds live. Habitat denotes a particular set of
environmental conditions. It can range from rubbish dumps to farmlands or other sites colonized
by weeds.

Weeds are varied in their habitat requirement, as are crop plants. Some are site specific, others
thrive over a wide range of conditions. Species closely associated with crop plants have
requirements very similar to those of the cultivated crops. These species reduce in number,
density and spread when the associated crops are not been grown there. Those with broad
habitat adaptation persist on the site in the absence of cropping activities.

a. Upland (terrestrial) weeds: all weeds associated with upland crops are known as upland or dry
land weeds.
Two types exist
i. Agrestal – Weeds of arable/cultivated crops
ii. Ruderal – Weeds of disturbed non-crop areas such as compost heaps, paths etc
b. Aquatic weeds: weeds that grow preferentially in waterlogged conditions. Egs include
Cyperus difformis, Killinga bulbosa and Nymphaea lotus.

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c. Weeds of plantation crops. Such weeds have mainly C3 photosynthetic pathway. Eg. Include
Chromolaena odorata and Paspalum conjugatum

d. Weeds of arable crops; weeds that affect both C3 and C4 plants. eg. Ageratum conyzoides,
Aspilia africana and Bidens pilosa.

4.3 Growth Habit

Two groups of weeds are indentified based on growth habit. They are (a) autotrophic and (b)
parasitic weeds

(a) Autotrophic weeds (free-living plants). These weeds live as independent organisms and
manufacture their own food through photosynthesis. All non-parasitic weeds of field crops are
autotrophic weeds eg include Sida acuta, Tridax procunbens and Oryza bathii.

1. Parasitic weeds: These weeds grow on living tissues of other plants and derive part or all of
their food, water and mineral requirements from the plants they grow on (i.e. their host).
The relationship between organisms such as crops and weeds in which one organism is damaged
and the other benefits form the association is referred to as parasitism. Most parasitic weeds are
flowering plants which are either parasitic on plant roots or stems.

The root parasitic weeds are (1) obligate parasites because they require a plant for the chemical
stimulant necessary for seed germination. The parasitic weeds attach themselves to the host by
means of haustoria and draw mineral nutrients and water from the host plants. (2) Hemi parasites
are weeds that produce their own assimilate but depend on their host plants for water and mineral
nutrients only

4.4 Degree of undesirability

Noxiousness is a measure of both the undesirability of a weed and the difficulties in controlling
it. Ephemeral weeds such as Ageratum conyzoides and Phyllantus amarus, which are
comparatively easy to control, do not conjure such an image of noxiousness as other such as
Striga spp., Cyperus rotundus, Imperata cylindrica and Oxalis latifolia. In developed countries,
law prohibits distribution of noxious weed seeds or propagules in grain or other crop seeds.
.

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4.5 Morphology
Weeds may be classified on the basis of plant morphology into narrow leaf (grass-like) and
broadleaf weeds. The narrow leaf weeds have seeds whose embryo has one cotyledon.
Consequently they are known as monocotyledonous plants (monocotyledoneae). Weeds in this
group have leaves with parallel venation. Seed embryos of the broadleaf weeds have two
cotyledons (Dicotyledoneae) and leaves have net venation. The ease of use makes this
classification the most popular among agricultural field workers that lack basic knowledge of
plant taxonomy.

4.6 Binomial nomenclature

This is the standard method of nomenclature used by scientists. It uses a two part (binomial)
system of latin names. The first name identifies the genus (generic name) and the second part
the specific epithet (species). The specific epithet may be used for weeds of different genera Eg.
Panicum repens and Alternanthera repens, Bidens pilosa and Chloris pilosa
The binomial system groups all plants on the basis of their taxonomy into families, genera and
specific epithets eg. The annual weed with the common name of at weed belongs to the family
Asteraceae (compositae), genus Ageratum and species conyzoides. The type of weed
classification provides the nomenclature used in technical writings and other communications
between scientists.

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5.0 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF WEEDS
1.0 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF WEEDS
Weeds are serious crop pests which have been underestimated in the tropics, but cause so
much yield reduction and human suffering in the region. Reliable yield losses caused by
weeds are not readily available in the tropics. The average annual yield loss caused by weeds,
for example in 1984, was estimated in the United States of America as $7.5 billion and $909
million in Canada. African farmers spend more times weeding alone in a maize farm in
Ghana, Nigeria and Burkina Faso respectively was 38, 36 and 54 man days per hectare of
maize, leaving the rest for land preparation, planting and harvesting operations. Weeds are
therefore very important in the agriculture of the countries in the tropics and their
management should receive considerably more attention during policy formulation.
1.1 Losses caused by weeds in agriculture
Losses caused by weeds in agriculture represent costs to the farming community, and these
can be divided into direct and indirect costs.

(A) DIRECT LOSSES CAUSED BY WEEDS

4. Weeds reduce crop yield by interfering with crop growth.

5. Weeds reduce the quality of harvested agricultural products.
6. Weeds interfere with harvest operations and increase cost of harvesting, in both
small holder and large-scale farms.
7. Weeds may poison animals.
8. The cost of weed control is high.
9. The presence of weeds can impede water flow in irrigation canals.
10. The presence of weeds in lakes and reservoir can increase loss of water by
transpiration.

(1) Weeds reduce crop yield by interfering with crop growth. This interference includes
competition with crops for nutrients, light and water. It also includes the introduction of
chemicals into the soil that will adversely affect the growth of crop plants (allelopathy). Types
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 of allelopathy. (Auto-allelopathy, Allo-allelopathy, Residual or dead plant effect and Direct
allelopathy i.e. live plant effect In Ghana yield reduction (%) caused by uncontrolled weed
growth in maize, rice, cowpea and groundnut was respectively 55, 84 (dryland rice), 67 and
54. It should be emphasized that yield losses vary from crop to crop, and from region to
region for the same crop, in response to many factors that include weed pressure, availability
of improved weed control technology, cost of weed control and level of management
practiced by farmers. A yield reduction of 55% in maize has been observed at Ejura in Ghana
because of full season weed interference.
1.1 Relationship between crop yield and weed density: relationship between crop yield and
weed density has been used to determine crop loss functions and to estimate the productivity
or yield increase expected from controlling weeds. The most commonly assumed relationship
is shown in Fig. 1.0 in which yield falls at a decreasing rate with increased weed density. CTL
LL
Weed
WeedDensity
Density
2
Curves showing the relationship between crop yield, yield loss, and weed density/weight. (w)No./m
(w) No./m2
EQUATION A EQUATION B

Crop
Yield Crop
(Y) Yield b
b
t/ha Loss (L)
or t/ha
kg/ha

EQUATION A EQUATION B

Y=a-b L= (L=a-(a+b
Y = crop yield L= crop yield lose t/ha
a = y interception L= Yield lose (due to increase in weed density)
b = slope (decline in yield) .. w = Weed density
w = weed density b = Slope i.e. rate of decline in yield with increase in weed density

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 CLT = critical level (point) of weed competition

Equation C. Y=b= maximum yield

b
a

Crop
Yield
(Y) t/ha
or kg/ha

Weed weight (kgm2)

Curves showing the relationship between A—crop yield, B—yield loss, C—weed density
Explanation of curves (interpretation of curves)
The relationship between crop yield and weed density is sigmoid. This is because, increasing
weed density decreases crop yield at decreasing rate. That is crop yield is reduced to even
zero before maximum weed density is attained. The effect of weed weight on crop yield is a
linear inverse relationship. As weed weight increases, crop yield decreases at constant rate.
There is, however, a period of early crop establishment when growth factors have not become
limiting and very low weed densities has no adverse effect on crop yield

LOSSES CAUSED BY UNCONTROLLED WEED GROWTH IN SOME SELECTED

CROPS IN AFRICA

Crop Country Yield reduction (%)

Maize Ghana 55
Kenya 34
Nigeria 40
Rice ( Dry Land) Gambia 100
Ghana 84
Liberia 63
Nigeria 90

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 Senegal 48
Rice ( Transplanted) Liberia 48
Nigeria 54
Senegal 28
Rice (Low land Direct seed) Ghana 28
Nigeria 65
Cowpea Ghana 67
Nigeria 60
Groundnut and Soybean Ghana 67
Nigeria 60
Zambia 54
Many countries 52
Crop Country Yield reduction (%)
Root and tuber crops Nigeria 65
Sierra Leone 91
Ivory Coast 91
Ghana 73
Reproduced by permission of the Weed Science Society of America from Akobundu
(1980a)

The economic importance of Striga

Intake of water and minerals from the host causes visible damage and symptoms including
Wilting, Reduction in plant size, reduced yield, poor quality grain.
Striga is at the moment the biggest biological hindrance in grain and corn production in
Africa. Three species are seriously damaging: S. asiatica and S. hermonthica on cereals, S.
gesnerioides on legumes like cowpea, groundnut, bambaranut etc.
The most important species from the economical viewpoint is S. hermonthica, attacking
sorghum and millet crops in the Sahelian area. Crop losses due to Striga were estimated to
more than 7 billion US $. The occurrence of economic important Striga species is reported
from 59 countries, especially from east and west Africa and Asia.
(2) Weeds reduce the quality of harvested agricultural products. The presence of weed
seeds such as those of Rottboellia cochinchinensis in maize or rice, red rice in rice, and
Sclerocarpus africanus or Solanum nigrum in cowpea or soybeans will reduce market
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 quality of each of these crops. The cost of separating seeds of these weeds from crop seeds
is one of the added (indirect) costs of growing the crops. The presence of green vegetative
parts of weeds in dried seeds of crops will also reduce the quality of these seeds. The
presence of weeds can also reduce the quality of forages or make them unpalatable or even
poisonous to livestock. Seeds of many weeds (e.g. Achyranthes aspera, Boerhavia diffusa,
B. erecta) will also reduce the quality of animal wool. Seeds of such weeds as
Acanthospermum hispidum can cause physical injury to humans and animals.
(3) Weeds interfere with harvest operations and increase cost of harvesting, in both small
holder and large-scale farms. Picking maize by hand is hampered if a field is infested with
Rottboellia cochinchinensis. If the weed is Mucuna pruriens it may be difficult to find
workers willing to work even at higher pay than normal. Heavy weed infestation interferes
with speedy drying of crops and generally slows down harvest operations, thus increasing
cost of harvesting. Additional time may be required to clean crop seeds of weeds.
(4) Weeds may poison animals. Some weeds can be poisonous if eaten by grazing animals.
Amaranthus spp. is an example of a weed which can adversely affect livestock because of
the high nitrate content of the shoots.
(5) The cost of weed control is high. The cost of weed control far exceeds that of any other
crop pest. Farmers in all the industrialized parts of world spend more money controlling
weeds that they do on other pests. Part of the higher cost of weed control is due to the
absence of genetic resistance to weeds among crops as is known to exist for most of the
other crop pests.
(6) The presence of weeds can impede water flow in irrigation canals. Presence of weeds
can also increase the cost of irrigation through indirect costs in keeping the canals weed –
free.
(7) The presence of weeds in lakes and reservoirs can increase loss of water by
transpiration. The presence of weeds can also reduce the economic value of the lake by
preventing or limiting fishing activity in those lakes.

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(B) INDIRECT LOSSES CAUSED BY WEEDS
Weeds cause many other types of losses in agriculture that cannot be readily related to weeds.
These losses are indirect in nature and include the following:
1. Weeds serve as alternate hosts for many plant diseases and animal pests (e.g. insects,
rodents, birds, etc.) that attack crops. Weeds also serve as alternative hosts for many
bacterial and fungal diseases.
2. The presence of weeds imposes a limit on farm size. Farmers generally cultivate only
the area that they know from experience they will be able to keep weed-free. Inputs are
costly, and too large an area creates a serious risk for the farmer. Such a constraint on farm
size reduces productivity and the overall food supply that a community can produce.
3. The presence of weeds can reduce the economic value of lakes by preventing or limiting
fishing activities.
4. Weed such as Imperata cylindrica become fire hazards in the dry season throughout
the savanna vegetation zone. Other grasses that pose such danger include Andropogon spp.,
Pennisetum spp. and Hyparrhenia spp. Such bush fires expose the soil to erosion hazards,
destroy wildlife, and help to impoverish the soil.

There are non-agricultural losses caused by weeds. Many of these are losses in services or
costs associated with the presence of weeds. These costs include the following:
1. Weeds affect health of humans. Some weeds, such as stinging nettle, can cause skin
rashes, and the flowers of other weeds are associated with allergies in humans.
2. Weeds impair visibility along roads and railway lines. They have to be kept away
from telephone and power lines, at considerable costs to the utility companies. Ultimately,
these costs are passed on to consumers.
3. Uncontrolled weed growth reduces the value of real estates. In order to keep up the
value of these properties they have to be kept weed-free, at added cost to the buyer.
4. In countries that depend heavily on human labor for weeding, children often have to
miss school at peak weeding periods. This reduces the quality of education that these
children can get during their formative years.

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Beneficial effects of weeds
1. Provide a vegetative cover that protects the soil against erosion and actions of rainfall
2. Prevent erosion e.g. Imperata cylindrica, Cynodon dactylon
3. Provide habit and food for predatory and parasitic insects
4. Sources of genes for crop breeding Oryza glaberrima, Pennisetum spp
5. Sources of medicines and other useful substances e.g Chromolaena odorata
6. Provide alternate human foods and animal fodders e.g. Talinum triangulare, Aspilia
africana
7. Add organic mater – all weeds
8. Provide aesthetic pleasure e.g. Axonopus spp, Paspalum lawn grasses help to i.e. Beauty
the landscape, and 9. Undergo the process of Nutrient recycling.

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6.0 REPRODUCTION IN WEEDS
There are four processes involved in weed reproduction. These are seed production, seed
dissemination, seed germination and vegetative reproduction.
These processes affect weed distribution and contribute to the properties that make weeds
troublesome in agricultural lands.

6.1 Weed seed production

Weeds survive seasons of adverse weather through seed production. Most weeds, particularly
annuals, maintain their genetically heritable traits through seed production. The long live species
tend to produce fewer seeds than the short-lived species that face more environmental hazards.
Other roles played by the seed in a weed’s life cycle are: (a) spreads of the weed species
(dispersal), (b) temporary source of food for the embryo, and (c) protection during conditions
that are unfavorable for germination (dormancy). The seed therefore plays important roles in the
survival and multiplication of weeds.

Weed seeds are continuously added to agricultural land during each cropping cycle. Mature
weeds shed their seeds on agricultural lands and thus add to the population of weed seeds in or
on the soil. This new and periodic weed seed supply has been described as the seed rain.
Several factors affect the quantity of weed seeds in the seed rain. These factors include damage
by animals and adverse weather conditions. Some of the weed seeds that fall on the soil surface
may be moved into the soil profile through (a) cracks and fissures in the soil, (b) cultivation
practices and (c) harvesting of root and tuber crops. Weed seeds that move into the soil profile
may remain dormant for many years and may germinate when they are moved to or near the soil
surface during land preparation. Some of the weed seeds that are on or in the topsoil may be
killed by heat during pre-planting bush burning, and by mulching. Germinating weed seeds may
also be killed by pre-emergence herbicides. Non-dormant weed seeds that escape these actions
will germinate and the seedling weeds could be killed by adverse weather conditions, pre-or post
emergence herbicides, mechanical and hoe weeding. Only those weed seedlings that escape
these actions grow to maturity to produce matures seeds that add to the seed rain. It is this seed
rain that replenishes the reservoir of viable seeds in the soil.

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The seed reservoir of the seed bank consists of seeds produced in a given area plus weed seeds
that have migrated to the area as a result of the action of various agents of seed dissemination
because of differences in the dormancy characteristics of all weed seeds. The distribution of
weed seeds in a soil profile is affected by tillage practices and by the action of natural forces.
Generally, the top 10cm of soil contains a higher seed density that the lower soil depths.
Annual weeds generally produce large quantities of seeds. Seed production by annual weeds
ranges from as low as 3000 seeds per plant (e.g., Bidens pilosa) to over 200,000 in Amaranthus
spinosus.

6.2 Seed dispersal

Weed seeds are dispersed in space and in time. Seed dispersal in space involves the physical
movement of seeds from one place to another while dispersal in time refers to the capacity of
many weed seeds to remain in a dormant state for a period of time. In the latter case the
appearance of seedlings of a given weed species in a habitat is spread over an extended period.
(a) Dispersal in space
The amount of seeds falling on a unit area of land is affected by many factors: (1) the height
and distance of the source of seed, (2) the concentration at the seed source, (3) the
dispersibility of the seed (seed weight, presence of pappus,etc.), and (4) the activity of the
dispersing agents Seeds have special adaptations that predispose them to dispersing by
particular agents. Natural agents for spatial dispersal of weed seeds are water, wind, animals
and humans. Seeds of many seeds in the Asteraceae (Compositae) family are dispersed by wind.
For seeds dispersed by wind, the highest seed density is found at shot distance from the seed
source. The further the distance from the source, the lower the density of dispersed seeds. Many
weeds are spread by surface run-off, streams, drainage and irrigation water. Other are spread by
animals, because the seeds cling to animal fur, feathers and muddy feet. The fruit of some other
weeds are eaten by animals and birds, and after passage through their digestive tracts, without
loss of viability, the seeds are then spread with the droppings. Humans spread weed seeds
through a number of actions. Weed seeds may cling to clothing, spread as impurities in crop
seeds, cling to muddy tillage implement or harvesters that have not been properly cleaned, etc

(b) Dispersal in time

Many weeds show distinct periodicity in their germination.
Periodicity as it relates to weed seeds is defined as the tendency of weed seeds to have
germination flushes at certain times in the growing season. Some species may have one
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germination flush, while others may have more than one. High soil temperatures and low
moistures prevents germination during the dry season in all species, other factors such as innate
or induced dormancy contributed to germination inhibition in some species such as Digitaria
ciliaris and Cyperus cuspidatus because they failed to germinate even when unfavorable weather
conditions were removed. Studies have shown that the germination pattern of annual weeds in
intensively cultivated fields in Ivory Coast was that 44 percent of them germinated within 15
days after planting (DAP), 24 percent in the following 15 – 30 DAP, and that a majority of
annual weeds in the first flush in these fields were grasses.

6.3 Seed germination

Germination is the resumption of vegetative growth by a seed and the resulting transition of the
seed to a seedling. The germination process involves the inception of rapid metabolic activity
within the seed, resulting in perceptible growth of the embryo; first the radicle (root portion) and
then the aerial parts appear from inside the testa. Radicle emergence is widely accepted as an
indication that germination has begun. In field studies the emergence of the plumule (in the case
of broadleaf plants) or the coleoptile (in the case of monocots) is the best indicator of seed
germination.

(c) Dormancy characteristics of weed seeds

Dormancy in plants could be defined as a state in which viable seeds, spores or buds fail to
germinate under conditions of moisture, temperature and oxygen favorable for vegetative
growth. Seed dormancy in weeds is a survival mechanism, and seeds of various weeds exhibit
different levels of dormancy. Buds of rhizomes, stolons and other specialized stems also exhibit
dormancy characteristics. There are three types of seed dormancy; ‘some seeds are born
dormant, some acquire dormancy and some have dormancy thrust upon them’. These dormancy
types are innate, induced and enforced dormancy.
Innate dormancy is said to occur if a viable mature seeds fails to germinate, when exposed to
environmental conditions that are favorable to vegetative growth, because of immature embryo
or the presence of inhibitor chemicals either in the seed coat or in the fruit. Innate dormancy can
also be caused by the absence of a triggering mechanism, for example light of a given quality,
to stimulate a biochemical process necessary for germination to take place.
This type of dormancy is broken by providing the appropriate triggering mechanism, by
subjecting the seed to an after-ripening treatment during which the immature embryo gets fully
developed or by treatments that will dissolve the inhibitors.
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Induced dormancy is the inability of a mature viable seed to germinate because of an after-
ripening experience. Such experiences include the exposure of seed to high CO2 levels, hard
seed coats, or allelochemicals. Such exposed seeds do not germinate readily when the adverse
environmental condition is removed. Deep burial of seeds also induces dormancy in seeds of
such weeds as Portulaca oleracea and Tagetes minuta. Seeds of many legumes are known to be
subject to this type of dormancy.
Scarification is one of the means for releasing seeds from induced dormancy.
Enforced dormancy is the result exposing mature and viable seeds to adverse environmental
conditions such as low moisture, low or high temperature and poor aeration.
Seeds that have enforced dormancy may germinate soon after the adverse environmental
condition is removed, or may require a seasonal sequence of conditions.

6.4 Vegetative reproduction

Many perennial weeds reproduce vegetatively. Some perennial weeds such as Oxalis latifolia
and Pennisetum clandestinum produce few or no seeds, but depend on the their well-developed
vegetative organs for reproduction. Other perennials such as Imperata cylindrica, Cynodon
dactylon and Talinum triangulare. Depend on both seed production and vegetative organs for
propagation.
The main types of reproductive vegetative structures found among tropical weeds are:
1. Stolons or runmers. These are slender stems developed from shoots that run along the
Surface. The mature portions of these stems usually root at the nodes and may produce
shoots intermittently at their nodes. The production of shoots at the nodes often depends on
the effects of apical dominance on the axillary buds. Example of tropical weeds that have
stolons include Cynodon dactylon and Digitaria horizonatalis. The floating stems of
Ipomoea aquatica, an aquatic weed, root at the nodes and are like runners. Weeds that have
stolons are difficult to control mechanically.
2. Rhizomes. These are underground stems that grow more or less horizontally below the soil
surface. Rhizomatous weeds are difficult to control by most known weed control methods.
Examples of these weeds are Digitaria scalarum, Imperata cylindrica, Pennisetum
clandestinum and Sorghum halepense. A1though Cyperus esculentus and C. rotundus have
rhizomes, these organs are not the perennating structures. Rather these two sedges depend on
other specialized stems for propagation.

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3. Tubers. Tubers are specialized stems whose internodes have become compressed and
swollen to serve as food storage organs. Examples of weeds that have tubers are Cyperus
esculentus and C. rotundus.
4. Bulbs. Bulbs are short specialized underground stems in which the real stem is very small
and is surrounded by fleshy modified leaf bases that serve as food storage structures. An
example is Oxalis latifolia.
5. Bulbils. Bulbils are axillary buds often found on leaf margins and other parts of the shoot.
Unlike axillary buds found in leaf axils, bulbils usually separate from the parent plant and drop
on the soil surface where they produce new plants. An example of a weed that produces bulbils
is Bryophyllum pinnatum.

6. Stem. Some weeds have succulent stems that serve as food storage organs as weed as
perennating structures. Fragmentation of these stems during hand or mechanical weeding helps
to spread the weeds. Example of weeds that spread vegetatively by means of stem sections are
Talinum triangulare, Commelina benghalensis and Portulaca oleracea.

7.0. Principles of weed ecology: persistence and survival mechanism of weeds - crop
mimicry and factors affecting crop persistence

Ecology is the study of the reciprocal relationships between organisms and their environment.
Weed ecology is concerned with the growth characteristics, adaptations and survival mechanisms
of weeds that enable them to exploit environmental resources, and successfully colonize new
habitats often at the expense of other neighboring plants. There is increasing interest in the
ecology of weeds as part of the effort to understand weed-crop interactions, and why weeds are
such successful colonizers. These topics have been treated in detail recently by Holzner and
Numata (1982), Aldrich (1984), and Radosevich and Holt (1984). A habitat is the specific kind
of environment occupied by the individuals of a species. It is a place where an organism or
group of organisms live. The term implies the particular set of environmental conditions.
Habitats can range from rubbish dumps to farm lands or other sites colonized by weeds. Weeds
are just as varied in their habitat requirements as are crop plants. Some are very site-specific,
others will thrive over a wide range of habitats. Many of the weed species closely associated
with cultivated crops have requirements very similar to those of the crop. These species quickly
become minor occupants of a particular site when humans cease to grow crops there. On the

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other hand, those with broad habitat adaptation persist on the site in the absence of cropping
activities.

Persistence and survival mechanisms of weeds

Weeds are able to survive in the face of many obstacles. These obstacles include natural
selection pressures as well as tillage and crop husbandry practices routinely used to minimize
weed competition in crops. Persistence as it applies to weeds is a measure of the adaptive
potential of a weed that enables it to survive in disturbed habitats. Examples of such disturbed
environments are crop land, recreational sites, irrigation canals and pastures. Many of the
adaptive features or survival mechanisms of annual weeds, such as ability to produce large
quantities of seeds, seed dormancy, periodicity of seed germination and short lifespan, have been
discussed earlier. Perennial weeds also have persistence features such as deep rooting,
dormancy characteristics of buds on rhizomes and other modified stems, and fragmentation of
parts. Crop mimicry by weeds is an example of the extent to which weeds have adapted
themselves to survive in such frequently disturbed sites as farmlands.

Crop mimicry: Crop mimicry is defined as the phenomenon whereby weeds develop such close
resemblance to some phases of the life history of a crop as to be mistaken for the crop, and thus
evade eradication (Barrett, 1983). Modern agriculture has, through land preparation and direct
weed control practices, imposed considerable selective pressure on weeds, and many of them
exhibit adaptive strategies which aid their survival. There are three types of crop mimicry by
weeds: these are(1) vegetative mimicry in which close similarity in appearance occurs between
weeds and crop sat seedling and vegetative stages; (2) seed mimicry in which the similarity
between weeds and crops is seen in seed weight, size and appearance; and (3) biochemical
mimicry in which a weed develops resistance to a herbicide previously used for controlling it
selectively in a given crop. Herbicide resistance by weeds is discussed in Chapter 7. Weeds that
mimic crops are more difficult to control than those that do not. Examples of vegetative mimicry
are seedlings of perennial wild rice (Oryza longistaminata ) in cultivated rice, wild sorghum
(Sorghum halepense) seedlings in cultivated sorghum, wild cane (Saccharum spontaneum) in
sugarcane, and rice mimicry in barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli). Seed mimicry is
illustrated by the similarity in seed size between seeds of upland rice and those of itchgrass
(Rottboellia cochinchinensis).
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Factors affecting persistence: Weed persistence will be affected by climatic, soil (edaphic) and
biotic factors. For a detailed discussion of these factors the reader is referred to Daubenmire
(1967). The impact of any of these factors on weed persistence will vary with weed species and
the prevailing conditions in the habitat. The major climatic factors are light, temperature, water
and wind. Light intensity, quality and duration affect growth, reproduction and distribution of
weeds. Photoperiod governs flowering, and consequently affects the latitudinal distribution of
weeds and the evolution of ecotypes of a given species. Light exclusion favors colonization of a
habitat by shade-to leant weed species. This is particularly evident in plantation crops. Soil and
air temperatures affect latitudinal and elevational distribution of weeds. In addition, soil
temperature affects weed seed germination as well as seed dormancy. Water reaches most
habitats naturally in the form of rain, dew and fog. Irrigation represents purposeful manipulation
of a habitat by humans to alter the natural distribution of water. Plants in a given habitat vary in
their ability to intercept these forms of natural water supply to meet their growth needs. The
total available water in a particular site is related to the original water supply to the site, and to
losses from percolation, run-off, and evapotranspiration. Seasonal distribution of water affects
weed species distribution and a shortage of water at critical times in the life cycle of weeds may
affect seed production. If the water shortage becomes a recurrent event the survival of some
weed species may be threatened. Wind velocity, frequency and direction restrict the occurrence
of all plants including weeds. In addition, wind stabilizes oxygen and CO2 distribution, and also
affects transpiration losses.

The edaphic factors that have a major influence on weed persistence are soil water, aeration. pH,
temperature and fertility. Since the soil is the reservoir of weed seeds and propagules of
perennials, it should be expected that any factor that affects the ability of the soil to act as a ‘safe
site’ for weed seeds will have profound influence on weed persistence. Some weeds such as
Axonopus cumpressus and comperssus and Scirpus spp. alkaline conditions, while others such as
Cynodon dactylon can tolerate waterlogged conditions. Hydromophic soils support both aquatic
and dry-land weeds depending on the water table at a given time of year. Hardly any vegetative
propagule of weeds can tolerate prolonged desiccation. Drying out of the soil, which occurs
naturally or is aided by tillage to expose these propagules to desiccation, has adverse effects on
persistence and spread of many perennial weeds.
Biotic factors include the effect of plants and animals on weed persistence. The browsing action
of animals and feeding by birds will vary depending on the palatability and attractiveness of the
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different weeds to them. Insects affect weed persistence by direct use of the weeds as alternative
hosts when the preferred crop plant is not in season. In crop lands the major effects on weeds are
those exerted by the crop as it competes with weeds for available resources. Other effects
exerted by crops include the production of allelochemicals.

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