CHAPTER FOUR

Analog And Digital

Instrumentation Processes

1
LECTURE OVERVIEW
 INTRODUCTION
 ADC
 DAC
 MULTIPLEXER

2
 1:- INTRODUCTION
• Signals are time-varying “quantities” which convey some sort of
information.
• Signals are passed between devices in order to send and receive
information, which might be video, audio, or some sort of encoded
data.
• Usually the signals are transmitted through wires, but they could
also pass through the air via radio frequency (RF) waves.
• Audio signals, for example might be transferred between your
computer’s audio card and speakers, while data signals might be
passed through the air between a tablet and a Wi-Fi router.
3
 Analog Signal
 Continuous-time signals
 It is 'continuous' in that it is present at all times
 Continuous does not mean that it goes on for ever

X(t)

t
4
Analog signals
 Digital signals
 Digital signals have a finite set of possible values.
 Most commonly digital signals will be one of two
values – like either 0V or 5V.
 Timing graphs of these signals look like square waves.
Discrete-time signals
Are defined at particular or discrete instants only- they are
usually sampled signals.

5
 Digital signals cont.…

X(t)

t
Digital signals

6
 2:- Analog to digital conversion(ADC)

• What is ADC(Analog to Digital Converter?

• Why ADC is needed?

• Application of ADC

• A/D conversion process

7
 2.1. What is ADC ?

¥ An electronic integrated circuit which transforms

a signal from analog (continuous) to digital
(discrete) form.
¥ Analog signals are directly measurable
quantities.
¥ Digital signals only have two states. For digital
computer, we refer to binary states, 0 and 1.
8
 2.2. Why ADC is needed ?

 Microprocessors can only perform complex processing on

digitized signals.
 When signals are in digital form they are less susceptible to
the deleterious(causing harm or damage) effects of
additive(a substance added to improve ) noise.
 ADC Provides a link between the analog world of
transducers and the digital world of signal processing and
data handling.

9
 2.3. Application of ADC

• ADC are used virtually everywhere where an

analog signal has to be processed, stored, or
transported in digital form.
• Some examples of ADC usage are digital volt
meters, call phone, thermocouples, and digital
oscilloscope.

10
 2.4. Conversion process
3 steps:
 Sampling and Holding

 Quantification

 Coding

These operations are all performed in a same element: the A to D Converter

11
 Conversion process: Sampling
 Sampling is the process of taking a sufficient number of discrete values at points

on a waveform that will define a waveform.

 Sampling converts an analog signal into a series of impulses, each representing the

amplitude of the signal at a given instant in time.

 Digital system works with discrete states

 The sampling times are proportional to the sampling period (Ts)

x(t)
Ts xs(t)

x(t) xs(t=k*Ts)

t 12
Ts
 Cont…
 A clock supplies regular time signal pulses to the ADC and every time it

receives a pulse it samples the analog signal.

 A sample and hold unit is used to hold each sampled value until the next pulse

occurs.

 It is used b/se the ADC requires a finite amount of time, termed conversion

time, to convert the analog signal into a digital one.

13
 Cont…
 The electronic switch, S, is closed,
causing the capacitor to charge to the
current value of the input voltage.
 After a brief time interval the switch is
reopened, so keeping the sampled
voltage across the capacitor constant
while the ADC carries out its
conversion...
 Sample= When switch is closed
 Hold = When switch is open

14
 Conversion process: Quantification

Quantizing : discretization of the sampled signal amplitude.

• In practice, because the quantization process takes a
finite amount of time, the sampled signal amplitude has
to be held constant during this time.
• The signal can only take determined values belonging to
a range of conversion (Vr)

15
 Conversion process: Quantification
 Resolution: The smallest change in analog signal that will result in a
change in the digital output.
Vr V full scale
V  2 R n
2 2
Vr = Reference voltage range
n = Number of bits in digital output.
2n = Number of states.
∆V = Resolution
xs(t)
xq(t)
ΔV
Vr

t 16
Ts
Example-1
 A sensor gives a maximum analog output of 5V. What word length is
required for an analog-to-digital converter if there is to be a resolution of
10mV.

Solution  Resolution = (Vmax – Vmin) / N

 10 mV=5V/2n
 2n = 5/0.01 = 500
 n = 8.97, Thus, a 9 bit word length is required.
 Conversion process: Coding
 Assigning a unique digital word to each sample
 Matching the digital word to the input signal
xq(t)
N-1
N-2

Q ΔVr
2
1
0

t
Ts

18
 ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERSION

 Converting analogue signals to binary words.

 Fig below shows the basic elements of AD conversion

19
20
 i. Before we proceed to the process of ADC we must
understand some basic parameters.
Decimal Code Binary Code
1. Binary system 0 0000
1 0001
 Based on two symbols or states 0 and 1(binary digits
2 0010
or bits). 3 0011

 When a number is represented by this system, the 4 0100

5 0101
digit position in the number indicates the weight
6 0110
attached to each digit increases by a factor of 2 as we 7 0111

proceed from right to left. 8 1000

9 1001
 Bit 0- Least Significant Bit(LSB) 10 1010
11 1011
 The highest bit 1- the Most Significant Bit (MSB)
12 1100
 Word:-combination of bits to represent a number 13 1101
14 1110
 Byte-a group of 8 bits
15 1111

21
2. Accuracy of A/D Conversion

There are two ways to best improve the accuracy of A/D

conversion:
• Increasing the resolution which improves the accuracy
in measuring the amplitude of the analog signal.
• Increasing the sampling rate which increases the
maximum frequency that can be measured.

22
 Accuracy
xq(t)

t
Ts

Higher Sampling rate Higher Resolution

xq(t) xq(t)

t t
Ts 23
 3. Sampling Theorem

 How often should an analog signal be sampled(closed) in order

to give an output which is representative of the analog signal?

 Nyquist criterion: the sampling rate must be at least twice that of

the highest frequency in the analog signal.

 Too slow sampling rate (low frequency) leads to an error called

Aliasing( the misidentification of a signal frequency).

 Too fast sampling rate(high frequency) may create error due to

high level noises.

24
 Cont..
 A signal will not usually have a single frequency but will consist of a

very wide range of frequencies.

 A low pass filter has the job of removing signal frequencies greater

than fs/2, where fs is the sampling frequency. This is the role of the
anti-aliasing filter.

 An anti-aliasing filter is a low pass filter with a cut-off frequency of

fs/2. The important frequency of fs/2 is usually called the Nyquist

frequency.

25
Types of ADCs
There are two types
Indirect type

 Dual slope converter

 Single slope converter

Direct type

 Flash ADC

 Sigma-delta ADC

 Successive approximation converter

26
 2.4.1 Flash ADC
 Fundamental Components (For N bit Flash A/D)

 2N-1 Comparators

 2N Resistors

 Control Logic

27
 Flash ADC
 Provides a fast conversion time because of the “Parallel A/D”
process
 Uses a series of comparators

 Each comparator compares Vin to a different reference voltage

Comparator is one use of an Op-Amp

VIN If Output
+ VOUT VIN > VREF High
VREF -
VIN < VREF Low
28
 How does it work
 Uses the 2N resistors to form a ladder voltage divider, which
divides the reference voltage into 2N equal intervals.
 Uses the 2N-1 comparators to determine in which of these 2N
voltage intervals the input voltage Vin lies.
 The Combinational logic then translates the information
provided by the output of the comparators.
 This ADC does not require a clock so the conversion time is
essentially set by the settling time of the comparators and the
propagation time of the combinational logic.

29
 2.4.2. Successive Approximation
• A regular sequence of pulses is generated by a clock and is registered in binary
manner
• Voltage rises in steps and will be converted to analogue signal using DAC
• Will be compared with analogue input signal from sensor
• If voltage from clock passes voltage from input, gate closes
• The output from the counter at that time is then a digital representation of the
analogue voltage.

30
 Sets MSB
 Converts MSB to analog using DAC
 Compares guess to input
 Set bit
 Test next bit

31
 Successive Approximation

Advantages Disadvantages

• Capable of high speed  Higher resolution

• Medium accuracy successive approximation
compared to other ADC ADCs will be slower
types  Speed limited ~5Msps
• Good tradeoff between
speed and cost

32
 Example


33
 Cont…


34
 Cont…


35
 Cont…


36
 ADC Types Comparison

ADC Resolution Comparison

Dual Slope
Flash
Successive Approx
Sigma-Delta

0 5 10 15 20 25
Resolution (Bits)

Type Speed (relative) Cost (relative)

Dual Slope Slow Med
Flash Very Fast High
Successive Appox Medium – Fast Low
Sigma-Delta Slow Low
37
 3. Digital to Analogue Conversion

INTRODUCTION
• A digital-to-analog converter (DAC or D-to-A) is a device for converting
a digital (usually binary) code to an analog signal (current, voltage or
charges).
• Digital-to-Analog Converters are the interface between the abstract digital
world and the analog real life.
• Simple switches, a network of resistors, current sources or capacitors may
implement this conversion.

38
39
 Cont..
 This converts the processed digital value back to an equivalent
analogue voltage.
 Output is an analogue signal that represents the weighted sum
of the non-zero bits represented by the word.
 Input: Binary word

 Output: Analogue signal

40
 Types of Digital to Analogue Converters

1.Weighted-resistor Network
 Uses a summing amplifier
 Electronic switches respond to binary 1

 Resistor from LSB being halved

 Sum of the voltages is a weighted sum of the non zero bits in the input
word.
 Accurate resistances have to be used(very difficult).

41
 Cont.
Rf=

MSB

LSB
 V1 V2 V3 Vn 
Vout   IRf   Rf      n -1 
 R 2R 4R 2 R
n=1, 2,3…… 42
 Binary Weighted Resistor cont..

If Rf=R/2

 V1 V2 V3 Vn 
Vout   IRf       n 
2 4 8 2 
For example, a 4-Bit converter yields

 1 1 1 1
Vout  Vref  b3  b2  b1  b0 
 2 4 8 16 

Where b3 corresponds to Bit-3, b2 to Bit-2, etc.

43
Example

44
 2.R-2R ladder Network
 It is a resistor ladder network connected to an inverting summer op-amp
circuit
 It requires only two precision resistance values (R and 2R) and resolves the
problems of the binary-weighted resistor network
 Output voltage is generated by switching sections of the ladder to either Vs or
0V according to whether there is a 1 or 0 in the digital input.

4 Bit Converter

45
 R-2R Ladder cont.…
• Each bit corresponds to a switch:
• If the bit is high, the corresponding switch is connected to the inverting input of the op-
amp.
• If the bit is low, the corresponding switch is connected to ground.

Vref

Bit: 0 0 0 0
Vout
4-Bit Converter
46
 R-2R Ladder

Vref V1 V2 V3 V3

Ideal Op-amp

2R 2R

Req 
2 R 2 R 
R
2 R  2 R 

47
 R-2R Ladder
Vref V1 V2 V3 V2 V3

R R

 R  1
V3    2
V  V2
RR 2
I
Likewise,
1
V2  V1
2
Vout 1
V1  Vref
2
Vout   IR

48
 R-2R Ladder
Results:
Vref V1 V2 V3 1 1 1
V3  Vref , V2  Vref , V1  Vref
8 4 2

 Vref Vref Vref Vref 

Vout   R b3  b2  b1  b0 
 2R 4R 8R 16R 

Where b3 corresponds to bit 3,

b2 to bit 2, etc.
Vout

If bit n is set, bn=1

If bit n is clear, bn=0

49
 R-2R Ladder

For a 4-Bit R-2R Ladder

 1 1 1 1 
Vout  Vref  b3  b2  b1  b0 
 2 4 8 16 

For general n-Bit R-2R Ladder or Binary Weighted Resister DAC

n
1
Vout  Vref  bn i i
i 1 2
50
51
52
53
54
55
 Multiplexer
m control signals

• Also called as Data Selector. n i/p signals

• Multiplex means Many into one. 1 o/p signal
Multiplexer

• It is a combinational logic circuit

• Multiplexer is a circuit with many inputs and only one output.

• i.e. it accepts several data inputs and allows only one of them AT A TIME to get
through to the output

• The routing of desired data input to output is controlled by SELECT

(CONTROL) LINES. 56
57
 Above diagram is of n:1 multiplexer with n input lines, m
control lines and 1 output line. Here

2m = n

 So we can have
2:1 MUX ;with 1 control line
4:1 MUX ;with 2 control line
8:1 MUX ;with 3 control line
16:1 MUX ;with 4 control line

58
 2:1 Multiplexer Circuit Diag.

Inputs
• Here the 2: 1 MUX has two I/P lines D0 and D1 Output
S0
and one select (control) line S0
0 D0
• When S0 =0 then output= D0
1 D1
• When S0 =1 then output= D1
59
 Demultiplexer
m control signals
• Also called as Data distributor.
• Demultiplex means one to Many.

1 i/p signals n o/p

Demultiplexer signal

• Demultiplexer is a circuit with one input and many outputs.

• i.e. it accepts one data input and steer the input signal to one of the output line.

• The routing of data input to one of the output is controlled by CONTROL

SIGNALS.

• The circuit has one i/p signal, m control signals & n o/p signals
60
 Demultiplexer is exactly reverse of multiplexer.

 Above diagram is of 1:n demultiplexer. Relationship b/n m & n is given

by

2m = n
where m = no. of control lines, n = no. of output lines

 So we can have

1:2 DEMUX ;with 1 control line

1:4 DEMUX ;with 2 control line

1:8 DEMUX ;with 3 control line

1:16 DEMUX ;with 4 control line

61
 1:2 Demultiplexer

Circuit Diagram.

• Here the 1:2 DEMUX has 2 O/P lines Y0 and Y1 and one select (control) line S0

• When S0 =0 then output= Y0

• When S0 =1 then output= Y1

62
 Quze-2
A 4-bit successive-approximation is used in ADC. If the input voltage is 5.5v

and the DAC has Vout =8v for 23 bit (MSB) and Vout =1v for 20 bit(LSB). What

is the equivalent binary representation of the input voltage?

Vin
64