VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

FLYING A COURSE WILL WITHOUT WIND CORRECTION WILL RESULT IN VARIANCE FROM TC (1-2-3 ABOVE). IF WINDS CHANGE (INCREASE) AFTER T-O, THEN YOU MUST ADJUST FOR NEW WINDS TO INTERCEPT AND HOLD YOUR COURSE LINE FOR BOTH NON-AND RADIO NAV.
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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

DEAD RECKONING: THIS IS THE MODE WE HAVE BEEN USING TO CALCULATE AND FLY THE CALCULATED COURSE. IT DOES NOT EMPLOY RADIO NAVIGATION. REAL X-C INVOLVE BOTH THE USE OF YOUR CALCULATED COURSES AND THE USE OF RADIO NAVIGATION AIDS. BOTH REQUIRE FILING, OPENING AND CLOSING A VFR FLIGHT PLAN. CRUSING ALTITUDES: ODD +500 (3500-17,500 on course 0-179 EVEN +500 (450016,500 on course 180-359.

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

VOR NAVIGATION
Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range (VOR) is LINE OF SIGHT.

Sectional symbols

Type VOR found in A/FD Generally, range of signal at 1,000 AGL is about 40 45 nm and increases with altitude.
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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

NAV NOT ALWAYS SHOWN (on airport)

VICTOR AIRWAYS COURSE

COMPASS ROSE (magnetic)

Sectional: VOR Frequency and Morse Code for VOR

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

VOR COCKPIT EQUIPMENT TRANSCIEVER (COMM ON LEFT, NAV ON RIGHT) VOR INDICATOR COURSE AND RECIPROCOL INDEX POINTERS(TOP & BOTTOM) A. ROTATING COMPASS CARD B. OMNIBEARING SELECTOR (OBS) ROTATES (A) C. COURSE DEVIATION INDICATOR D. TO-FROM INDICATOR

DOTS = each 2 is degrees offcourse: 1 degree @ 60nm out is 1 nm off-course

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

NAVIGATING USING THE VOR

IDENTIFY THE STATION 1. TUNE NAVIGATION RECIEVER TO THE FREQUENCY 2. LISTEN. MORSE CODE GIVEN FOR EACH STATION VERIFY BY LOOKING AT SECTION TO INSURE THAT YOU ARE REALLY ON THE CORRECT FREQUENCY 3. TURN THE OBS TO CHANGE THE ROTATING COMPASS CARD TO EITHER IDENTIFY WHERE YOU ARE OR TO SET THE COURSE YOU WANT TO FLY.

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

INTERPRETING VOR INDICATIONS

YOU FLY THE RADIALS (TO-FROM) OF THE COMPASS ROSE ALL 4 AIRPLANES ABOVE WILL PRODUCE THE SAME RESULT IT DOES NOT TELL YOU YOUR ORIENTATION ONLY YOUR POSITION RELATIVE TO THE VOR. THIS IS A DIFFICULT CONCEPT FOR NEWCOMERS TO GRASP BE PATIENT
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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

HOW THE CDI CHANGES WHEN YOU CHANGE OR GET OFF-COURSE You are left of course

Over or abeam VOR CDI is course line you are right of course. Zone of Ambiguity +/10 degrees perpendicular 2-degree dot
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Zone of confusion

VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

Winds change your track.

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

INTERCEPTING / CHANGING RADIAL

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

VOR RADIALS CAN BE USED AS CHECKPOINTS

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION-Locate your position

YOU ARE HERE

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION VOR INTERSECTIONS: 2 VOR RADIALS INTERSECT

SECTIONAL
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LLEnroute

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION Low Enroute Charts Great for VOR Navigation

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

CAUTION REVERSE SENSING AVOID ERRORS BY FLYING TO THE STATION ELSE CDI WILL OPERATE IN OPPOSITION TO NORMAL MANNER.

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

TO AVOID CONFUSION TO RECOGNIZE THE HOW THE CDI SHOULD APPEAR, YOU NEED TO VISUALIZE WHAT THE CDI WILL LOOK LIKE IN THE AIRPLANE. Air to air THINK: HOW SHOULD IT LOOK.

360 F

180 T

270 T

270 T

130 F
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180 F

180 F

270 F

** GUARENTEED ** YOU WILL SEE THESE ON YOUR PRIVATE WRITTEN EXAMINATION

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A 360F

D 270T

B 180T

E 130F

G 180F

C 270T Airplane
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F 180F CDI

H 270F REVERSE SENSING= Light Blue

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

IMPORTANT Outbound (away from VOR) Fly FROM outbound radial Inbound (towards VOR) Fly TO on reciprocal radial WARNING: REVERSE SENSING IS CONFUSING EVERYTHING INDICATES OPPOSITE IF YOU VIOLATE THIS RULE Cool reciprocal conversion rule of thumb For courses10-180(+2 -2 to 1st and 2nd digit position) 1 4 0 +2 -2 3 2 0 For courses 190-360(-2 +2 to 1st and 2nd digits) 3 2 5 -2 +2 1 4 5 (this also works when your quickly trying to determine runway reciprocal headings) Created by Steve Reisser

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION VOR Time & Distance Calculations

TURN 90 DEGREES (30+90=120). Record # of minutes to reach next 10 degree radial (040) Must set OBS to 40. Watch for FROM to center on intercept to identify when you have reached the 10 degree intersect. Note time.

TIME TO STATION
(Min flown between bearing change ) X 60 (Degrees of bearing change )

DISTANCE TO STATION
TAS x TIME TO STATION

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Both VOR and ADF can used a principle related to an isosceles triangle. If 2 angles or the triangle are the same, then the lengths of the side are also the same. 080T 270 radial 090T 10 degrees 100 Length 1 x = 260 radial Length 2 10 degrees

Above flying TO 090 if I set the OBS to fly inbound on 080 (10 degrees different), turn the airplane to the right 10 degrees 100 (10 degrees different) time minutes until I intercept 080 TO, the time to that intercept (X) is the time to the destination!! STRAIGHT CALCULATION You can use angles less: Example flying 125KT, 5 degree change takes 2.5 mins. burning 15 gallons per hour. Time to station is 60 x Mins (2.5) = 150 / 5 degrees = 30 minutes Distance to station Speed x Mins = 312.5 / 5 degrees = 62.5 NM Fuel to station GPH x (Mins/60) = 7.5 Gallons

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Below: FAA test question using same principle as previous slide.

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HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER (ADF)
GROUND EQUIPMENT: NONDIRECTIONAL RADIO BEACON (NDB) Now being DECOMMISIONED
Four types of ADF Indicators are in use. In every case, the needle points to the navigation beacon.

Fixed Compass Card.

Rotating Compass Card.

Single-needle Radio Magnetic Indicator

Dual-needle Radio Magnetic Indicator.

coupled to DG

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

FIXED CARD DOES NOT MOVE

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

Magnetic Heading (MH), Relative Bearing (RB), and Magnetic Bearing (MB)

MH + RB = MB
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Mary Had Roast Beef. Mary Barfed"

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

TIME: Minutes to Station = Time In Seconds / Degrees of Bearing Change DISTANCE: NM to Station = TAS x Miles Flown / Degrees of Bearing Change Flying 005 towards NDB. We decide to find time and distance to another NDB to our right. We want the NDB to be 90 degrees before starting a timer. We turn to B 025 degrees and wait until the pointer comes across 115 degrees (25+90) to start the clock. When the ADF points to 115, we start the timer.

Continuing flight on 025 MH, we wait for the passage of another 10 degrees (115+10) or 125 and stop the timer. Time= 220 secs /10 degrees = 22 mins. Distance=110Kts*3.67 mins/10 degrees = 40 nm
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Time To Station is:

60 x Min. flown between bearing change ----------------------------------------------------Degrees of bearing change TAS x Min. flown between bearing change ----------------------------------------------------Degrees of bearing change

Distance To Station is:

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

Time and Distance to Station vs. Time to cross 10for 110 kts. This is specifically for 110 kts. Different speeds will produce different results. Some pilots choose to make up there own tables for different cruise configurations Time to cross 10 (Seconds) 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Time to Station (minutes) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Distance to Station (nm) 4 7 11 15 18 22 26 29 Time to cross 10 (Seconds) 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 Time to Station (minutes) 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 Distance to Station (nm) 33 37 40 44 48 51 55 59

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

INTERCEPTING AN ADF BEARING

Turn to desired bearing. (A 075) Note that station is 50 degrees to right.

DOUBLE that amount (50*2=100) and turn towards the needle (right) that amount (100). Course 075 changed to 175.

Maintain the course until the needle points to 075, then turn to head 075 and you will be on an intercept course to the station on 075.

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ADF Navigation Problems

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

ADF SHORELINE EFFECT - ERRORS

Not reliable

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VISUAL AND RADIO NAVIGATION

NDB/ADF errors Electrical interference. Radio waves are emitted by the aircraft alternator in the frequency band of the ADF. An alternator suppressor is fitted to contain those emissions but this component does not have a long life and it is wise to test the ADF for correct operation during pre-flight checks. The test is made by selecting a transmitter which must be a reasonable distance away, say 30 nm then watch the ADF needle during the engine run up. If the needle moves as rpm increase there is electrical interference and probably the alternator suppressor should be replaced. Magnetos may also interfere with the ADF. Thunderstorms emit electrical energy in the NDB band and will deflect the ADF needle towards the storm. Twilight/night effect. Radio waves arriving at a receiver come both directly from the transmitter the ground wave and indirectly as a wave reflected from the ionosphere the sky wave. The sky wave is affected by the daily changes in the ionosphere, read the ionization layers section in the Aviation Meteorology Guide. Twilight effect is minimal on transmissions at frequencies below 350 kHz. Terrain and coastal effects. In mountainous areas NDB signals may be reflected by the terrain which can cause the bearing indications to fluctuate. Some NDBs located in conditions where mountain effect is troublesome transmit at the higher frequency of 1655 kHz. Ground waves are refracted when passing across coast lines at low angles and this will affect the indicated bearing for an aircraft tracking to seaward and following the shore line. Attitude effects. The indicated bearing will not be accurate whilst the aircraft is banked. by Steve Reisser Ground School 2011 Created

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LORAN-C
Primarily based on marine navigation but works with aviation (considered legacy system). Now being DECOMMISSIONED.

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DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME and RNAV)

Accurate only DIRECTLY to or from station. Works on SLANT distance rather than ground distance. RNAV-Area Navigation: can create pseudo-VOR stations triangulating off existing stations. Allows direct flight path.
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Inertial Navigation Systems (INS)

works independent of ground or satellite reference extremely expensive

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