MARINE

ENGINEERING

An Introduction To
Marine Engineering
Prabhu TL

Nestfame Creations Pvt. Ltd.

[Marine Engineering]
Copyright © [2021] Prabhu TL. All rights
reserved.
Publisher - Nestfame Creations Pvt. Ltd.
Publisher Website -
www.nestfamecreations.com
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either directly or indirectly.
Author - Prabhu TL

Indexer - Akshai Kumar RY

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TABLE OF
CONTENT
FUNDAMENTALS
1. What Is Marine Engineering ?
2. How are Generators Synchronized on
a Ship?
3. Centrifugal Oil Purifiers - Starting
and Stopping Procedures
4. What is Puncture Valve in an engine
?
5. The Inventor Of The Steam Turbine:
Charles Parsons
6. Boiler Starting Failure –
Troubleshooting
7. Boiler Mountings: A Comprehensive
List
8. How Diesel Engine Turbochargers
Work
9. Difference between safety valve and
relief valve
10. Engine Safety Devices
 11. Marine Compressors:
Operation, Maintenance, and
Troubleshooting
12. Different Phases of
Combustion in an Diesel Engine
13. Operational Advantages
of Tri-Fuel Diesel Electric Propulsion
(TFDE) Over Diesel Engine
Propulsion
14. MAN B&W G- Engines -
Green Ultra-Long-Stroke G-type
Engines
15. SULZER specifications &
it's easy to understand,made easy
16. Ball piston engine - A
high efficient power
17. Free Piston Engine In
Detail
18. The Diesel engine and its
development
19. High Speed Engine
Repairs
20. How is Marine Engine
Repair Done On board a Ship?
21. How to know if the Piston
is at Top Dead Center?
22. Flammability
Composition Diagram , Chemical
Fumes Conversion Factor
23. Draw Diagram , Marine
Two Stroke Main Engine
24. Grounding after main
engine shut down
25. Hybrid Turbocharger for
Marine Engines: Maritime
Technology Innovation
26. 4 Ways to Measure Main
Bearing Clearance of Two Stroke
Marine Engine
27. Biggest Diesel Engine In
The World!
28. What is the 4-valve
engine?
29. Dual Fuel Engines
30. Engine working principle
of dual-fuel (DF) engines
31. Wärtsilä 32GD main
technical data
32. Titanic Facts
33. Rolls-Royce to deliver
world's first gas power system for
tugs
34. M250 Turboshaft-
Helicopter Engine
35. Parachute Sea Anchors –
New Maritime Technology Hopes To
Save Lives At Sea
36. Anti-Pirate PPE – 7 Cool
Tools To Defend Yourself From At-
Sea Attacks
37. Clean and Efficient
Shipping by CAT: New Marine
Engine Burns Both LNG and Diesel
38. 10 Amazing Facts About
Viking Boats and Ships
39. List of rights of women
seafarers
40. How To Buy Second
Hand Boat Engine?
41. How such a huge ship is
able to move
42. Top 13 Things a Junior
Engineer Should Do As Soon As
Possible When New to a Ship
43. Hyundai Heavy Develops
Mini Welding Robot for Shipbuilding
44. Nigerian survives two
days at sea, in underwater air pocket
45. LNG Bunker Barge for
large volumes
46. ABB's Amazing Container
Crane Remote Control
47. No more flares on life
boats ---Laser device maker hopes its
products will replace flares
48. How much bigger can
container ships get?
49. Ever Seen a Monument
for Marine Engineers?-Engine Room
Heroes of the “Titanic”
50. Troubleshooting
Centrifugal Pumps
51. How To Extract Broken
Bolts
?
52. How to Avoid Food
Poisoning in Ships
53. MV Solitaire"of All Seas
is the largest pipelay vessel in the
world.
 54. People on the ship and
what do they do ?
55. Why work at sea?
56. WHY IS A SHIP
CALLED SHE?
57. Test and Overhaul of Fuel
Injection Valves
58. Use of Compressed Air
for Engine Starting
59. Role of Compressed Air
In Starting a Marine Diesel Engine
60. Simple Fluid Mechanics
Experiments and Calculations
61. Control Tests on Ships
Explained
62. Starting & Reversing
Problems in Marine Engines
63. Functions of Ships Main
Engine Thrust Block, Prop Shaft, and
Stern Tube
64. Parts of Ships - Guide to
Component Descriptions
65. Ship's Systems and
Controls
66. The Production, Handling,
Storage, and Use of Marine Fuels
67. The Charge Air Cooler in
Diesel Engines
68. Marine Diesel Engines -
Assembly, Components Of, and
Watchkeeping For
69. Firefighting Equipment in
Ship's Engine Room
70. Shipboard Level Sensors -
Types and Theory
71. Ship's Engine Room Top
Platform Explored
72. Layout Of Middle Level
Of Engine Room
73. Marine Generators -
Starting Checks & Procedure
74. Treatment of Marine Main
Diesel Engine Fuel and Lube Oils
75. Marine Boiler Auxiliaries,
Fixtures and Fittings
76. Ship's Boiler Steam
Supply for Accommodation and Deck
Equipment
77. Coastal and Marine
Environment Concepts and
Significances
78. Troubleshooting Marine
Freshwater Generators
79. How To Prevent Fresh
Water Contamination On Ships?
80. General Overview of
Central Cooling System on Ships
81. Important Points Seafarers
Must Consider For Clean Drinking
Water System On Ships
82. Reverse Osmosis: Modern
Alternative for Shipboard Water
Production
83. 10 Ways To Reduce
Freshwater Consumption On Ships
84. Single Phasing in
Electrical Motors: Causes, Effects,
and Protection Methods
85. 8 Common Problems
Found In Steering Gear System Of
Ships
86. Maintenance of Electrical
Relay on Ships Electrical Circuit
87. How to Overhaul Motors
on Ships?
 88. Damage Stability Analysis
Of Ships
89. Case Study: Capsizing Of
Costa Concordia
90. Different Technologies
For Ballast Water Treatment
91. Port Of Baltimore
Welcomes Largest Container Ship
Ever To Visit Maryland
92. BIMCO: Only
International Action Will Stop
Increase In Piracy
93. 15 Types of Navigation
Equipment and Resources Used
Onboard Modern Ships
94. Top 3 Free Marine
Compass Apps for Android Smart
Phones
95. 15 Things To Consider
While Using Radar On Ships
96. 10 Things to Consider
While Using Auto-Pilot System on
Ships
97. 10 Important Things To
Do During Ship Collision Accident
 98. Pros and Cons of ECDIS
Or Paperless Navigation Of Ships
99. Types of Main Bearings
of Marine Engines and their
Properties
100. Procedure for Cross Head
Bearing Removal of Marine Engine –
MAN B&W S50MC-C
101. What is a Brace or Strut for
Marine Engines?
102. Jack Bolts for Marine
Engine and the Procedure for
Tensioning
103. Procedure for Removing
Main Bearing of MAN B&W MC-C
Engine
104. Why 2-stroke Engines are
Used More commonly than 4-stroke
on Ships?
105. The Most Popular Marine
Propulsion Engines in the Shipping
Industry
106. What are Breaking-In and
Running-In in Marine Diesel
Engines?
 107. How is Marine Engine
Repair Done On board a Ship?
108. Reasons for Cylinder Liner
Wear and Ways to Measure it
109. How to Measure Cylinder
Liner Bore Wear?
110. Intelligent Engines – The
New Generation Machines
111. An Overview of Common
Rail System of Marine Engines
112. Piston Skirt, Piston Rod and
Trunk Piston
113. Types of Piston Rings and
Piston Ring Maintenance
114. What Is Renewable
Energy?
115. Types of Renewable
Energy Sources
116. Nonrenewable Resources
117. What Is Thermal Energy?
118. Hydel energy
119. Solar power
120. Wind energy
121. TIDAL POWER
122. Geothermal power plants
 123. Power plant
124. How Gas Turbine Power
Plants Work
125. Types of Hydropower
Plants
126. COMBINED CYCLE
POWER PLANT
127. Why is Energy Storage
Such an Important
128. Benefits of Energy Storage
129. Steam Generators
130. Types of Steam Generators
131. Cochran boiler
132. Working Principle of
Cochran Boiler:
133. Lamont Boiler
134. Tower Types and Two Pass
Boilers
135. INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES
136. ENGINE
CLASSIFICATION
137. How Does a Diesel Engine
Work?
138. What’s The Difference
Between 2-Stroke & 4-Stroke
Engines?
139. IC ENGINE MAJOR
PARTS AND ITS FUNCTIONS
140. SINGLE JET
CARBURETOR
141. Mixture Strength
142. Ignition System of Petrol
Engines
143. Diesel Fuel Injection
144. Lubricating system
145. Purpose and method of
lubrication
146. Marine refrigeration system
147. Vapor Compression
Refrigeration System
148. Main Parts Of Vapor
Compression Refrigeration Cycles:
149. Window Air Conditioner
150. What is thermoelectric
cooling?
151. Metal Forming
152. CAD/CAM/CIM
153. Simple Compound Gear
Train
 154. 8 Engine Terms Every
Marine Engineer Should Know
155. Excessive Loss of Water
from Main Engine Fresh Water
Expansion Tank
156. Main Engine Performance
Curve
157. How Massive Main
Engines are Fitted in the Ship’s
Engine Room?
158. Breaking-In and Running-
In in Marine Diesel Engines
159. What is Turbocharger
Surging?
160. Terms Associated with
Turbocharger Surge
161. Methods to Measure
Bearing Clearance
162. Procedure for Cross Head
Bearing Removal of Marine Engine
163. How to Prevent Crankcase
Explosion on a Ship?
164. Intelligent Engines – The
New Generation Machines
165. A Chief Engineer’s
Concern Regarding Slow Steaming of
Ships
166. What is an Entablature in
Ship’s Engine?
167. What is Turbocharger?
168. What is Crash Manoeuvring
of Ship in Emergency Situation and
what’s its Procedure?
169. Cargo Sampling Procedure
on Ships
170. Operation and Maintenance
of Eductor on Ships
171. Maintenance of Butterfly
Valve on Ships
172. High Voltage System on
Ships
173. Insulation Resistance Tests
of High Voltage Equipment
174. Earthing Down in High
Voltage System
175. Lambda Controller and Jet
Assist System on Ships
176. Pneumatic Control Systems
on Ships
177. Troubleshooting Alarm
Monitoring and Control System on
ships
178. Fuel Injection Arrangement
on Large Two Stroke Engines
179. Investigation on Top End
Bearing Failure for Main Engine on
Ships
180. Ignition Delay of Fuel
181. Reduction Gearbox on
Medium Speed Engines on Ships
182. Crankcase Oil for Trunk
Piston Engine – Marine Engineering
183. Checking Fuel Pump
Timing and Quantity on Ships
184. Fuel Oil Sampling During
Bunkering – Marine Engineering
185. Fuel Injector Needle Valve
Seizure – Marine Engineering
186. Marine Engineering Study
Materials
187. Fatigue Failure on Ships –
Marine Engineering
188. Reduction of Scavenge
Pressure after Turbocharger Overhaul
189. Life Boat Release Gear
 Mechanism on Ships

Ship Construction
1. Types of Ships
2. Stresses in ship structures
3. What is sagging stress
4. Moulded Depth
5. What is hogging stress
6. Static stresses and constraints
7. What Materials Are Used For
Building Ships?
8. Most commonly used materials for
shipbuilding
9. Materials Used on Different Parts of
a Ship
10. Floating of Metal
Structures
11. Understanding Different
Types Of Manoeuvres of a Vessel
12. Spiral Manoeuvre
13. Welding Methods And
Weld Defects In Shipbuilding
14. Arc Welding:
 15. Gas Shielded Arc Welding
Processes:
16. Welding Practices in the
Shipbuilding Industry:
17. Weld Defects and Weld
Quality Testing:
18. Ship’s Bottom Structure
19. Single Bottom
20. Double Bottom
21. Longitudinal framing
22. Definitions of hull
elements
23. Longitudinal framing,
deck and shell
24. Types of construction
25. Stresses and constraints on
ship structure
26. Watertight bulkheads
27. Watertight doors
28. Shell and Deck Plating
29. Hull of a Ship
30. Hull Lines and Shape
31. Watertight Bulkheads In
Ships
32. Construction of
 Watertight Bulkheads
33. Pressure Testing of
Watertight Bulkheads
34. SOLAS Rules Pertaining
to Watertight Bulkheads
35. Fire Class of Bulkheads

Ship Design
1. What is a Ship's Stern Tube?
2. Types of Ships by Silhouette
3. Captain's Quarters in English Ships
4. Designs and Components of Sailing
Ships
5. Estimating Costs for Ship Building
and Repairs
6. Pressure Regulatory Mechanism in
Inert Gas (IG) Systems on Ships
7. Components of Inert Gas (IG) Plant
used on Ships – Deck Water Seal
8. Non Return Devices in Inert Gas (IG)
Plant used on Ships – Design
Considerations
9. Inert Gas System on Ships – Design
Considerations
 10. Modern Efficient Ships
Engines and Engine Rooms
11. Functions of Ships Main
Engine Thrust Block, Prop Shaft, and
Stern Tube
12. Role of Flammability
Graph in Safe Cargo Operations
13. Fire Triangle - The Region
to be avoided during Cargo
Operations
14. Types of Sailing Ships -
Oil Tanker Ships
15. What is a Cruise Liner or
a Passenger Ship?
16. Types of Ships – Barge
17. What are FPSO Ships and
their use?
18. What is a Container Ship
and its Uses?
19. A Reefer Ship and its uses
20. Rogue Wave - The Deadly
Sea Monster
21. Oasis of the Sea: The
World's Largest Cruise Ship
PREFACE
The deep blue ocean world has been
bestowed upon men as a valuable resource. It
has afforded men with a variety of benefits,
including navigation, treasures buried within
its waves, and petroleum or other crude fuels
discovered deep beneath its surface. All of
these resources are focused on a marine
engineering degree in order to be exploited
and utilised.
The marine engineering course focuses on
educating students about ways for extracting
crude oil and fossil fuels from deep beneath
the seabed, navigational support for ships,
off-shore reservoir extraction, ship
maintenance and care, and a variety of other
topics. Marine engineers extract and dig up
crude oil and fossil fuels deep beneath the
seabed. The marine engineers track down
ships that have lost their bearings and drag
them back on course. Marine engineers play
an important part in the rescue of many lives.
Not to mention ship maintenance and care,
which is handled by marine engineers. They
look after the ship's upper body, internal
machineries, electrical wiring, and propellers.
This aids in maximising the performance of
the ships and extending their lifespan.
All of these examples demonstrate the need
of a marine engineering study in today's
world. As a result, a marine engineering
school proves to be a godsend for men's
exploitation of the ocean's blue world.
Contrary to popular assumption, marine
engineering is an important part of
engineering for a variety of sectors. Marine
engineering is frequently required by the oil
and gas industry, maritime corporations, and
export-import industries.
Having said that, it merely implies that
marine engineering supports these industries.
Marine engineering benefits these industries
in a variety of ways. As a result, maritime
engineering is in high demand in many of
these industries. Furthermore, it will maintain
maritime engineering relevant for as long as
it is required.
Everyone understands that transportation
needs to be maintained on a regular basis.
They require care in the form of frequent
examinations, repairs, and even a fresh coat
of paint. Marine engineers will be called upon
to assist with ship repairs and upkeep
onboard.
The upkeep of a ship is expensive, but it is
necessary. Maintaining the ship is an
excellent idea if you want to maintain a long-
term business with regular profitability.
Marine engineers are also in charge of
maintaining a boat's safety. Boating
accidents, such as fires, engine failures, and
so forth, are rarely discussed. Boaters and
ship operators frequently assume that nothing
bad will happen onboard. They are, however,
completely incorrect. They completely forgot
that even when the boats are docked or
berthed, anything can happen.
As a result, having a marine engineer on
board to assist with ship maintenance is ideal.
As a marine engineer, you have a
considerable amount of say and influence
over future maritime legislation. This is
primarily due to the fact that maritime
engineers, for obvious reasons, know their
sector better than anyone else. As a result,
they are in a stronger position to advocate for
better maritime legislation.
A marine engineer is a relatively new
engineering specialisation. Certain abilities
and elements, however, can be transferred to
other engineering fields. When marine
engineers are laid off, their transferrable
abilities have proven effective in finding new
jobs in the same industry.
Marine engineers, on the whole, learn distinct
areas of engineering than other types of
engineers. This means that when they are
seeking for a new engineering career, they
can switch to a different type of engineering.
They simply need to upgrade themselves by
upskilling in other areas of engineering.
Marine engineers are beneficial in a variety
of ways. They make a significant contribution
to the maritime industry, which benefits a
variety of other industries that rely on the
water.
What Is Marine
Engineering ?

Water covers over three-quarters of the

world, and we all know that sailing the high
seas is both an adventure and a vocation. This
is where the concept of maritime engineering
comes into play, and this article will provide
you with some fascinating information on the
subject.
Marine engineering is a close cousin of
mechanical engineering and encompasses a
wide range of topics. It mostly refers to the
machinery and other equipment found on
ships, which includes, but is not limited to,
the following.

2-stroke engines: a ship of average size

has at least one major propulsion plant
that is concerned with propeller rotation.
To conserve money, the engine is usually
started on diesel and then switched to
heavy fuel oil.
4-stroke engines: A ship may have three
auxiliary engines, which are four stroke
engines that run on diesel/heavy fuel oil
and are utilised to serve the vessel's power
needs, such as other machineries,
accommodation power, cranes, and
hatches.
Oil purifiers: A ship holds several types
of oil in tanks and appropriate storage
places, such as heavy fuel oil, diesel oil,
lubricating oil, and so on. Prior to
ingestion, this oil must be filtered, which
is accomplished using centrifuges or
purifiers that separate the oil from
impurities based on density differences.
RAC equipment: a ship must travel
literally around the world and is thus
exposed to extremes of temperature and
climate in various parts of the world, as
well as having sub-zero storage facilities
for food to ensure that it lasts longer. As a
result, refrigeration and air conditioning
systems are essential shipboard
accessories.
Boilers: Steam is used on ships for a
variety of functions, including heating
heavy oil, lubricating oil, and regulating
cargo temperature in cargo tanks. This
steam is produced by boilers that are
powered by oil.
Inert Gas Generators: IG generators are
primarily found on board tankers and
OBOs, and they are used to make the
environment of cargo tanks inert, reducing
the risk of fire and explosion during
transportation.
Pumps: Pumps are essential to a ship's
survival because various fluids, such as
water, oil, and cargo, are carried
throughout the vessel. The vessel has a
vast network of pipes for the same
function, and colour labelling is
commonly used to identify one sort of
pipeline from another. Valves are installed
in strategic locations to control and
navigate the direction and quantity of fluid
 flow.
Electronics: A modern ship is equipped
with the most up-to-date technology for
vessel management and safety, such as
radar, transponders, satellite
transmitters/receivers,
automationcircuitry, and so on.

A marine engineer's principal responsibilities

include routine and breakdown maintenance
of the machinery mentioned above. Engineers
work in a hierarchy, with the chief engineer
at the top, and other engineers working as a
team to maintain the machinery. Engineers
must pass tough exams administered by
marine authorities in each country.
The water inspires and awes us just by
thinking about it. Since life began in water,
we all have an innate need to explore the
oceans and seas. Here you can learn about the
intriguing world of ships and the engineering
factors that go into making them.

Marine engineering is a specialist discipline

of study that focuses on the engineering
elements of marine equipment found on
ships, boats, and other vessels. In fact, it is a
wide subject with various allied fields of
study such as naval architecture that, while
not directly related to marine engineering,
serve as sister domains.
Marine vessels exist in a variety of shapes
and sizes, and we will primarily focus on
commercial vessels, while navy vessels are
not that dissimilar in terms of engineering,
though they do have significant distinctions
in terms of purpose and operations.
How are Generators
Synchronized on a
Ship?
Synchronization of generators is a common
task on ships. It is a must that each and every
engineer on board has a complete
understanding of the method. In an
emergency, the engineers must complete the
process manually in a very short amount of
time.
Introduction
Marine generators are well-known for being
the heart of any ship.
Every ship must have at least two generators,
according to maritime legislation. Nowadays,
all ships have between two and three
generators on board. To allow load sharing
and prevent wear out due to high load, a
larger number of generators are used.
The importance of maintaining generators at
regular intervals cannot be overstated. We
will learn how to synchronise generators in
this post when numerous machines are
necessary or one generator needs to be
stopped and the other started in its place.
Let's say a ship has three generators on board,
two of which are used under regular
operating conditions and one of which is
stored as a backup.
When a running generator has to be serviced,
the backup generator is brought online while
the intended generator is turned off. The
standby generator is synchronised with the
other operational generators to bring it into
line.

The main things that are kept in check for

synchronizing a generator are :
● Frequency

● Voltage
● Load
● Phase
Let's have a look how the synchronization of
generators is done manually
Generator Synchronization Procedure-
Before starting
A step by step method for synchronizing
generators in provided below.
1. When a decision of synchronizing
generators in taken, first the bridge should
be notified about the scheduled activity
2. Start the generator that has to be
synchronized. Before starting, prime the
engine with fuel using hand pump. Make
sure the engine block heater is turned off.
3. Open the air valve and then turn on the
engine.
4. Once the engine starts, check if the oil
pressure and cooling water pressure is
adequate. Check if the cooling water
pump is working properly by feeling the
pipes. Once the check is done, close the
air valves.

Synchronizing procedure
Once the engine starts running properly,
synchronization is carried out.
1. In the Engine control room, Check the
pressure gauges.
1. On the generator control panel, check
if all the ground lights are working
properly with adequate brightness.

2. Also check the synchronizing relays

for open position. Bring the running or the
lead generator to the desired optimum
parameters: 480 volts and 60 hertz
3. Bring the generator that is to be
synchronized(0n-coming) to the desired
parameters. Now turn on the
synchronizing relay and keep a close look
at the needle.
4. The needle in the synchroscope will
move at a varying speed initially. Adjust
the speed of the generator by obtaining a
steady slow motion of the needle in the
clockwise direction.
5. Once the needle is moving at a steady
speed, depress the breaker close button
when the needle has traveled three-fourth
of its way. Energize the breakers when the
needle reaches a position similar to the 11'
o'clock position of a clock.
6. After doing this, check the parameters
of the oncoming generator. They should
be same as those of the leading generator.
i.e 480 Volts and 60 hertz
After synchronizing
After the main job of synchronizing, the
following steps are to be carried out.
1. Change the governor control to the off-
going generator.
2. Now the load shown in the guages by
this generator should be removed off the
system as soon as possible before it starts
acting as load(reverse power). This can be
done by quickly pulling the trip breaker as
soon as the generator goes off-line.
3. Once the generator is offline, stop the
engine using a toggle switch.
4. After turning off the engine, turn on
the engine block heater.
 5. At the end, take a proper look at the
control panel gauges for adequate pressure
and even distribution of load.
It must also be noted that load distribution
can be adjusted by varying the fuel supply to
the generator via its governor but for current
sharing to be equal you would need to vary
the excitation current which changes the
power factor of the generator.
Centrifugal Oil
Purifiers - Starting
and Stopping
Procedures
The essential idea of purifier operation is
already known to us...! Let's talk about how
to start and stop purifiers, as well as the
required safety steps to take before starting,
the de-sludging operation, and emergency
stopping....
We're all aware that centrifuges are a
common piece of auxiliary equipment on
ships, and that they can be divided into two
types of operations.
Clarifier, for example, separates particulates
from liquids.
A Purifier, on the other hand, is a device that
separates liquids of varying densities.
The Purifier works on the centrifugal force
theory of separation. However, certain
parameters need be modified before the
purifier is started in order to improve the
purification process. The following are some
of the most critical parameters among those
listed...

1. Feed inlet oil temperature,

2. Density of Oil,
3. R.P.M of the rotating bowl,
4. Back Pressure,
5. Throughput of oil feed.

Insight Of the Parameters...!

1. Feed inlet oil temperature: Before entering
the purifier, the dirty oil passes through the
heater, which increases the temperature, thus
reducing the viscosity of the oil to be
purified. The lower the viscosity, the better
will be the purification.
2. Density of Oil: As the dirty oil entering the
purifier is heated to reduce the viscosity, the
density also reduces. The lower the density,
better the separation.
3. R.P.M of the rotating bowl: If the purifier
has not achieved full rpm(revolutions per
second), then the centrifugal force will not be
sufficient enough to aid the separation.
4. Back Pressure: The back pressure should
be adjusted after the purifier is started. The
back pressure varies as the temperature,
density, viscosity of feed oil inlet varies. The
back pressure ensures that the oil paring disc
is immersed in the clean oil on the way of
pumping to the clean oil tank.
5. Throughput of oil feed: Throughput means
the quantity of oil pumped into the
purifier/hr. In order to optimize the
purification, the throughput must be
minimum.

Pre-checks before starting a Purifier...!

Before starting a Purifier, following checks
are very essential:
1. If the Purifier is started after a overhaul,
then check all fittings are fitted in right
manner. The bowl frame hood locked with
hinges.
2. Check the Oil level in the gear case.
Ensure that it is exactly half in the sight glass.
Also ensure the sight glass is in vertical
position, as there is a common mistake of
fixing it in horizontal position.
3. check the direction of rotation of the
separator, by just starting and stopping the
purifier motor.
4. Check whether the brake is in released
position.

Starting a Purifier...!
1. Ensure the lines are set and respective
valves are open. Usually the lines are set
from settling tank to service tank.
2. Start the purifier feed pump with the 3-way
recirculation valve in a position leading to
settling tank.
3. Open the steam to the heater slightly
ensuring the drains are open so that the
condensate drains. close the drains once
steam appears.
4. Start the Purifier.
5. Check for vibrations, check the gear case
for noise and abnormal heating.
6. Note the current (amps) during starting. It
goes high during starting and then when the
purifier bowl
picks-up speed & when it reaches the rated
speed, the current drawn drops to normal
value.
7. Ensure the feed inlet temperature has
reached optimum temperature for separation
as stated in the Bunker report & nomogram (
bunker delivery note gives the density of the
fuel and using this we can get the separation
temperature and gravity disc size from the
nomogram)
8. Now check whether the bowl has reached
the rated speed by looking at the revolution
counter. The revolution counter gives the
scaled down speed of the bowl. The ratio for
calculation can be obtained from the manual.
9. Now, after the bowl reaching the rated
rpm, check for current attaining its normal
value.
De-sludge procedure:
10. Open the Bowl closing water/Operating
water, which closes the bowl. (Ensure
sufficient water is present in the operating
water tank)
11. Now after 10 seconds, open the sealing
water to the bowl.
12. The sealing water should be kept open till
the water comes out of the waste water outlet.
13. Once the water overflows through the
waste water outlet, stop the sealing water.
14. Now open the de-sludge water/bowl
opening water. (this is done to ensure the
bowl has closed properly). During de-sludge
we can hear a characteristic sound by the
opening of the bowl.
15. Repeat the steps 10, 11 ,12 & 13.
16. Open the 3-way recirculation valve such
that the dirty oil feed is fed into the purifier.
17. Wait for the back pressure to build up.
18. Check for overflowing of dirty-oil
through waste water outlet & sludge port.
19. Now adjust the throughput to a value
specified in the manual. Correspondingly
adjust the back pressure too.
20. Now the purifier is put into operation.
Change over the clean-oil filling valve to
service tank.

After-checks & stopping of purifier...!

Checks after starting the purifier during
regular watches:
1. Adjust the throughput, back pressure,
temperature of feed inlet if necessary
2. gear case oil level, motor amps, general
leakages, vibration have to be monitored
3. De-sludge every 2 hours for heavy oil
purifiers & every 4 hours for lubricating oil
purifiers.( refer manual or chief engineer
instructions)
Stopping of Purifiers:
1. De-sludge the purifier after stopping the
feed inlet.
2. shut down the steam inlet to the oil.
3. Stop the purifier after filling up the bowl
with water.
4. Apply brakes and bring up the purifier to
complete rest.
5. If any emergency, the purifiers has
emergency stops, on pressing it, will stop the
purifiers immediately shutting off the feed.
Thus we have seen in detail how to start the
purifier after carrying out all safety checks
and we have also seen how to stop it...!
What is Puncture
Valve in an engine ?
The puncture valve is made up of a piston
that communicates with the engine's control
air system. When the shutdown system is
activated and the 'STOP' button is pressed,
compressed air causes the piston with pin to
be pressed downward, 'puncturing' the oil
flow to the fuel valve.

The fuel oil is returned through a pipe to the

pump housing as long as the puncture valve is
activated, and no injection occurs. I've also
included a few extra comments and attached
a PDF that explains the puncture valve's
function(s) in greater detail.
Reversing the fuel pump follower on a MAN
B&W engine takes occur only while the
engine is spinning. The fuel pump follower
will move across as the engine starts to rotate
and before fuel is admitted by venting the
fuel pump via the "puncture" valve if the
engine has been stopped from moving ahead
and started astern.
WHICH ACTION SHOULD I TAKE IF AN
AIR START VALVE STICKS OPEN
WHILE DRIVING:
The problematic unit's fuel pump should be
"lifted" (fuel rack zeroed, puncture valve
operated or whatever)...
The Inventor Of The
Steam Turbine:
Charles Parsons

The yacht Turbinia, depicted here, was

propelled by Charles Parson's steam turbine.
In 1897, he showed its speed in front of
Queen Victoria at the British Navy Review,
when it was undoubtedly the quickest
warship on display. The British naval
establishment was impressed, and the turbine
was quickly installed in their most recent
battleships (credit: Wiki)
A plentiful supply of inexpensive energy, as
well as passenger steamships and military
battleships that are significantly faster. These
are only a few of the things that Charles
Parsons, a Birr native who invented the steam
turbine in 1887, made possible.
Charles was born in 1854 and comes from a
long history of excellent scientists. His father
was William Parsons, a prominent
astronomer who in the 1840s erected the
world's largest telescope on the grounds of
Birr Castle.
The steam turbine, which Charles created,
greatly improved the amount of power that
could be extracted from a steam engine. He
became wealthy as a result of his innovation,
which also revolutionised the globe.
Boiler Starting
Failure –
Troubleshooting
On a ship, boiler starting failure is a common
occurrence. A boiler's failure to start might be
caused by a variety of factors. The most
common reasons for a boiler not starting are
discussed in this article.

1) The fuel inlet valve to the boiler burner is

closed: The fuel line for the boiler burner is
made up of numerous valves placed at the
fuel tank, pumps suction, discharge valve, or
valve before the boiler burner. Any of these
can be in the closed position, causing a fuel
shortage.
2) The line filter at the inlet of the fuel line
for the burner is clogged: If the system runs
on heavy oil, the filters in the line may
become clogged. To avoid this, most boiler
systems are designed to switch from diesel to
heavy oil at startup and back to diesel during
shutdown. This keeps the fuel line and the
filter clean.

3) The fuel supply pump on the boiler is not

working: There are two basic reasons why the
fuel supply pump on the boiler is not
working. When the pumps are in pairs, the
changeover auto system is usually set to
manual, and the backup pump will not start
automatically if the main pump fails. Another
explanation is pump tripping owing to a short
circuit in the system, among other things.
4) The solenoid valve in the fuel supply line
has failed.
Although most systems nowadays use
advanced automation, there is a chance that
the solenoid in the gasoline supply line would
malfunction and not open.
5) The flame eye is broken:
A flame eye is a photocell-operated flame
sensor that is installed directly on the
refractory to detect whether or not the burner
is operating. If the flame eye device isn't
working properly, it will send out a trip signal
before the burner fires.
6)The air or steam ratio is incorrect.
The air fuel ratio is critical for effective and
efficient combustion; if there is an excess of
air, there will be an excess of smoke, and if it
exceeds a standard level, the combustion will
burn out, resulting in flame failure.
7) Failure of forced draught fan flaps
For pre-purging and post-purging operations,
forced draught fans (FDF) are employed with
a timer to close the fan flaps to remove
excess gases trapped inside the combustion
chamber. If the flaps fail, constant forced air
will enter the chamber, preventing the burner
from producing flame, resulting in the boiler's
flame failure.
8) Any contactor switch within the control
panel is broken.
Several contactors and PLC cards make up
the boiler control panel. Even a single faulty
contactor might make it difficult for the
boiler to start.
9) The trip has not been reset.
The boiler will not start if any prior trips,
such as low water level, flame failure, or
emergency stop, have not been reset.
10) The atomiser on the main burner is
clogged.
Atomizers are used in main burners to ensure
that fuel is burned efficiently. The burner
may not emit flame if the atomizer is clogged
with sludge and fuel deposits, causing the
boiler to trip.
11) The nozzle on the Pilot Burner is
clogged:
Because the nozzle of a pilot burner is so
small, it is easily clogged by carbon deposits
and sludge, resulting in flame failure. Some
pilot burners have a tiny filter that can
become clogged over time, resulting in flame
failure due to carbon accumulation.
12) The electrodes are not producing a spark.
Electrodes generate the initial spark for
igniting a flame, which can be caused by
carbon deposits on them or a failure in the
electrode circuit, among other things.
Boiler Mountings: A
Comprehensive List
Installing a boiler on a ship does not
guarantee that it will operate efficiently. To
ensure the boiler's safety and quality
performance, many mountings and
attachments must be installed. The article
provides a thorough list of boiler mountings
that are required for a ship's boiler to
function.
Only the mountings specified below can be
used to operate a boiler safely and efficiently:

1) Main steam Stop Valve: The steam

generated in the boiler is supplied to the main
system through this v/v. It is normally non-
return type of valve.
2) Auxiliary steam Stop Valve: If there is
separate steam line provided for small
auxiliary system, it is supplied through this
valve. The valve is smaller in size and usually
of a non-return type.
3) Safety valve: In the event of unsafe
excessive pressure inside the boiler, the
safety valve comes in action to release the
overpressure. The lifting pressure of the valve
is set prior to its installation and locked in the
presence of a surveyor so that it not changed
later on. Safety valves are generally installed
in pairs.
4) Water level gauge glass: Gauge glasses
are also fitted in pairs for manually checking
the water level inside the boiler drum. It is on
the basis of the boiler pressure that the
construction of the gauge glass is decided.
5) Air release valve or boiler vent: This
valve is fitted in the headers, boiler drum etc,
to avoid imploding of boiler when it is
depressurized or when initially raising the
steam pressure.
6)Feed check and control v/v: This valve
controls the supply of steam supply as per the
demand and is fitted in both main and aux
steam line after the stop valve. They are non-
return valves with a visible indication of open
and close position.
7) Pressure gauge connection: This pressure
gauge can be fitted in super heater, boiler
drum and wherever it is necessary to read the
pressure reading.
8) Blowdown valve: It is used to empty the
boiler completely for maintenance purpose or
for water treatment of boiler when the
chloride level becomes very high.
9) Scum blow down valve: It’s a shallow
dish type arrangement fitted at the normal
water level which allows the blow down of
floating impurities, oil foaming etc from the
water surface.
10) Sampling connection: Generally, a
sampling water cock arrangement is also
fitted with cooler in series so that water
sample can be collected at any time for feed
water analysis.
11) Whistle valve: If there is a provision for
steam whistle in the ship, then steam is
supplied directly from the boiler through a
small bore type non-return valve known as
whistle valve.
12) Low Level alarm: A device used to
initiate audible warning at low water level
condition.
13) Soot blowers: Required to blow the soot
and the combustion products from the tube
surfaces. It is operated by steam or
compressed air.
14) Automatic feed water regulator: Device
which is essential to ensure appropriate water
level in all load conditions and is fitted in the
feed line. Multiple element feed water control
system is used in boilers with high
evaporation rate.
How Diesel Engine
Turbochargers Work

Notes from the Mechanic: Without the

turbocharger, a diesel engine is "dead in the
sea." To work properly, high-pressure
atomized diesel injection requires a large
amount of air intake boost. When the turbo
isn't performing properly, you'll see smoke
coming out of the tailpipe.

Mechanic Checks for A

Turbocharger Problem
If you suspect a turbocharger problem and are
working on a mechanical diesel engine, you
can check the boost pressure, which should
be around 20 p.s.i.
With the engine at full throttle and full load,
take a reading from the intake manifold.
Connect a line to the engine and take a test
drive to ensure you receive a nice heavy pull.
Remove the intake side of the turbo (it's
easier than the exhaust side) and inspect the
compressor wheel and shaft for any
movement or damage, as well as traces of
engine oil in the pipework.
The air filter and piping are important
components of the air induction system that
must not be disregarded. Checking for a
restriction in the air filter and physically
inspecting the pipes for loose clamps and
perforations are simple processes. A high-
pitched whistle, not to be mistaken with the
characteristic whine of a turbocharger under
load, will be the first warning of a hole in the
piping or a loose clamp.
Setting the park brake (and wheel chocks as
an added precaution), foot brake on,
transmission in gear, and throttling up the
engine RPM until you feel a load is a typical
problem that can be checked. You'll need
help with this test so you can search for leaks
and feel for them.
Electronically regulated diesel engines will
most likely display a trouble code on the
dashboard that must be diagnosed using a
laptop and software. The modern Mechanic
requires software and a laptop...if you don't
have them, you'll be battling for your life.
Difference between
safety valve and
relief valve
Difference bw safety valve and relief
valve
The word "relief valve" refers to a relief
device on a filled vessel. The opening of such
a valve is proportional to the increase in
vessel pressure. As a result, if the pressure is
steadily increased, the valve does not open
abruptly.

The word "safety valve" refers to a relief

device on a compressible filled vessel. The
opening of such a valve is abrupt. When the
valve's specified pressure is reached, the
valve almost completely opens.

The main differences are capacity and

setpoint. The purpose of a relief valve is to
alleviate pressure and prevent an
overpressure situation. An operator may be
stationed at a relief valve to help in opening
the valve in response to a control signal. A
safety valve, or a series of safety valves, is
designed to release pressure without the need
for human intervention, and it must be
capable of releasing more energy than the
energy supplied to the volume being
protected.

For example, if a heat exchanger is separated

yet thermal expansion of the fluid could
generate overpressure circumstances, a
thermal relief valve is utilised to bleed off
pressure in the heat exchanger. Thermal
reliefs usually have a limited capacity.

On a boiler or other types of fired pressure

vessels, a safety valve must be capable of
withdrawing more energy than can be
delivered into the vessel. It's possible to get
away with using 110 percent of the boiler's
rated capacity. The ASME Boiler & Pressure
Vessel Code is a good place to start when
sizing safety valves.
Engine Safety
Devices
The main engine safety mechanisms are
included in the system to protect the main
engine in the event of a system failure. When
all of the other alarms and trips fail, these
safety mechanisms installed in the main
engine are the last line of defence for the
engine and its components. These are mostly
pressure relief valves that release excess
pressure built up in the event that the engine
malfunctions and no action is taken to
remedy or avoid the situation in advance.
SOME OF THE MAIN ENGINE SAFETY
DEVICES FITTED IN THE MAIN
ENGINE :
● Crank case Relief Door

● Scavenge Space Relief Door

● The Starting Air LIne Relief valve .
● Cylinder head Relief valve
● Flame trap.
 ● Oil mist detector.
● Running Direction Interlock
● Turning gear Interlock.
Main Engine Slow Down
When there is an issue in the system, the
main engine slows down automatically to
minimise more harm later on. When these
defects are corrected, the engine
automatically tunes to the sea speed. This is
the first stage in correcting the errors, and it
also shows that there will be significant
damage, therefore correct the defects as soon
as feasible.
Main Engine Safety Trips :
When no corrective action is taken to the
alert, the main engine is tripped manually,
and in some circumstances the main engine is
triggered automatically.
Manual tripping of the main engine is
performed in the event of a collision or
grounding of the ship while sailing in
congested waters or while the ship is
navigating in limited vision.
When any main engine trips are activated, the
main engine stops and must be restarted using
starting air after the faults have been
corrected.

SOME OF THE MAIN ENGINE TRIPS

ARE :
1. Over Speed Trip
2. Low Lube oil pressure Trip
3. Camshaft Lube oil low pressure Trip
4. Jacket cooling water low pressure Trip
5. Piston cooling water low pressure Trip
6. Thrust Bearing High pressure Trip
7. Main Bearing high pressure and
temperature Trip.
8. Oil Mist Detector
9. Spring air pressure Low Trip
10. Emergency Manual Trip.
Marine
Compressors:
Operation,
Maintenance, and
Troubleshooting
This article discusses the various types of
compressors used on board, the uses of
compressed air on board, compressor
unloading, compressor safety features,
compressor operating procedure,
reciprocating compressor routine
maintenance, valve overhaul procedure, and
troubleshooting, among other topics.
On-Board Compressors: There Are
Several Types
Compressors are used to compress gases by
reducing the volume and increasing the
pressure at the same time. Compressors come
in a variety of shapes and sizes, and they're
utilised for a variety of purposes onboard.
Refrigeration compressors are utilised in the
air conditioning and refrigeration industries.
We have air compressors that supply
compressed air to the engines, as well as
compressors on the turbochargers that supply
compressed air to the engines for combustion.
Centrifugal compressors, rotary vane
compressors, rotary screw compressors,
reciprocating air compressors, and other types
of compressors exist. We'll talk about
reciprocating air compressors in this article.
Different types of air compressors are used
onboard. There are main air compressors for
providing high pressure air for starting the
main engine and auxiliary engines, control air
compressors for supplying control air,
topping air compressors for topping up and
accounting for leakages, and deck air
compressors for providing air for use on
decks on some ships. We also offer a specific
oil-free compressor for filling breathing air
bottles, which we call breathing air
compressors.
In general, two air pressures are used: 30 bar
high pressure air for starting the engines and
7 bar low pressure air for control and general
service air. We often utilise reciprocating air
compressors for applications needing air
above 7 bars since they have a more positive
seal than other types of compressors such as
rotary vane, centrifugal, rotary screw, and so
on. Due to the limit of 1:7 compression ratio
in reciprocating compressors due to
temperature buildup, the machine must be a
second stage compressor with intercooling to
achieve 35 bar pressure. Two-stage
reciprocating compressors with intercooling
and aftercooling are the most common marine
compressors.

Marine Reciprocating Engine

Uses Of Compressed Air Onboard

Merchant Ships
* On merchant ships compressed air is used
for a variety of uses some of which have been
mentioned below:
* For automation and control of main
engines, auxiliary engines, etc.
* For starting of the main engines, auxiliary
engines, emergency generators, emergency
fire pumps, etc.
* For heaving the life boat up by the use of an
air motor.
* For pressurizing the hydrophores for
domestic fresh water and sanitary water used
in accommodation.
* For use in the sewage plant for conducting
aerobic sewage breakdowns.
* For use in fog horns and ships whistles.
* For use in pneumatic tools like pneumatic
grinder, pneumatic chisels, pneumatic drills,
pneumatic spanners, etc.
* For use in painting operations.
* For general cleaning.
* For soot blowing of the boilers.
* Used in pneumatic pumps for oil transfer.
* And used as general service air

Unloading Of The Compressors

All compressors need to be unloaded during
starting, stopping, and at regular intervals. It
is for the following reasons:
1. During the starting of a motor the starting
current is very high, so to avoid further
overloading of the motor the compressor is
started unloaded. When the current comes
down to the running value, the unloader is
closed and the compressor comes on load.
2. As the air is compressed in volume it
releases a large amount of moisture. This oily
water mixture is incompressible and if it is
present inside the compression chamber it can
damage the piston and the valves. For this
reason also the compressor is started
unloaded so that all the moisture present
inside is drained.
3. At stopping the same is done so as to drain
all the moisture inside and in preparation for
the next starting.
4. Intermittently the compressor is unloaded
to remove the condensed water inside which
could go outside with the air.
For the purpose of unloading there are
different types of unloaders some of them are
pneumatic and some are solenoid operated.
They all have a timer in the circuit which
energizes the solenoid at the starting,
stopping, and intermittently.

SAFETY FEATURES OF MARINE

COMPRESSORS
Marine compressors have various safety
features and cutouts installed so that they will
trip when running in an unsafe mode. The
compressors are reliable machines, but have
to be maintained properly and in the proper
intervals. There have been cases of the
cylinder heads bursting and often resulting in
fatalities. The various safety devices put in a
marine compressor are as follows:
1. Lubricating oil low pressure trip
2. Cooling water high temperature trip
3. Motor overload trip and Motor overheating
trip

OPERATING PROCEDURE OF A
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
The operating manual of the particular
machine would give the specific items to be
checked and the same must be read by the
marine engineer upon joining the ship.
However a rough guideline has been
presented below:
1. Lubrication: check the oil level in the sump
and in the lubricator tank.
2. Unloading: the valves in the unloading
lines must be open.
3. Pressure gauge cocks: the cocks must be
slightly open to avoid excessive pressure
fluctuations which can damage the pressure
gauges.
4. Air filter: check that the air intake filter is
clean.
5. Cooling: check that the cooling water
pressure is correct and in the case of attached
pumps a visual check of the pump and all the
valves in the line must be open.
6. Relief valves: some relief valves have hand
testing levers given for testing, the same can
be done.
7. Air line piping: check that all the valves in
the discharge piping are open and correctly
lined up.
8. Final check: the compressor can be turned
a few revolutions with a turning bar to check
for the free movement.
After the above checks have been made a
compressor may be started with the unloaders
open.

ROUTINE MAINTENANCE OF
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
Though the maintenance done on the
compressors onboard would depend on the
manufacturer's advice and the planned
maintenance program set up by the company,
the below is a rough guideline about what is
to be done for a new joining marine engineer.
1. Clean air filter at 250 running hours.
Though neglected and often thought as
ordinary, this filter is in fact very important
as it is filtering the contaminants from
coming inside the compression space and
reducing abrasions on the liner surface. Also
a dirty air inlet filter can raise the delivery
temperature of the air to a dangerous level
which can be well above the lubricating oil
flash point and near the auto ignition point.
Thus a badly maintained air inlet filter can
cause an explosion.
2. Clean and inspect valves at 250 running
hours. The valve is the heart of the
compressor, and it operates once every
revolution. The valves can be damaged due to
impact forces or due to the ingress of foreign
particles. Excessive lubrication also has been
known to damage the valves. The valves
should be removed, inspected, and
overhauled at regular intervals. A broken
valve can fall onto the piston and cause
extensive damages, thus for this reason the
valve maintenance is of vital importance.
3. Change crankcase oil at 500 running hours.
Lubricating oil can lose its property over a
period of time due to the onerous operating
conditions. However the synthetic lubricating
oils can be used for a longer period.
4. Check drive belts at 250 running hours. A
v-belt is generally used to drive the cooling
water pump. The tightness of the belt should
be checked and adjusted to the correct value
at proper intervals. In addition a belt dressing
spray would protect the belts as well as
increase the transmission of the power and
reduce the slippage.
5. Check unloader operation at 250 running
hours. At a regular interval the operation of
the unloaders should be checked and if not
satisfactory should be investigated and
corrected.
The above is an example of the routine
maintenance of the air compressors. In
addition to the above at routine intervals the
piston would have to be pulled out and the
piston rings changed, bumping clearances
checked, bearings changed. All this would be
done on the basis of the planned maintenance
program based on the manufacturer’s advice.

VALVES OVERHAUL PROCEDURE

The compressor must first be electrically
isolated with the fuses removed and an
electrical isolation and work permit granted
by the chief engineer. Thereafter the first
stage and the second stage suction and
discharge valves should be removed and
brought to the workshop for overhauling.
Marine compressors use the HOERBIGER
automatic valves. The suction and the
discharge valves look similar; however the
direction of the operation and the spring
stiffness differs. The suction valve springs are
of lower spring stiffness than the discharge
ones and they must never be mixed up. Also
when using new spare parts the part number
must be carefully checked from the operation
and maintenance manual to avoid mixing
them up.
When opened up the suction valves are found
to be in clean condition while the discharge
valves would have some degree of
carbonization. In case a valve is opened up
and some parts are found to be broken, all the
broken parts must be located to avoid any
further damage to the machine. An exploded
view of the compressor valve has been shown
and the overhaul procedure is as follows:
1. Remove the split pin and open the castle
nut.
2. Dismantle all the parts and soak in
kerosene or clean diesel oil.
3. Clean all the parts with a soft brush. In
case of a hard deposit a copper plate of
washer can be used for the scraping action.
4. Check the valve plates and the valve seats
for any damage and cracks. If any signs of
fatigue cracks on the valve plates are present,
then the valve plate must be replaced with
new ones. The valve plate must never be
turned over and used as it can lead to fatigue
failure.
5. The valve plate and the valve seat must be
separately lapped on a surface plate using
fine and extra fine grinding paste.
6. Thereafter all the parts must be washed
with diesel and cleaned with compressed air.
7. The valve should then be assembled, with
the lapped surface of the valve plate and the
valve seat facing each other.
8. After the assembly of the valve the
operation of the valve should be checked by a
soft wooden stick.
After the overhaul the valves have to be
checked for leakage. The space above the
valve plate should be filled up with water or
light oil like kerosene. If after a few minutes
no drop in level or leakage is there then the
valve is satisfactory for the use. While
installing care should be taken to avoid the
interchange of the suction and the discharge
valves, as it could lead to an explosion due to
over pressurization of the compression
chamber.
Compressor Automatic Valve

Troubleshooting Marine Compressors

Though the problems encountered onboard
differ from ship to ship, a brief guideline is
given regarding the causes of the different
symptoms.
1. Lube oil pressure low: causes can be
leakage in pipes, suction strainer choked, oil
grade wrong, gear pump faulty, faulty
pressure gauge, increased clearances of the
bearings, and oil level low.
2. Cooling water high temperature: causes
can be cooling water valves closed, cooling
water piping blocked, cooling water pump
belt lose or broken, cooling water pump
faulty, no flow of cooling water, and low
level of cooling water in the expansion tank.
3. Compressor noisy: causes can be bearings
worn, crankshaft end play high, discharge
pressure high, poor foundation, small
bumping clearance, piston rings worn, liner
worn out causing piston slap, valves not
properly seated, and valves broken or faulty.
4. First stage discharge pressure low: causes
can be that the first stage suction valve is not
closing fully and allowing the air to leak
during the compression or it is not opening
fully allowing less air to come in the chamber
or the discharge valve is faulty and opening
prematurely or incorrect springs have been
fitted which are compressing on little
pressure, intake filter fouled, leakage from
piston rings.
5. First stage discharge pressure high: causes
can be that the second stage suction valve is
not holding and while compression high
pressure air is coming to the intercooler and
showing an increase in the pressure,
intercooler tubes choked.
6. Second stage discharge pressure low:
causes can be leakage from the piston rings,
second stage suction valve faulty and
allowing the air to escape, second stage
discharge valve leaking or opening
prematurely due to wrong springs fitted.
7. Second stage discharge pressure high:
causes can be obstruction in the after cooler,
obstruction in the discharge valve, air bottle
pressure high, second stage discharge valve
springs very stiff.
The above is just a brief exposure to the
problems encountered onboard and how it
must be investigated. An experienced marine
engineer keeps an eye on the parameters and
knows when maintenance is expected.

Conclusion
A compressed air system used onboard is
very important to the marine engineer and
without any air the ship would soon become a
dead ship. The various parts of the
compressed air system, be it the compressors,
the pipe lines, or the air bottles have to be
maintained in good condition. In this article a
brief guideline has been given about the
compressors used onboard, use of
compressed air onboard, the safety devices
fitted, the importance of unloading during
starting, the operating procedure, the basic
maintenance, the valves overhaul procedure
and the trouble shooting have all been
discussed.
‘’It is hoped it would guide
junior engineers about the various facts of
marine compressors’’.
Different Phases of
Combustion in an
Diesel Engine
Diesel and gasoline engines are similar in that
they both use atomized fuel and internal
combustion to generate power.
The distinction is in the stages of the power
explosion. A gasoline engine's cylinders are
injected with an air-fuel mixture, which is
then ignited for combustion. Before injecting
the fuel, a diesel engine compresses the air.
The air is warmed by compression, which
enhances ignition efficiency. A diesel
engine's combustion occurs in three stages.

First Phase of Combustion - Ignition delay

period
Ignition delay period is the time span
between commencement of injection and the
start of ignition.
· The fuel emerges into the cylinder as small
liquid particles, which are surrounded by hot
compressed air.
· They receive heat from the air and more
volatile constituents of the fuel vaporise.
· During the ignition delay period a large
part of the fuel charge is prepared for
combustion.
· During the ignition delay, the injector
continued to inject the fuel and, if this has
built up a sufficient quantity, the rapid
combustion and pressure rise will be quite
violent, causing detonation and shock loading
creating a noise termed diesel knock.
Second Phase of Combustion - Flame
spread
Rapid or uncontrolled combustion usually
occur just after the ignition of the fuel
vapours.
· After ignition commences flame
propagation proceeds very quickly in the
fuel vapour or air mixture, accompanied by
rapid temperature and pressure rise.
 · Towards the end of the rapid pressure
rise a point is reached where the rate of
pressure rise falls away quickly, and the
curve flattens out towards the maximum
pressure point.
· The point where the rate of pressure rise
changes near and approaching the
maximum pressure point is the end of the
second phase of combustion.
Combustion Process

Combustion Process
1.Start of Injection
2.Beginning of Ignition
3.Maximum Pressure
4.End of Injection
5.End of Ignition
6.End of After Burning
1 - 2 : Ignition - Delay Period
2 - 3 : Rapid / Uncontrolled Combustion
2 - 4 : Ignition Period
3 - 4 : Controlled Combustion
5 - 6 : After Burning
Third Phase of Combustion - Direct
burning
Controlled combustion is regulated by the
rate at which fuel continues to be delivered.
· This shows only a small pressure rise, as
the rate is decreased due to downward
movement of the piston.
· The end of injection occurs
approximately at or slightly beyond the
maximum pressure point.
After Burning
After burning is said to occur when
the third phase of combustion extends over a
long period.
It may be caused by incorrect
fuel grade, bad atomization, poor or excess
penetration, incorrect fuel temperature,
incorrect injection timing, insufficient air
supply, or any combination of these.
Slow burning, high viscosity, high
density, high carbon content fuels may also
cause after burning of a serious nature
leading to engine damage.
Effect of After Burning
After burning creates high exhaust
temperatures and may cause overheating of
the engine in severe cases. Some drop in the
maximum firing pressure usually
accompanies this. There is a loss of thermal
efficiency when after burning occurs, due to
greater loss of heat to exhaust gases and the
transfer of large amount of heat to the cooling
water. There is a risk of damage to exhaust
valves and scavenge fires.
Operational
Advantages of Tri-
Fuel Diesel Electric
Propulsion (TFDE)
Over Diesel Engine
Propulsion
This discussion focuses on LNG ships in
general. The two most well-known LNG ship
designs, Q-flex and TFDE, are being
compared.

You can simply compare the functioning of

an electrically propelled ship to that of a
normal diesel-powered ship.
 Tri-Fuel diesel Electric Propulsion Ships
(TFDE) Operations
TFDE stands for Tri-Fuel diesel electric
propulsion ships specifically for LNG
carriers.
Let us now see the general operational
advantages from an Engineering point of
view.
1. These ships have no Main propulsion
diesel engine. They just have two small
electrical motors. Thus less space and weight
which can be used for cargo carrying.
2. Almost “zero” maintenance on electrical
motors when compared to main diesel
engines.
3. The bottom platform is almost empty
without main diesel engines. Thus greater
flexibility for locating machineries.
4. No scavenge space waste oil production.
No cylinder oil and main lube oil Usage.
5. The ship can be constructed without any
main engine sump space for lube oil and thus
associated cofferdams.
6. No starting air pipelines and starting air
compressors for main engine.
7. No HFO/MDO purifiers will be running as
in diesel ship and thus less maintenance and
cost.
8. Sludge production is very minimal and
condensate from main engine, its associated
tank can be neglected.
9. Easier watch keeping as parameters are
less to monitor in the absence of main
propulsion engine.
10. No vibrations and noise as compared to
diesel engines.
11. The electrical motors can run even at 1 or
2 RPMs. Thus adding greater navigational
advantages.
12. No limitations in number of starts on
diesel engine.
13. Departure or arrival port, notice time
required is very less when compared to a
diesel engine propelled ship.
14. Complex electrical, electronic circuits and
transformers for propulsion motor and speed
control devices are required.
15. Sea water piping and cooling circuits are
comparatively smaller.
16. Regular transfer of fuel is not required as
the ship's generator runs on gas.
17. The ship is generally classed as high
voltage as the operating voltage may be of the
order of 6600 Volts to 11kV.
18. Electric motor starting problems are very
less when compared to diesel engine
reversing and starting problems.
19. Electrical braking of the propulsion shaft
is very much effective when compared to
mechanical breaking in case of diesel
engines.
20. The total operational cost of the ship is
very less when compared to a diesel engine
propelled ship.
These are some of the operational advantages
of an electrically propelled ship over a diesel
engine propelled ship. More of automation
and engines which run on gas offer engineers
a real peace of life on board a ship.
MAN B&W G-
Engines - Green Ultra-
Long-Stroke G-type
Engines
Since we are all familiar with Intelligence
Engines, the field has prepared the way for
GREEN ENGINES that are environmentally
friendly.

As part of a propulsion package, the green

ultra long stroke G-type engine delivers lower
rpm with significant fuel and CO2 reductions
of up to 7%.

“The G-type is an ultra-long-stroke engine

and marks the biggest development within
our engine portfolio since the successful
introduction of the ME electronic engine
during the last decade,” said Ole Grne, Senior
Vice President Low-Speed Sales and
Promotions, MAN Diesel & Turbo.
The G-type engine is based on the concepts
of the Mk 9 large bore (“S-type”) engine
series, which was debuted in 2006. The G-
type has an even longer stroke to reduce
engine speed, paving the possibility for ship
designs with previously unheard-of
efficiency. In recent years, MAN Diesel &
Turbo has kept a close eye on the growth of
the maritime business, particularly the trend
toward fuel optimization. Customers have
shown a strong interest in the G-type engine,
prompting the development of a
comprehensive engine programme in the G-
series, ranging from 50 to 80 bore.

The G-type is an ultra long stroke engine that

marks the most significant advancement in
the MAN B&W engine range since the ME
electronic engine's initial launch.
Rationale for G-type introduction
Tanker and bulkers have traditionally used
MAN B&W S-type engines with their long
stroke and low engine speed as prime movers,
while larger container vessels have tended to
use the K-type engines with their higher
engine speed.

Savings in operating costs %

Propeller - 3.6
Engine - 1.0
Total - 4.6
In recent years, larger container vessels have
also been specified with S-type engines
because of the opportunity they offer to
employ larger propeller diameters.
Using the latest aft-hull designs that allow the
use of larger and more efficient propellers,
the new MAN B&W G-type engines will
enable tankers and bulk carriers to operate at
even lower speeds and fully exploit the
savings potential.
BENEFITS

Longer stroke reduces the engine speed,

facilitating ship designs with higher
efficiency
● Follows the market trend for fuel
optimization
● Delivers power with significant fuel
savings and CO2 emission reduction
● Enables vessels to be fitted with larger
and more efficient propellers
● Equipped with the latest B&W
technologies including auto-tuning, Alpha
lubricator and fully integrated electronic
controls.
SULZER
specifications & it's
easy to
understand,made
easy
When looking at Sulzer engine’s
specifications, there is always some
ambiguity. MAN B&W is very clear with its
specifications, however Sulzer never gave
one. That doesn’t mean MAN B&W is better
than Sulzer engines.
Sulzer AG, a Swiss company, started in 1834
by the Sulzer brothers.
Want to know who were Sulzer Brothers?
It’s Mr.Salomon Sulzer and Mr. Bernet
who formed Sulzer Brothers Limited first in
1775 and then established as Sulzer Ltd. A
known employee of Sulzer was Rudolf
Diesel, who invented the Diesel Engine.
In 1990, Sulzer spun off the diesel engine
division into a separate company named
“New Sulzer Diesel” (NSD) and sold most of
the shares. In 1997 NSD was absorbed by
Wartsila, creating Wartsila NSD.
The Sulzer brand among seafarers
particularly known in connection with the
Sulzer RTA engines, the most reliable series
of Sulzer engines that was first built in 1982.
Other engine types that are still in use, the
RND, RND-M and the RL series. Wartsila
Sulzer RTA96-C, the biggest engine in the
world and the 14 cylinder RT-flex 96C
delivers a total output of 108,920 hp at 102
rpm. The machine is over 23 meters long.
Below table shows complete series of engines
which Sulzer has developed over a century.
Year Type of Cylinder diameter in cm
Engine

1908 S 18 – 90
–
1931

1908 Z (ZA, ZF, 52,60,65,68,72,76

– ZPF, ZT)
1932

1929 DZ (DZL, 60,70,76

– DZD)
1937

1929 SN 48
–
1937

1930 DS (DSD, 53,60,70,72,76

– DSDT,
1946 DSDG,
MSD, KD)

1932 SD (SDT, 36,40,48,49,56,58,60,65,68,72,76

– SPD, MS,
1964 KD, SDS,
SDH, SF)

1934 ZD (ZDA) 58,76

–
1954

1950 RS (RSD, 58,76

– RSG,
1963 RSAD)

1950 SAD 60,72

–
1963

1956 RD (RD, 44,56,68,76,90

– RF)
1987

1967 RN (RND, 68,76,90,105

– RNF,
1981 RNMD)

1976 RN M (RND 68,76,90

– M, RNF M)
1989

1977 RL (RLA, 56,66,76,90

– RLB)
1988

1982 - RT 38,48,52,58,62,68,72,76,84,96
(RTA,RTA
M, RTA C,
RTA U,
 RTA T)

1998 RT Flex 48,50,58,60,68,82,84,96

The letter ‘R‘ in the engine designations goes

back to the Sulzer RSD two-stroke low-speed
engine types introduced in 1950. The letter
‘R‘ stood for ‘Revidierter’, so the RSD types
were ‘revised’ versions of the SD engine
types that had been developed since 1930.
Built in two bore sizes, 58 and 76cm, the
RSD engines were the first two-stroke low-
speed engines designed and built by Sulzer
that had fully welded structures (columns and
bedplates). Turbocharged versions followed
in 1956 with the RSAD engine types.

The letter ‘R‘ was then retained over the

following years in the RD, RND, RND..M,
RLA, RLB, RTA and RT-flex engine types.
Yet after the RSD and RSAD designations,
the letter lost any connotation of ‘revised’. It
was simply kept as an easily-recognised
identifier for Sulzer low-speed engines. When
electronically-controlled common-rail
systems were applied in 1998, the designation
RTA was adapted to RT-flex to emphasise
the key feature of flexibility given by the new
technology.’

Parameters RD RND

Turbocharger Pulse (No Constant

auxiliary Pressure
Blower)

Scavenging Loop Loop and

Under piston
space

Exhaust valve Rotary flap Exhaust

valve ports

Stroke Bore 1.7 1.7

Ratio

Piston Convex Convex

shape shape

Piston cooling Water Water

Fuel pump Suction Suction
valve valve and
control, no spill valve
spill valve

Drive Chain Gear

Cylinder Mechanical Mechanical

Lubrication drive drive

Cylinder quills Quills at Quills only

upper part at upper part

Cross head Two piece Two piece

bearing type type

Piston skirt short Long

SFOC 208 g/bhp/hr 203 – 208

MEP 8.6 10.6 – 12.3

Peak Pressure 76 bar 84 – 94 bar

Power/ cycle 1700 KW 2100 – 2500
KW

Piston Speed 6.1 m/s 6.3

Wartsila v/s MAN Marine Engines- Who’s is

the best ?

The stronger the marine engine, the more

propulsion power and speed the ship may
achieve. There are only a few countable
names in the market when it comes to picking
marine engines for ships, like MAN B&W
and Wartsila. We will compare the two most
powerful marine engine brands in the
maritime business in this post. The two front-
runner giants for supplying propulsion
solutions to the shipping industry, as
discussed in one of our previous articles,
MAN Diesel Turbo (previously known as
MAN B&W) and Wartsila (previously known
as SULZER), are the two front-runner giants
for supplying propulsion solutions to the
shipping industry. Both Wartsila and MAN
are competitors with the top products and
R&D in the business. In this essay, we will
evaluate the various propulsion systems
offered by these two corporations and
determine which technique has the upper
hand. Note: This comparison was created
using the input of competent maritime
engineers who have worked on both of these
engines. This is not, however, a criterion for
selecting marine engines for a ship.
Wartsila v/s MAN Marine Engines

Technology/ Wartsila MAN Diesel

System SULZER Turbo
Intelligent RT Flex- A ME Engine-
Engine complete Complete
electronically electronically
controlled controlled
engine with engine
common rail integrated
system with
hydraulic
control.
Fuel Injection Common rail Hydraulic
System Electronic actuated
control with Electronic
Delta Injection Control
System Injection
system

Exhaust Valve Electronically Camshaft

Control controlled operated
variable Exhaust valve
exhaust valve for reliable
timing operation

Fuel Injectors Conventional Zero Sac

fuel injectors Volume type
fuel injectors
with slide
 valve

Fuel Pump Spill, suction Jerk type

valve plunger barrel
controlled controlled
pump with pump with
VIT Super VIT

Starting Air Starting air Starting air

system valve opened valve open by
by 30 bar air 30 bar air and
and a closing shut by
supply for spring.
positive shut Bursting disc
along with provided to
spring. avoid
A relief valve overpressure
in air manifold during
to avoid explosion
overpressure
during starting
airline
 explosion.
Piston and Convex OROS type
Rings shaped piston Piston for
with Jet better
Shaker combustion
cooling. area and
Chromium reduction in
coated Piston piston
ring. temperature.
Controlled
Pressure
Relief type
top piston
ring.

Cylinder Liner Fine honed Bore cooled

and bore liner.
cooled Liner
with mid layer
insulation.

Main Bearing White metal Tri metal

bearing lined bearing with
on thin back. high load
 carrying
capacity.

Crosshead 12-15 bar Small size

pressure from bearing with
separate pump oil wedges to
supplied to retain oil
bigger size which is
plain bearing. supplied by
normal
system
pressure.

Cylinder Electronically Alpha

Lubrication controlled Adaptive
Pulse Cylinder
Lubrication Lubrication
System with control
metered system
quantity allowing
injection blending of
cylinder oil
for different
grade of
 sulphur in
fuel

Drive Gear driven Chain driven

with timing with 2 chains
gear driving driving a
the camshaft camshaft

Turbocharging Prefers Axial Variable

turbocharger Turbine
with constant Angle
pulse system. turbocharger
provides
better
operation at
all load range
Exhaust Valve Conventional W seat for
Valve seat better
with Nimonic operation and
and Stellite increased time
 coating between
overhaul.
Dura spindle
with better
heat resistant
property.
Miscellaneous Tribo pack Electronic
allows monitoring
increased time system for
between safe
overhaul of operation.
cylinder
component up
to 3 years.
Electronic
monitoring
system for
safe operation

From the above comparison, it can be seen

that MAN has
an edges over Wartsila by a thin margins.
However, with the world’s most powerful
marine engine (Wärtsilä RT-flex96C) in its
basket, Wartsila is one company that doesn’t
have to prove anything.
Ball piston engine - A
high efficient power
The notion was first introduced in 1990. It
then used a tweaked version of the tried-and-
true otto cycle. There were 4, 8, and 12 or
more strokes. One or more pistons may be
present. They're each encased in a cylinder. A
heated gas or a pressurised gas is introduced.
Compressors, pumps, motors, and engines
can all benefit from the machine design
concept. Because this engine uses spherical
ball pistons, there are fewer moving parts, a
higher power-to-weight ratio, no complex
valve train or water cooling system, and a
good dynamic balance.
A unique kinematic design has fully reduced
inertial loads (which contribute to sliding
friction). To prevent the usage of piston rings
to reduce leakage, a slight clearance is
maintained on the ball piston. As a result, the
flow across the piston is obstructed. The
characteristics listed above allow for a more
efficient engine than traditional piston
engines. The engine makes use of silicon
nitride ball piston technology, which
eliminates the need for extensive
development.

The ball piston engine is a very

efficient power source.
A patentable new power machine concept has
been conceived and analysed for
manufacturing, with positive findings from
proof of principle subscale tests.
Compressors, pumps, motors, and engines
can all benefit from the machine design
concept. The minimal moving component
count, high power to weight ratio, elimination
of valve train and water cooling systems, and
excellent dynamic balance are all possible
thanks to the simplicity of the design based
on spherical ball pistons. The new design
concept makes use of cutting-edge kinematics
to totally reduce inertial loads that cause
sliding friction. Without piston rings, low
leakage is also maintained by utilising a tiny
clearance on the ball piston, resulting in
choked flow beyond the ball. These attributes
give rise to the possibility of a more efficient
engine than traditional piston engines. The
engine design takes advantage of modern
technology, such as silicon nitride ball
pistons, and hence does not necessitate a
major research effort.

Free Piston Engine

In Detail
The Free Piston Engine is a combination of
reciprocating engine and rotary turbine. It is
called free piston engine because the freedom
motion for Mechanical linkage which gives
variable stroke according to load.
ADVANTAGES

1. Mechanical simplicity
2. Less power to weight ratio

3. Lower turbine operating temperatures

4. Multi fuel capability
5. Flexibility and reliability
6. Easy starting and control

LIMITATIONS
1. Poor fuel economic
2. Less stability
3. Poor part load efficiency
4. High combustion rates
5. Reduction gearing
APPLICATIONS

1. Free piston engines are widely used as

submarine air compressor units
2. These engines are suitable for power
generation in medium power range
3. Free piston engine have been tride in ship
propulsion, road and rail traction and even in
aircrafts.
4. It is used in mixed gas steam cycle.
 The Diesel engine
and its development
ENGINES aren't built in a single evening...
As engineers, we should all be aware of the
history of engines...

1673 Christian Huygens, a Dutch scientist,

produces the first known heat engine from his
inspiration of a cannon. Mr. Huygens place a
cannon vertically, and used a piston instead
of a cannonball. The cannon had exhaust
valves near the top and the piston was
attached to a weight by means of rope and
pulley. He calculated that a .5 kg of
gunpowder could lift 1360 kg piston over
nine meters. But the absence of a reliable fuel
hampered its development.

1736 In England, a patent for a Newcomen

engine-powered steamboat is issued to
Jonathan Hulls. But until improvements are
made to the steam engines, by James Watt In
1821, the concept is found to be not feasible.
1776 France's Marquis Claude de Jouffroy,
and his colleagues, successfully sail the first
steamship on the Doubs River. The
'Palmipède', a 13 metre long vessel, is
powered by rotating paddles.
1787 In Virginia, USA, James Rumsey is
granted a patent, one year after sailing the
Potomac River in the first steam powered,
pump-driven (water jet) boat.

1791 Englishman John Barber receives the

first patent for a basic turbine engine. The
turbine (pictured) was designed with a chain-
driven, reciprocating type of compressor. It
has a compressor, a combustion chamber, and
a turbine.
1801 French chemist Philippe Lebon
develops a usable coal gas. Shortly after he
patents a coal gas fired internal combustion
engine.
1802 The 'Charlotte Dundas' tows two 70-
ton barges, 30 km, along the Forth and Clyde
Canal to Glasgow. Not only was this vessel
the first practical steamboat, but also the first
tug boat.
1804 Richard Trevithick built the first, albeit
crude, locomotive using a steam engine
mounted on a wagon riding steel rails.

1807 The Malayan fire piston, originally

from southeast Asia, is brought to Europe. It
was a air pump type tube, when compressed
would heat up the air and ignite a small
clump of tinder.
1820 William Cecil, 28 year old Fellow of
Madeleine College, Cambridge, is the first to
build an engine to run continuously. It uses a
mixture of hydrogen and air (1:3) but soon
abandons it when he is ordained in the
Anglican church.
1821 James Watt improves the efficiency of
Newcomen’s reciprocating pump to become
the most efficient (4%) prime mover using
pistons and expanding steam. The engine
become the most popular at the time and
lasted for quite a while.
1824 Sadi Carnot published his theory on the
thermodynamic cycle of the heat engine.
From it, Rudolph Diesel would design his
engine.
1825 'Curacao' built in Dover, England,
becomes the first practical steamship to sail.
It is bought by the Netherlands Navy. It is a
wooden hull, 445 tonnes, paddle-wheeler
with two engines developing 75 kW.
1827 Machinefabriek Werkspoor is
founded, in Amsterdam.
1834 The Wartsila company begins
operations, originally as a sawmill operation,
in Tohmajärvi, Finland. Twenty years later it
would later morph into an iron mill. Pictured,
below - right, in 1880.

1829 George Stephenson builds the 'Rocket'.

The first practical locomotive which made ten
trips a day over a 2.4 km hauling a 13 tons at
about 24 km/h for the Liverpool &
Manchester Railway.

1854 Italian inventors, Eugenio Barsanti and

Felice Matteucci, are granted a patent, in
London, for the first working, efficient
version of an internal combustion engine.
Nicolaus August Otto, would, however, go on
to claim the bulk of the credit for the four
cycle design, ten years later.

1860 The first production engine is patented

in Paris. Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir builds
around 500 of these 7:1 air gas ratio engine.
But they were prone to problems, due to their
electric ignition.
1864 Nicolaus August Otto and Eugen
Langen form the N.A. Otto & Cie. In 1867
they premiere their first working model. At
first, the one cylinder "coffee grinder" design,
with it's horrible racket, scares away the Paris
Exposition 1867 judges. But they realized it
was the most efficient engine of the
exposition, and the engine takes first prize.

1872 With many back orders for their

successful engine, N.A. Otto & Cie.
established a new plant. They called it
Gasmotoren-Fabrik-Deutz, after the Deutz
neighbourhood of Koln, Germany. They hire
a production manager, Gottlieb Daimler and
an assistant Wilhelm Maybach. These three
men, some of the greatest engineers who ever
lived, now worked under one roof. Shortly
after, Otto "comes up" with the four strokes
of an internal combustion engine; intake,
compression, ignition/expansion, and exhaust
were all assigned a "stroke"; similar to the
patent issued to Italian inventors in 1854.
1876 Otto’s new design is built. The one
cylinder, flame ignited prototype is "handed
over" to Maybach who develops it for
production. It becomes know as the "Deutz
A"engine. With an efficiency of over 16%
and quiet operation, it is issued a patent
insuring it almost a virtual monopoly.
1878 Dugald Clerk, a Scot, is granted a
patent which lays down the groundwork for
the two stroke compression engine design. It
is demonstrated at Kilburn, England in 1879.
1879 Karl Benz expands on Clerk’s ideas,
and establishes Benz & Cie in Manheim to
develop the engine idea. Deutz's stranglehold
on Germany sees to it that a patent is not
granted to Benz's ideas.
1880 The 137 meter, 5,247 tonnes 'Arizona'
is the first steam powered vessel to win the
mythical "Blue Ribband". The White Star
Line steel hulled ship reached 32 km/h with
her John Elder & Company ‘s 4,679 kW
compound steam engines.
1882 Daimler quits Deutz because of some
contentious issues over patents with Otto.
Maybach join Daimler to research the
possibility of a light weight, higher speed,
internal combustion engine.
1886 Deutz stranglehold on the basic patent
of the internal combustion engine is reversed.
A patent attorney for Geruber Korting finds a
prior patent, laying out the exact cycles of the
internal combustion engine. The French
transportation engineer,Alphonse Beau de
Rochas, had filed it on January 16, 1862.
1886 Benz’s biggest problem, the magneto
design, is remedied by Robert Bosch. The
final prototype, the three wheeled 'Dogcart',
is a success.
1889 Rudolph Diesel, with his French
connections, is the only German engineer
invited to give a his paper, "Revue Technique
de l’Exposition Universelle" at the
International Engineering Congress.
1889 Charles Parson founds, C. A. Parsons
and Company in Newcastle, England, to
produce turbo-generators to his design. The
company's first turbine was only 1.6%
efficient and generated a mere 7.5 kilowatts.
1890 Herbert Akroyd Stuart, born in Halifax,
Canada in 1864, and Charles Richard Binney
are granted patent # 7146, which described
the world's first compression-ignition engine.
Their submission is called "Improvements in
Engines Operated by the Explosion of
Mixtures of Combustible Vapour or Gas and
Air".
1890 Herbert Akroyd Stuart's prototype
engine is built at his father's Bletchley Iron
& Tin Plate Works at Bletchley, England.
The rights to build the new engine are then
leased to Richard Hornsby & Sons of
Grantham. They go on to build Hornsby
engine #101 and #102 which are installed at
the Great Brickhill Waterworks, at Fenny
Stratford, in May 1892. 32,417 various copies
of the type are subsequently sold.

1892 Rudolph Diesel draws his theories into a

design, but it is decline a patent in Europe, at
first. On appeal his "not original" idea is
patented on February 28. Patent # 67027 is
issued to Rudolph Diesel by the Imperial
Patent Office in Germany. It was a design
using much higher pressure to achieve
Carnot’s ideal heat cycle. Sometime later,
Diesel is granted a patent in the United States
for the new engine.
1892 German Carl Pieper introduces the
helix on plunger to fuel injection system,
allowing control of the fuel quantity delivered
to a cylinder.
1893 Benz’s engine the 'Standhur' (Upright
clock) runs continuously at the Paris
Expositions. The beginning of a long "work
day" for it.
1893 Rudolph Diesel rewrites his manuscript
"The theory and construction of a rational
heat engine to replace steam engine and
contemporary combustion engine" to "Eines
rationellen Warmenmotor" describing his
theory of a heat engine with an estimated 70-
80% efficiency. He is severely criticized by
his peers, the "leading edge" German
engineers.
1893 In July, Rudolph Diesel, assistant
Lucian Vogel, and his father in law, Heinrich
Buz at the 'Ausgburb Machine Works'begin
experimenting with Rudolph Diesel's new
prime mover.
1894, February 17, Diesel's experimental
engine runs at 88 rpm for about one minute,
the first time ever, about 9 months after first
"test firing". Click here to download the Shell
Petroleumfilm "Diesel Story", featuring
scenes from the 1942 film aboutDiesel and
his engine (88 mb).
1894 Witte, Reid, and Fairbanks start
building oil engines with a variety of ignition
systems.

1895 William H. Scott is granted an English

patent for a double port helix for fuel
injection pump. This development allows to
control both the beginning and ending of fuel
injection.
1896 Work begins on the French submarine
'Narval', it is launched in 1899. It features a
novel electric propulsion system using steam
boiler as prime mover. The technology leads
to the Diesel electric propulsion system of
'l'Aigrette' in 1904.

1897, February 17, the Diesel’s engine runs

on its own. The water cooled, ringed piston,
fuel injection, single cylinder engine ran on
cheap kerosene. It was considered a total
success. It produced 13.1 kW at 154 rpm, and
achieved 26.2% efficiency.
1897 Mirrlees, Watson & Yaryman of
Glasgow, among others, sign a deal to build
the new prime mover from Rudolph Diesel.

1897 Immanuelle Lauster, at

Machinenfabrik Augsburg, designs and
build the first twin cylinder prototype Diesel
engine. It develops 44 kW at 180 rpm, this is
achieved by increasing the size of the bore
and stroke as well as other refinements.
1897 Charles Parson's turbine-powered
yacht, 'Turbinia', speeds past theRoyal
Navy's fastest ships, at 34 knots,
demonstrating its abilities during Queen
Victoria's Diamond Jubilee Fleet Review.
Two years later the Royal Navy launches new
steam turbine powered warships, and thus
began the start of the marine steam turbine
era.
1898 June 10, Sulzer starts building it’s first
Diesel engine A four stroke, 260mm cylinder,
developing 14.7 kW.

1898 Burmeister & Wain (B&W) of

Kohaven, Denmark retain rights to build the
Diesel engine. As do Aldophus Busch
(Budweiser beer in US) who sets up the
Adolphus Busch’s Diesel Motor Company
of America. Vickers Sons & Maxim Ltd of
England andGebruder Howalt-Werf are
among others. Sweden financiers Marcus
Wallenberg andOscar Lamm set up AB
Diesel Motorer. Emanuel Nobel, Swedish-
Russian nephew ofAlfred Nobel, acquires the
rights to build the Diesel engine and promptly
establishes the Russian Diesel Company of
Nuremberg.

1898 The first commercial Diesel engine is

sold to Aktiengesellschaft Union, a
matchmaking company in Kempten near
Ausgburg, Germany. It is one of Lauster’s
twin cylinder design. It is delivered in
January and started up on March 5. After
fifteen years it still ran perfectly, without any
major repairs.

1898 After a successful exhibition of their

engines, side by side, at the Munchen Power
and Works Exhibit, Machinenfabrik
Augsburg and Nurnberg decide to continue
their partnership. The partnership’s name is
shortened in 1904 to Machinefabrik
Augsburg-Nurnberg, better known today as
M.A.N.
1898 In order to manage the explosive
growth of the Diesel engine. Rudolph
Diesel’s establishes a company to manage the
licensing of the design. The new venture buys
all patents and is tasked with the further
developments and management of the new
engine. It is called the General Diesel
Corporation, and is founded on September
17.Rudolph Diesel is paid a sum of 3.5
million German marks.

1900 Rudolph Diesel develops the first fuel

injection valve. " It consisted of a
mechanically operated valve surrounded by a
stack of drilled discs, or pulveriser rings, on
which the oil was deposited and then blown
by compressed air into the engine cylinder
during injection. " (History of the Fuel
Injector by Frank DeLuca)
1900 The Diesel engine takes the "Grand
Prix", the highest prize, at the 1900 Paris
Exposition. The exhibition was attended by
50 million people. Promoted by the French
Government and N.A. Otto & Cie (Deutz),
the engine runs on peanut oil, now commonly
known as biodiesel.

1902 Adolphus Busch’s company build the

first Diesel engine in the United States. It is a
three cylinder, 55 kW model, which first ran
in April. Fewer than 100 were sold, most of
them without profit. Download the 1914 sales
brochure documenting this company's
numerous installations that followed this
milestone - pictured right.

1902 French submarine 'l’Aigrette' is

launched with a MAN licensed Diesel engine
and electric propulsion. It is believed to be
the first vessel to be powered by a
Dieselengine. It would go on to influence
submarine design in the UK, US, Germany
and France as well as commercial vessel such
as 'Vandal' and 'Venoge' (see below).

1902 F. Rundlof invents the two stroke

crankcase, scavenged hot bulb engine.
1903 Sulzer begins engine manufacturing in
Winterthur, Switzerland. Three years later,
they offer a range of 12 engines with power
from 11 to 440 kW.
1903 Norwegian Aegidius Elling builds the
first gas turbine, producing excess power.
The turbine uses both a rotary compressor
and turbine.
1904 KW Hagelin, engineer in charge of
Nobel’s marine division, oversees the
building of 'Vandal'. A 74.5 meter long,
shallow draft tanker with a cargo capacity of
800 tonnes. A revolutionary design at the
time. Three 500 VDC generators driven by 3
cylinder AB Diesels, supplied 88 kW each, at
240 rpm. These generators supplied power to
75 kW reversible DC motors. A setup almost
identical to today’s locomotives.

1904 Ancient Etablissment Sautter-Harle

of Paris, licensed by Diesel in 1899, builds
the first opposed piston, reversing engine.
The four stroke, two cylinder, 16.6 liter
engine develops 19 kW and was installed in
the 38 meter Canal Ship 'Petit Pierre',which
also boasted a variable pitch propeller. The
firm’s next engines, larger versions of the
previous design, were delivered to the French
navy for installation into their submarines.

1904 M.A.N. installs four DM4x100 diesel

engines, with a total power of 1193 kW
turning at 160 rpm, for the Kiev Municipal
Transport Authority, the first power plant
of its

kind. At the time the engines cost 854,000

German marks and remained in operation
until 1955.

1904 Sulzer installed their first diesel engine

in a ship, the freight boat 'Venoge'. It was
much like the'Vandal', but Sulzer was
dissatisfied with the electric motor, the only
way to get reverse. They go on to develop
their two stroke, reversing engine. One year
later...
1905 The first two stroke, and the first direct
reversible engine (as opposed to starting in
reverse) is built by Sulzer. It had four
cylinders with a bore of 175 mm and stroke
of 250 mm producing 66 kW. It is on exhibit
at the Milano World Exposition in 1906.

1907 Rudolph Diesel’'s patent in Europe

expires. A flood of new engine building
begins.

1907 Nobel Brothers builds the first four

stroke reversible engine.
1908 350 dwt cargo ships 'Rapp' and
'Schnapp', coastal schooner by design have
Swedish A.B. Motorer engine installed as
auxiliary propulsive power. The 89 kW, 300
rpm reversible engines are the first
commercial sea-going application of diesel
engines.
1909 In 1907, Benz & Cie entices a young
Lebanese engineer, Prosper L’Orange, from
Deutz. He goes on to design the pre-
combustion chamber. Making the Diesel
engine run smoother and quieter, but with a
slight loss of fuel economy.
1910 James McKechnie of Vickers in
England, develops the first solid injection
fuel system. The design is still very much in
use to day and comprises of a metering pump,
operated by the cam lobe, delivering fuel oil
which was then injected into the engine
cylinder by a fuel valve.
1910 The 'Fram' receives it's 132kW engines
from AB Diesel Motorer of Sickla, Sweden.
The ship carries Roald Amundsen to the
Antarctic. He becomes the first man to reach
the South Pole on December 14, 1911. AB
goes on to adopt the Polar trademark.
1911 Sulzer builds a larger version of their
1905 engine, ushering in the age of the large
slow speed two stroke engine; quite a bit
larger. The one cylinder, with a meter
diameter piston turns at a leisure pace of 150
rpm. It produces an astounding 1472 kW.
Shortly after, they begin
building a four cylinder version to produce
2760 kW.
1911 A British patent is issued to Frederick
Lamplough for a unit fuel injector. The idea
was first floated by Carl Weidman of
Germany in 1905. The unit injector does
away with troublesome tubing from the
pressure pump to the fuel injector. A Winton
engine would feature the new style injection
system, but not until 1931; in 1934, GM
would adopt the unit injector for its two
stroke high speed diesels.
1912 February 14, Burmeister & Wain
builds the first ocean-going motor ship, the
7,000 DWT 'Selandia', for the Danish East
Asiatic Company. It starts a revolution in
shipping and ship design by being the first
ocean going motor ship. It is launched on
November 4, 1911, and has two B&W
DM8150X, four stroke, reversible engines
developing 932 kW each at 140 rpm. The
ship design ushers in a new era; one without a
traditional funnel, casting away the old steam
ship funnels or sails of the past.

1912 Hamburg Sud cargo liner, the 'Monte

Penedo', launched several days before
the'Selandia' was completed, is the first ship
to be powered by two stroke engines. The
two Sulzer engines developed a combined
1250 kW at 160 rpm, one of them is pictured
on the left.

1912 The first Diesel locomotive is built. The

80 tonne locomotive is built by Sulzer,
Krupp, an the Prussian & Saxon State
Railway. The first revenue earning
locomotive is built byASEA for Sweden’s
Melersta Sodermanslands Railway in 1913.
1912 The Diesel patent expires in the US.
New companies spring up to build their
versions of the engine. Allis-Chalmers and
Nordberg in Milwaukee, Fairbanks-Morse
in Beloit and Worthington Cudahy - all in
Wisconsin, heart of the dairy states, a popular
place for German immigrants. As well
Busch-Sulzer set up shop in St Louis, and
Winton in Cleveland.

1912 Sulzer tinkers with their 1S100, an

experimental engine. It has a bore of 1 meter
and holds the title, engine with the largest
bore, for almost 60 years.
1912 Otto F. Persson of the United States
patents the tight fitting plunger and barrel
design for high pressure fuel pump,
elimination the packing glands used to seal
high pressure fuel injection pumps.
1913 Hugo Junkers, an aeronautical engineer,
builds a four cylinder lightweight Diesel
engine for an aircraft. Shortly after, a six
cylinder was producing 368 kW at 2400 rpm.

A worker poses for this picture, from the

MAN factory, in Nurnberg, Germany,
taken in 1913
1913 Vickers, Ltd. develops the common rail
system. " A multi-plunger pump delivered
fuel to an accumulator and header of large
capacity with the fuel pressure maintained at
about 5000 psi by a relief valve, and the fuel
was sprayed into the engine cylinders through
mechanically operated injection nozzles. Fuel
metering was controlled by varying the
period of opening of the injection valves."
(History of the Fuel Injector by Frank
DeLuca)

1914 Sulzer develops piston cooling and

scavenging for their two stroke engine.
1914 Francois Feyens of Belgium introduces
the rotary distributor injection system, to
deliver metered fuel to the several cylinders
of a multi-cylinder engine. The system would
be installed on the 'Selandia' on its first
voyage to the far east.

1914 The Diesel powered German U-boat, U-

9, meets and sinks the British cruisers
Aboukir, Cressey, and Hogue off the Dutch
coast in less than one hour. The
Dieselpowered submarine could no longer be
ignored.

1915 Swiss engineer Dr. Alfred J. Büchi,

Chief Engineer of Sulzer Brothers Research
Department, proposes the first prototype of a
turbocharged diesel engine. He had been
working on the design since 1909. Even with
a 40% increase in an engine's efficiency, his
idea was not well received.

1916 Hugo Junkers unveils the Jumo, a six

cylinder opposed piston aircraft engine. It is
installed in the Dornier Do18 flying boat.
The Deutsche Lufthansa Do18 break the
long distance flight record to Caravellas,
Brasil from the English Channel.

1919 In 1909, Jonas Hesselman of AB Diesel

Motorer and Harry Leissner at Lujussne-
Woxna were working on a solid fuel
injection system. It is not until 1919 that
Prosper L’Orange brings it all together. He
successfully incorporates fuel injection in
Benz’s one cylinder, giving us a smooth
running engine.

1919 Clessie L Cummins begins operations in

the United States, backed by investment
banker William Glanton Irwin. He purchases
manufacturing rights to the Diesel engine
from the Dutch licensor Hvid.
1919 Sir Harry Ricardo pioneers the swirl
chamber, a slightly different combustion
chamber than Mr. L’Orange ‘s design.

1919 Atlas Imperial Diesel Company of

Oakland, California builds the first American
Diesel engine with common rail injection
system.

1920 Enterprise, in the US, builds its first

engine, it later becomes a division of
DeLaval. Atlas-Imperial of Oakland, Union,
and Lister are other companies start
appearing in the 1920's, building Diesels
engine.

1920 William Oxford & Sons, at the time

the second largest yard in Great Britain,
abandons building ships with steam
propulsion, in favour of Diesel engine
powered ships.
1922 Benz & Cie’s stationary engine division
becomes it’s own company. It becomes the
Motoren-Werke Manhein AG better known
as MWM.

1922 the Robert Bosch Company of

Stuttgart, Germany, focuses its business
activities to specialized in the design and
manufacturing of fuel injection equipment. In
1927, they introduce a jerk pump, with helix
control, for which Ottmar Bauer is granted a
patent in 1931. Up to now, Diesel engine
builders were mostly manufacturing their
own fuel injection systems, to varying
success.
1922 Electro-Motive Engineering
Company, the genesis of the "Steam Dragon
Slayer",EMD, is founded by Harold L.
Hamilton and Paul Turner in Cleveland,
Ohio.
1923 General Electric, American
Locomotive and Ingersoll Rand collaborate
to produce a Diesel powered switcher engine.
It works around the clock at New York
Central’s yard, operating for only ten cents
per kilometre. A refined model becomes the
first commercially produce units, they are
bought by the Jersey Central Railroad
Remaining in service at the Bronx yard for
30 years.

1923 Peugeot installs the first Diesel engine

in their car.
1924 Benz & Cie introduces their transport
truck, the 5K3. M.A.N. introduces it's
competition five months later.
1924 The newly formed Electro-Motive
Company, a spin off of Motive Power, a
division of the Union Pacific Railroad,
headed by WR McKeen, introduces their 59
passenger coach. It is powered by a Winton
engine and costs about half the normal cost of
running a steam equivalent.

1924 Fairbanks Morse builds its first

commercial, high-compression, cold-start,
full Diesel engine, the Y-VA, without resort
to any foreign patent acquisition. Fairbanks
Morse begin supplying the US Navy with
marine Diesel propulsion plants in 1932, and
supplied many marine Diesels to the Navy
during WWII, especially for submarines.

1925 The Caterpillar Company is the result

of a merger of Holt Manufacturing
Company of Stockton, California and the C.
L. Best Gas Traction Company of San
Leandro, California.
1926 Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding
Co. Ltd. (MES), a division of Japanese
shipbuilder Mitsui & Co., enters a technical
licensing agreement with Burmeister &
Wain on August 13th. The company builds
its first MAN B&W engine in 1928, a four-
stroke, single-acting, trunk type 6125M unit.
In late March 2008 - 81 years later - the
partnership celebrates a milestones; 60
million of B&W MAN licensed BHP
(horsepower) are delivered to clients byMES.

1926 Daimler and Benz merge. The

corporate name remained Daimler-Benz until
the brief merger with Chrysler formed
DaimlerChrysler in 1998, dissolved in 2007.
However, from the turn of the century
Daimler cars in Germany were called
Mercedes, not Daimler (although Daimler
patent licensees used Daimler as automobile
brand name in Austria and England); upon
merger with Benz, which built cars under the
Benzname, the cars that the new Daimler-
Benz firm produced became Mercedes-Benz
- the brand emblem, a three-pointed star
surrounded by a wreath - merged Mercedes
and Benz brand symbols. They introduce the
new 5K3 model which includes the
new,Robert Bosch designed, glow plugs.
1927 Continuing on Fritz Lang’s injection
system, Robert Bosch simplifies and
improves the fuel injection system for it’s
debut in the Mercedes Benz OM5 truck. By
now most of the world’s freight moves by
Diesel powered truck.

1929 In Indianapolis, Clessie Cummins

manages to fit his 6.25 litres Diesel engine
into a 1925 Packard, seven passenger car.
He drives it to New York for the Auto Show
where he gets the "cold shoulder" officially -
but Ford and GM executives ask for private
demonstration.

1929 Kawasaki and Mitsubishi of Japan

sign licensing agreements with M.A.N.
Kawasaki later signs agreements with
Mitsui.
1929 General Motor buys the Adam Opel
AG Company, in the 1930s, the largest car
producer in Europe.
1930 General Motors Corporation buys the
Electro-Motive Company and the Winton
Engine Company. The result is Electro
Motive Division (EMD) and a new
aggressive campaign to slay the "fiery dragon
of railroading" - the steam locomotive. They
build the GM #103, a four unit, 59 meter
long behemoth, painted in "grimy black" with
a yellow stripe and "GM" stylized on the
front. Sixteen driving axles deliver to the rails
4000 kW of power. They also support the
408,000 kg, the heaviest locomotive ever.
1931 Clessie Cummins installs his Diesel in a
race car. It runs at 162 km/h in Daytona, and
138 km/h in Indianapolis where it places 12th.

1931 Winton is the first diesel engine to use

a unit fuel injection system. Designed byC.D.
Salisbury, the system does away with
separate fuel pump and injector, and its
connecting pipe work.

1931 Caterpillar introduces the 1C1 Diesel

engine crawler tractor. Although more
expensive than its rivals, they sell about
10,000 units, 90% of these having Diesel
engines. The Cleveland Tractor Company
and International Harvester follow the
example shortly after.

1932 In Manchester England, L Gardner &

Sons’ Hugh and Joseph Gardner, inspired by
Mr. Cummins, install a Gardner 4LW Diesel
in a 1925 Bentley Saloon. With a top speed
of 128 km/h, they enter the car in the 1933
Monte Carlo Rally. They are encouraged to
build a new lightweight engine, although the
new idea was not readily accepted.

1932 CL Cummins installs a Diesel engine in

a Mack 10 tonne bus. They proceed to drive
across the US, 5181 km, in 78 hours 10
minutes. Faster than any other form of
transport - train and such, and all for $21.80
in fuel cost.

1932 The Flying Hamburger garnishes

newsreel and tabloid attention because of its
radical design and performance. The
Zeppelin Aircraft Works used wind tunnel
testing to determine the styling of the Flying
Hamburger. While the two 300 kW
Maybach V12 engines, propelled the train to
198.5 km/h, it’s regular service speed was
around 160 km/h.

1933 Unlike Cummins and Gardner,

Daimler-Benz built cars as opposed to
converting existing one to Diesel power.
They took the risk and introduced the
'Manheim', powered by a noisy version of
their truck engine. It is not well
received at the 1934 Berlin Auto Show.
Undaunted, they redesign the idea and
introduce the 260D. With it's combination of
medium size sedan look and excellent fuel
economy, it becomes a commercial success.
1933 Atlas-Imperial Diesel Engine
Company of California introduces a fuel
injection system, utilizing a common rail
principal and an electromagnetic fuel
injection nozzle valve, designed by Harry E.
Kennedy The idea was first proposed by
fellow AmericanThomas T. Gaff in 1913.

1934 M.A.N. Begins development on their

exhaust gas turbine.
1934 Arthur Fielden is granted a U.S. patent
for a unit fuel injector design. It is adopted by
General Motors for use in their two-cycle
diesel engine.
1934 May 26, the Pioneer Zephyr, modeled
after the Flying Hamburger, breaks all
speed and distance records on it’s run
between Denver, Co. and Chicago, Il. The all
stainless steel train averages 125 km/h over
the 1633 km journey.

1935 B&W builds the first four stroke engine

to burn Heavy Fuel Oil.

1938 General Motors forms a new division -

Detroit Diesel Engine Division, they mostly
build the popular inline 71 Series, a high
speed two stroke engine, from a one to six
cylinder configuration.
1938 Wartsila signs a licence agreement to
build diesel engines with Friedrich Krupp
Germania Werft AG, in Germany.

1942 The natural gas powered Danish fishing

boat, 'Frank FN282'is launched. The vessel
is equipped with a 2-cylinder, 90/100hp,
Alpha Diesel type 342 engine, customised
for 'dual fuel' operation, with oil injection as
the pilot fuel igniting the gas charge.

1942 Wartsila's first diesel engine comes out

of the Turku factory in November.

1939 Dodge Division of Chrysler

Corporation becomes the first U.S. vehicle
producer to design and build its own Diesel
trucks with engines of its own design and
manufacture.

1950 M.A.N. unveils the first four stroke

supercharged engine to reach 45% efficiency.

1950 Prosper L'Orange son, Rudolph

L'Orange's company, Gebroder L'Orange
Motor Zubehor GmbH, is granted a patent
for the unit injector. The patent is a result of
work performed with the assistance of Karl
Maybach, started in 1944. The unit injector is
capable of injecting fuel at 1000 bar, up to
2000 times per minute.
1954 Cummins unveils PT (pressure-time)
fuel injection system.
1957 GM Diesel Engine Division introduces
the 53 Series of two strokes engines. They
also begin to offer the popular 71 Series
engine in V configurations. The series
number refers to the swept volume of the
cylinder 71 cubic inch, 53 cubic inch.

1958 The Peugeot 403 is introduced. The

four cylinder Diesel powered car revives the
car maker, battered from the second world
war. The engine uses the licensed Ricardo
Swirl chamber design. In April 1970, the
Lille Peugeot Plant builds its millionth
Diesel engine.

1957 The large icebreaker 'Lenin' (pictured

right) is launched in the Soviet Union; first
civilian ship to use nuclear propulsion. The
original power plant, consisted of three OK-
150 reactors, delivering 90 megawatts of
power each. In 1970, the original reactors are
replaced, due to to physical damage to the
reactor from refuelling work, with two OK-
900 reactors putting out 171 MW each. Steam
generated by the reactors produced electricity
in four turbo generators, driving three
propellers.

1959 Not to be outdone by the Soviets, the

United States, under the Eisenhower's Atoms
for Peace program, launches the first
"commercial" nuclear powered cargo
ship.'NS Savannah' is a beautiful ship, and
powered by a Babcock & Wilcox nuclear
reactor, producing 74 mw of thermal power.
The single propeller driven by two steam
turbine, produced 20,300 shaft horsepower, to
propel the nearly 600 feet, 13,599 grt ship at
a top speed of 24 knots. Built at a cost of $80
Million USD, she had accommodations for
60 passengers, and cargo room for 14,040
tons, and could sail at 20 knots for 300,000
km without refuelling.
1965 GM Diesel Engine Division changes its
name to the Detroit Diesel Engine Division
and introduces the 149 Series of two strokes
engines.
1966 Wartsila's Turku Shipyard is officially
born.
1968 The first resilient mounts are used in
engine installations by B&W.

1966 EMD introduced the 645 engine. V8,

V12, V16, even a V20; Turbocharged or not,
Power ratings were 1,500 HP V-12 non-
turbocharged, 1,500 HP V-8 turbocharged,
2,300 HP V-12 turbocharged, 2,000 HP V-16
non-turbocharged, and 3,000 HP V-16
turbocharged. EMD also built a turbocharged
V-20 that produced 3,600 HP for the SD-45
that was their first twenty cylinder engine.
The final variant of the sixteen cylinder 645
(the 16-645F) produced 3,500 HP. EMD
engines were adopted from the rail industry,
and fitted into many workboats and tugs in
North America.
1967 The first merchant ship to be powered
by an aircraft type gas turbine, the' Admiral
William M Callaghan', is launch by Sun
Shipbuilding in the United States. The US
military sealift ship is powered by two
LM2500 gas turbines, which propelled the
24,500 ton ship to more than 21 knots.
1970 Detroit Diesel merges with
transmission and gas turbine maker, Allison,
to form the Detroit Diesel Allison Division.

1970 The U.S. government passed the Clean

Air Act.

1972 Opel introduces the Opel GT coupe. It

is the company’s first Diesel powered car.
They install a small turbocharger to their new
2 litre engine; it develops 70 kW. On June 1
and 2, the Opel GT breaks 18 international
speed records with it’s top speed of 197.5
km/h.
1972 Burmeister & Wain launched the new
"Selandia"for the same customer as the
original "Selandia". It serves to illustrate the
dramatic pace of ship and engine
development. The new Selandia is two and a
half times longer, twice as wide, at 50 km/h,
is two and half times faster. It’s three Diesel
turbocharged, two stroke engine produced a
total of 55,200 kW.
1973 The Brown, Boveri and Company
introduce the supercharger, known as the
Comprex AWS. A mechanically driven air
pump, based on a German patent developed
under the supervision of Professor Max
Berchtold at the Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology in Zurich.
1973 The oil crisis begins when OPEC
reduces supplies of crude creating a price
spike.

1974 Wartsila lays the foundation for a new

shipyard in Perno, Turku.
1974 Detroit Diesel Allison Division
introduces the 92 Series of high speed, two
stroke engines.

1975 Mercedes introduces the 300D. The in-

line five cylinder Diesel engine was radical
for it’s time. The 3005 cc developed 59 kW at
4000 rpm, and it boast an overhead chain
driven camshaft. The Bosch fuel pump
delivered fuel to a Prosper L’Orange styled
combustion chamber and started and stopped
with the turn of a key.
1976 Volkswagen adapts various popular
technology to introduce its four cylinder
Diesel engine. The four cylinder, 1471 cc,
producing 37 kW at 5000 rpm is installed in
their Golf. The engine is coupled to a front
wheel drive assembly. Its advertising claims
state it’s the quickest accelerating Diesel car.

1976 Mercedes stuns the automotive world

by building the fastest car. The Diesel
powered C-111 set the new speed record at
253 km/h, averaged over 24 hours. The
engine is equipped with a small Garret
Airesearch turbocharger to produce 147 kW
at 4200 rpm from only three litres of
displacement.

1977 GM’s Oldsmobile division introduce

their sedan with an 89 kW, pushrod V8
Diesel engine. It is adapted from a standard
gas counterparts. They soon offer the engine
in the 1978 GMC and Chevrolet pick ups.
With the energy crisis of the seventies, it
sparks an automotive revolution, where gas
engine had previously dominated. Companies
which had never marketed the efficient Diesel
powered cars began to do so.
1977 The ERDA’s Energy Research Center
in Oklahoma backs ups research by other
independent researchers, confirming the
dramatic fuel savings of the efficient Diesel
engine comparatively to its gas counterparts.
Figures of 43%, 25%, 35% in savings are
declared, as well the cleaner burning Diesel
gains popularity because of its lower
emissions.

1977 Murphy Diesel of Milwaukee agrees to

market MWM engines.
1978 Wartsila acquires 51% of the NOHAB
diesel business from Bofors in Sweden,
marking the beginning of Wartsila’s
international manufacturing operations. The
remaining shares are acquired in 1984.

1984 M.A.N. and B&W merge to become

MAN B&W Diesel A/S, Copenhagen.
1984 EMD introduces the 710 series engine,
a two-stroke diesel engine with a 710 cubic
inch (11.63 liter) displacement per cylinder.
Since its introduction, EMD has continually
upgraded the 710G diesel engine. Power
output increased from 3,800 horsepower
(2,800 kW) on 1984's 16-710G3A to 4300
horsepower (as of 2006) on the16-710G3C-
T2. Although primarily used in locomotives,
many copies of these engines can be found on
North American workboats and tugs.
1984 The 'Fair Sky' is launched by French
builders, for Italian cruise line Sitmar. The
ship is the last passenger ship to be built as a
steam ship. Her power plant consist of three
boilers, and three steam turbines, producing
29,500 shp, for a top speed of 21.8 knots,
while consuming 220 tons of fuel a day.
1985 MTU acquires the L'Orange company,
producers of fuel injection equipment.
1985 Deutz acquires MWM

1987 The world's largest Diesel Electric

propulsion plant is installed in the passenger
liner Queen Elizabeth 2. The steam systems is
removed and nine, four stroke MAN L58/64,
super charged, nine cylinder engines are
installed, delivering a total of 94.5 MW. The
engines drive alternators producing electricity
for hotel service and the two 400 tons, 44
MW propulsion motors.

1987 Series 60 engine is introduced by the

Detroit Diesel Corporation. The four stroke,
six cylinder engine is a marked departure
from their two stroke roots, for which the
company was "famous" for. The engine is
used widely in replacing its two stroke
predecessor in the "on road" transportation
sector, primarily in North America. A
survival move by the company, faced with
ever increasing regulatory emission
framework being introduced. They later
introduce the Series 50 engine, another four
stroke engine design.
1988 MAN B&W acquires the French engine
maker SEMT Pielstick.
1989 Wartsila Diesel acquires French high
speed diesel builder SACM. They acquires a
majority holding in the Dutch company Stork
Werkspoor, which produces medium-speed
engines.

1990 Metra is born in Tohmajärvi, Finland,

with the merger of Wartsila and Lohja. The
Scandinavian manufacturing powerhouses
spits out various parts of itself, and others,
into various popular brands such as Nokia,
SKF, to name a few.
1998 EMD builds its first line of four stroke
engine, the 265. Unlike its relatives, the 265
is named after the cylinder bore size, rather
then the cylinder displacement (567,645,
710). The twin turbo, four stroke, V16 with a
265 mm (10.4 in) bore and a 300 mm (11.8
in) stroke, produces 6,300 bhp (4,700 kW) at
1000 rpm. Allowing the company to conform
to tightening emissions standards.

1997 MTU's L'Orange introduces the first

electronic common rail system for large bore
diesel engines. The system later goes into
mass production in 2001.

1997 Metra Corporation, Fincantieri

Metra and Fincantieri agree on the merger
of Wartsila Diesel, New Sulzer Diesel and
Diesel Ricerche. The new company is called
Wartsila NSD Corporation. The merger
also includes a 40% share of Grandi Motori
Trieste SpA, of which Fincantieri owns
another part.
1998 P&O Nedlloyd accept delivery of the
6,674 teu container ship P&O Nedlloyd
Southampton. The first ship to be powered
by the 12 cylinder Sulzer RTA96C with an
output of 65,880 kW.
1999 Wartsila NSD acquires the remaining
shares of both Grandi Motori Trieste SpA
and Stork Werkspoor.
1999 Not to be outdone, the B&W
12K98MC-C with an output of 68,640 kW is
sold by the Dutch engine maker.
1999 Martin Leduc creates Martin's Marine
Engineering Page, a website dedicated to the
prime mover and it's application in ships and
the marine world.

2000 MAN B&W acquires ALSTOM's

Diesel engine business consisting of the long
established Mirrlees Blackstone, Ruston
and Paxman brands.
2000 Metra acquires the remaining shares of
Wartsila NSD Corporation from
Fincantieri, and later in September, changes
its official name to simply, Wartsila. This
culminate a major trend of the previous
decade which saw the consolidation of many
"marquee" engine brands into two dominate
powerhouses, Wartsila. and MAN B&W

2000 Daimlerchrysler AG purchases

Detroit Diesel Corporation, merging it with
their MTU Friedrichshafen and Mercedes-
Benz industrial engines businesses, creating
the DaimlerChrysler Powersystems Division.
2001 nearly 36% of newly registered cars in
Western Europe had diesel engines. By way
of comparison: in 1996, diesel-powered cars
made up only 15% of the new car
registrations in Germany. Austria leads the
league table of registrations of diesel-
powered cars with 66%, followed by Belgium
with 63% and Luxembourg with 58%.
2002 Wartsila acquires marine propulsion
systems supplier, John Crane Lips. They
will later move the Dutch manufacturing
operations (LIPS) to china in 2010.
2003 MAN B&W introduces the ME engine.
The slow speed two stroke engine does away
with the traditional camshaft, replacing it
with electronically controlled actuators.

2004 Wartsila announces the forthcoming

end of engine production in Turku, Finland;
the bulk of the operation is moved to Italy, in
2006.

2004 Wartsila introduces their new dual fuel

engine, diesel - gas, the Wartsila 46F.
2005 Wartsila acquires Deutz. Wartsila
continues to voraciously gobble up numerous
"minor" companies, producing a myriad of
ship systems and services.
2006 June, AUDI R10 race car wins the
24hrs LeMans (France) endurance race. The
R10is powered by a V12, 5.5l twin turbo,
Diesel engine with common rail injection
(1600bars) which develops 485kW.
2006 February, the first diesel engine with
more than 100,000 bhp goes into service on
February 22. MAN B&W Diesel licensee
Hyundai Heavy
Industries in Korea built the12K98MC
engine (pictured) with 101,640 bhp (75,793
kW) output. The engines are installed in
series of 9,000 teu container ships for Greece
based Costamare.
2006 Tognum acquires MTU
2006 August, AP Moller Maersk Group
launches the MV Emma Maersk from their
Danish "Odense Steel Shipyard" at
Munkebo, by far the world's largest container
ship; the first in a series of eight 11,000 TEU
ships (officially - 14,500 teu est). It is
powered by a 14 cylinder Wärtsilä-Sulzer
RTA96-C flex type Diesel engine developing
just over 80 MW of propulsion power.
2007 The Dieselmax of British construction
machine manufacturer JCB, achieves a top
speed of 563 kilometres per hour at the
Bonneville Salt Flats in the US, making it the
fastest Diesel vehicle in the world, breaking
the 1973 record. The Dieselmax is powered
by two 4.4 litre JCB Diesel engines
producing a total power of 1,119 kW.
2008 March - The German City of Augsburg
celebrates Rudolph Diesel's 150th birthday on
March 18, with an extensive series of events.
2009 The European Union approves the
HERCULES-Beta Project; with Wartsila
and MAN Diesel leading the project. It is a
major international cooperative effort to
maximise fuel efficiency, combined with
ultra-low emissions, and to develop future
generations of optimally efficient and clean
marine diesel engines.
2010 Caterpillar acquires EMD (Electro
Motive Division)
2010 Caterpillar acquires Germany's MWM
(Motoren-Werke Mannheim) from 3i a
private equity management company, who
had bought the company from Deutz in 2007.
Cat rolls the acquisition into its electrical
power division, as MWM principally
produces multi fuel, cogeneration diesel
engines based plants.
2011 January - Long time MAN licensee,
Hitachi Zosen, test the first large two stroke
diesel engine to be fully compliant to the
IMO's Tier III - a strict set of environmental
emission regulations. The engine, built at the
Ariake Works, in Southern Japan, is a MAN
B&W 6S46MC-C8 type with an output of 7
megawatts, and boast an 80% reduction in
NOx gases, using a SCR (Selective Catalytic
Reduction) and EGR (Exhaust Gas
Recirculation) systems.

High Speed Engine

Repairs
A 2500 kw High speed Main Propulsion
engine suffered failure by separation of the
piston Crown. Shown below is the detached
crown seized in the liner.
Damage occurred to an extent that the conrod
was able to exit the liner space and impact
and break several adjacent structures. Shown
below is the conrod sitting on an adjacent
bearing cap. Damage can be seen to liner,
adjacent entablature structure and next unit

The severe action of the conrod caused

failure of the bottom end arrangement. Here
can be seen that at least one of the cap bolts
has failed and that the cap has several
hammer blow indentations
This led to failure of both the effect unit and
also through loss of lubrication the adjacent
unit mounted on the same pin. Shown below
are the two bearing shells. In addition damage
is shown to the pin in the form of a deep
indentation. This alone would have caused
the crankshaft to be scrapped as too great a
reduction in diameter would have been
required to restore the running surface. There
was also a raised section on the opposite side
caused by transfer of material either from the
shell or con rod.
Several fractures occurred as well as material
separation. Here is shown a typical fracture in
this case IWO a tie rod
Repair
The replacement of crankshaft and associated
other running parts was without question.
However, damage to the entablature was so
comprehensive that typically replacement
would have been the best option.
Unfortunately the engine was at an age that
locating such was very difficult. In fact a
single unit was found for sale, a picture by
the vendor showed it sitting unprotected in a
field in India. Due to the lack of guarantees
on the condition of this casing decision was
made to repair. The chosen method was metal
stitching.
This takes the form of inserting suitable new
material attaching by screwed plugs. Shown
below is a section of material removed form
the entablature that contained a crack

the replacement section

and the plugs used to attach it to the original
material and the part remaining once the
screw has been inserted
Before the plates can be inserted machining
has to occur. Shown are in situ grinding

and in situ boring

Shown below is a part finished and
completed repair to entablature structure
On completion of repairs engine trials are
undertaken under the supervision of class. A
condition of class will remain on the vessel
for some time and regular inspections are
carried out. After a suitable period when class
is satisfied that no faults exist with the repair
the condition of class is lifted.
How is Marine
Engine Repair Done
On board a Ship?
One of the most significant duties carried out
on board a ship is marine engine repair. It
entails fixing and performing standard
maintenance chores on the ship's marine
engine. Marine engine mechanics, often
known as marine engineers, are typically in
charge of the repairs.

Repairing a Marine Engine

To avoid a breakdown or a large loss due to a

ship falling off charter, marine engine parts
must be maintained on a regular basis. The
marine engineer performs engine repairs
based on his basic grasp of the equipment,
sound troubleshooting expertise, and proper
testing and overhauling processes.
Furthermore, there are a number of
companies across the world that provide
services for marine engine repairs that marine
experts on board the ship are unable to
perform owing to a lack of special equipment
and staff. Metal stitching or metal locking,
reconditioning of pistons, honing of liners,
and other heavy maintenance of marine
engine repairs are examples.

Repairing Marine Engines: An Overview

When we talk about marine engine repairs,

we don't just mean maintenance and repairs
on the engines' mechanical elements; we also
include repairs on various electrical devices.
As a result, marine engine repair is divided
into two categories: electrical and
mechanical.

The same proper methods as indicated in the

manuals must be followed for an effective
performance of the marine engine and to
avoid breakdown. Marine engine repairs must
be performed during designated operating
hours as specified in the ship's planned
maintenance scheme.

To carry out the task of marine engine

repairs, a team of marine engineers or marine
mechanics, as well as crew ratings such as
motorman, oiler, fitter, and so on, is stationed
on board ship.

The chief engineer, second engineer, third

engineer, and fourth engineer make up the
engineering team. Management level officers
are the chief and second engineers, while
operational level engineers are the third and
fourth engineers.

The chief engineer is in charge of the various

surveys that must be performed on the marine
engine, as well as the scheduling of these
surveys. The second engineer organises the
pending or soon-to-be-due marine engine
maintenance work.
The second engineer is also in charge of the
engine room's main engine and many pumps.
The fourth engineer is in charge of
compressor and purifier maintenance, while
the third engineer, with the support of crew
ratings, is in charge of the boiler and
auxiliary engines.

Repairs on electrical equipment are handled

by a separate professional electrical engineer
who is in charge of various motors, batteries,
print card electronics, and so on.

Important Points to Remember When

Repairing a Marine Engine

The most significant aspect of marine engine

repair is having several sets of replacement
components on board the ship. If any of these
parts are in short supply, they must be
ordered by the engineer in charge of the
specific machinery. Emergency, safety, and
life-saving equipment must also be given
specific consideration.

The marine engineer must also ensure that all

of the equipment is in good operating order.
External organisations such as port state
control and the flag state will hold the ship if
emergency generators, lifeboat engines, and
fire suppression systems are not functioning
properly. For these irregularities, the agencies
may levy hefty fines on the ship.

As a result, proper checks and a systematic

plan must be followed to avoid unfavourable
situations involving marine engines on board
a ship.
 How to know if the
Piston is at Top Dead
Center?
During the maintenance of the marine
engines we have to ascertain that the piston is
at TDC to check tappet clearance. Though
markings are provided on the flywheel, the
marine engineer must know the other
methods like inspection of camshaft and fuel
pump window.
What is the need to know the TDC Position
of Piston
During the maintenance of a four stroke
marine diesel engine there are times when we
must know whether the particular unit’s
piston is at the top dead center of not. For
example during the checking the tappet
clearances of the engine it is important to
know which unit is at TDC. Referring the
flywheel would indicate two units, but only
one can be at injection TDC.
So which one is it? In this article the various
methods to find out the position of the piston
would be discussed. Some are very simple
and conventional methods but some are little
complicated but never the less very important
when you require an independent method to
find the TDC.

Flywheel Method
The flywheel is the simplest method to know
which unit is at TDC. If the flywheel shows
two units, simply open the bonnet covers and
check visually. The unit at TDC would be
having both the inlet and the exhaust valve
closed and hence relaxed springs; the other
unit would have both the arms of the rocker
arm at different levels. In addition the push
rods of the unit at TDC would be loose and
can be turned by hand because of the release
of the clearances.
There is a word of caution however this
method is only useful in a working generator
which you have just stopped to check the
tappet clearances. In case you have removed
the rocker arms for any reason the spring
height and the push rod freeness check would
lead you nowhere and misguide you.

Flywheel Marking
Fuel Pump Method
The most accurate method to know the
position of the piston without opening up the
piston is the fuel pump window. The fuel
pumps have a window and as the plunger
goes up and down, so does the mark on the
bottom spring holder. On the body of the fuel
pump there are cut marks which start the start
of injection.
In a diesel engine the start of injection is the
injection TDC where both the inlet and the
exhaust valves are closed. In this injection
TDC we can check the tappet clearance. It
must be noted however that the injection
TDC is not the absolute TDC as the piston is
still some way down depending on the design
of the engine. An injection TDC may be
around 5 degrees before TDC.
Dial Gauge Method
In this method the fuel injector is taken out
and from the opening a dial gauge is put
inside. Then the turning gear is engaged and
the engine turned over. The pointer of the dial
gauge will move in one direction and then
stop and start in opposite direction.

The moment the pointer of the dial gauge

stops and changes its direction of movement
is the TDC of the unit. This method is not
normally used in day to day practice, but may
be used in the calibration of the flywheel if it
is not calibrated or after some repairs.

Dial Gauge

Camshaft Method
The camshaft window of the engine can be
opened up and the camshaft inspected. The
cam of the engine has a base circle,
acceleration and the dwell period. If the roller
of the follower is at the base circle then the
particular valve is closed by spring action.
When both the exhaust valve and the inlet
valve follower are on the base circle then also
the unit is at TDC.

It must be remembered that as a four stroke

engine has two rotation of the crankshaft
there is one injection TDC where the
injection and the combustion take place the
second time the piston is at TDC is when the
exhausting of the flue gases take place. It is
very important to identify the combustion
TDC as tappets have to be adjusted at that
point.

Cam Profile
Crankcase Method
In this method the crankcase doors are
opened up and the piston is visually checked
whether is going up or down. This is the
surest method but a bit cumbersome. It
should be used when you have a strong doubt
about the other methods.

Valve spring Method

This is not an independent method but is used
in conjunction with the flywheel method. In
this method if the flywheel is indicating two
units, you can check the springs of both the
units.
The unit the springs are loose at is the one at
TDC. The caution is that this method is
useful for an engine in use. If you have
removed the rocker arms during the overhaul
and thereafter you want to use this method
than it can cause errors.

Push Rod Method

This method is like the spring method and
you check that the push rods are free to turn.
The unit at TDC will have loose springs. The
care that must be taken is that it should be
used along with the flywheel method and
should be used in a working engine. By a
working engine, I mean the engine that was
running and has been stopped for tappets
adjustment.

Spill Timing Method

This is a very accurate and tedious method
and generally used to check the start of
injection of the fuel pump. It will also give
you the injection TDC. It is not used in
tappets checking process but used to find the
start of injection when you have power or
thermal balance problems.
Basically in this method the delivery valve of
the fuel pump along with the delivery valve
spring are removed. Thereafter a special "U"
shaped pipe is put in place of the high
pressure pipe. After this operation the engine
is turned by the turning gear and slowly
brought near the expected TDC.
Soon oil will start spilling out of the pipe
because the oil is entering from the inlet port
which is uncovered by the plunger. Keep
turning the engine slowly and the oil quantity
will reduce. The point where the oil flow just
stops is the start of the injection. At this
moment the plunger of the fuel pump has
closed the inlet port and if you observe the
fuel cam you will find the follower is no
longer at the base circle.
As this method involves the spilling of fuel, it
is called as the spill timing method.

Conclusion
There are various methods by which the TDC
can be found. The simplest and the most
straightforward method is the reference of the
flywheel, but sometimes the flywheel itself is
changed and you need to calibrate the new
one. Sometimes to check if the slippage of
the crankshaft has taken place you need two
methods, especially where the crankshaft
does not have marks to indicate slippage.
Flammability
Composition
Diagram , Chemical
Fumes Conversion
Factor
I Have Yet To See Any Sort Of Awareness,
On How To Find Out The Lel Of Chemical
Fumes On Chemical Tankers
This Includes Sailors At Sea ,
Superintendents Ashore , External Shore
Inspectors And Shore Training Houses.
If your gas instrument has been calibrated for
is-butane,you must know that it reads for
isobutane, NOT any other gas.
On chemical tankers , we do NOT load
isobutane in the tanks --right?
Be safe -- you owe it to yourself --
Above the upper flammable limit (UFL)
the mixture of substance and air is too rich in
fuel (deficient in oxygen) to burn. This is
sometimes called the upper explosive
limit(UEL).
Below the lower flammable limit (LFL)
the mixture of substance and air lacks
sufficient fuel (substance) to burn. This is
sometimes called the lower explosive limit
(LEL).
Hydrocarbon gas requires air to sustain
combustion in the parameters as follows:
1% gas to 99% air = Lower explosion Limit
(LEL)
10% gas to 90% air = Upper Explosion Limit
(UEL)
1% LEL is 100 ppm.
To prevent explosion:
Keep HC >11% ( too rich )

Keep HC < 1.5% ( too lean )

Keep oxygen < 11.5% ( inert )
Draw Diagram ,
Marine Two Stroke
Main Engine
THIS ARE TAKEN FROM PROFILE OF
ONE OF THE CAPTAIN.........
2 years ago, he went to the company doctor
for my pre-medicals.
after taking my ECG the young female
doctor, called her young male colleague and
both of them perused my ECG graph for
about 5 minutes-- all the time muttering
under their breaths to each other. he was all
the while lying down patiently with all the
paraphernalia stuck to my chest.
then the male doctor asks him " captain, do
you have a heart problem?"
furious , he hissed back " from 4 metres away
while lying down, from this acute angle ,
from upside down , he have seen there is
nothing on that dang graph , to make you ask
me this naive question. he suggest him
immediately ask your more well informed
colleagues"

after 10 minutes they come running back ,

huffin' and puffin' --" there is nothing wrong
with your heart, sorry for the inconvenience!"
then the female doctor asks him " captain,
how to you learn to read the ECG graph ?"
he replied " at sea we read more
complicated graphs !"
( to be frank, when his father had his first
heart attack , he bought lot of medical books
and expensive CDs' and learnt a lot. at that
particular time he could deduce a korotkoff
sound and ECG as well as any experienced
cardiologist )
Grounding after
main engine shut
down
The directions and requirements contained in
the makers' manuals must be rigorously
followed for safety and efficiency in the
operation, servicing, and maintenance of
naval equipment and machinery. Because it
may be impractical for the PMS (PLANNED
MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE) to reproduce
all of the information from these manuals,
seamen should acquaint themselves with
them when they first board the ship and study
them again before planning any work. At the
job site, photocopies of pertinent portions
from the manuals are really handy.
The high differential pressure warning across
the main propeller shaft clutch control oil
filter was activated when travelling from one
river berth to another up-river with a pilot on
board.

The chief engineer immediately ordered the

duty engineer to skip the filter. When
approaching the duplex lubricating oil filter,
the engineer failed to acknowledge the
command and incorrectly activated the three-
way valve, fully blocking the lubricating oil
flow. As a result, when a critical alarm
condition occurred, the main engine shut
down automatically.

The yacht grounded on a river bank after

losing control and letting go of one anchor.
Soon after, propulsion was restored, and the
vessel refloated under her own power with
tug assistance, mooring to lay-by buoys.
Fortunately, an underwater hull assessment
by a diver and an internal inspection of the
bottom and peak tanks revealed no damage.

Hybrid
Turbocharger for
Marine Engines:
Maritime
Technology
Innovation
The maritime industry has recently made
significant investments in R&D to reduce
harmful emissions from ships while also
lowering fuel consumption and operating
costs. In the past, the maritime market has
undergone various changes, primarily in the
development of waste energy recovery
technologies such as economisers and
turbochargers. A breakthrough in maritime
technology has elevated research to a whole
new level. The Hybrid Turbocharger is its
name.

Mitsubishi Heavy Industries created a hybrid

turbocharger that differs from traditional
turbochargers in terms of waste recovery and
fuel savings. The energy recovered from the
exhaust gas is used to operate the compressor,
which delivers scavenge air to the main
engine while also generating electricity via an
alternator connection built into the MET
hybrid turbocharger.

The turbine and compressor does the heat

energy recovery work and the alternator is
used to generate electrical power without
consuming any extra fuel as it is driven by
the shaft power of the turbocharger.
Requirements for setting up hybrid
turbocharger

For a hybrid turbocharger, three basic things

required are:

1. Conventional turbocharger with extended

shaft to accommodate alternator at blower
end.

2. A specially designed very compact

alternator to run at very high speed of around
9000 rpm.

3. A cooling system for alternator as heat

generated will be more due to its compact
size for given rpm.

Construction of hybrid turbocharger

A two part shell made from cast steel is fitted

to the blower side scroll, which is built up
with higher rigidity, in order to support
alternator within the turbocharger silencer.

The lower half shell is attached first and is

made such that it acts like a sump to collect
lubricating oil discharged from the alternator.

Intake filter and silencer are mounted above

the alternator assembly with sufficient gap to
allow air to pass over the shell into the
compressor blades.

Cooling water jacket made up of aluminium

is provided around the rotor winding and
external cooling air is also supplied at
extreme ends and centre of the windings.

The alternator and compressor are connected

by special designed flexible coupling.

The length and weight of the Hybrid T/C is

313mm and 4600kg more as compare to
conventional system.

Working of Hybrid Turbocharger

The working is similar to any other generator,
the only difference here is the prime mover
which is turbocharger itself.

The speed of prime mover governs the

voltage and frequency of the generator. An
initial D.C power is provided so that the
required output voltage and frequency can be
achieved.

At 9500 KW, the hybrid system can generate

about 756 KW which is enough to take up
full sea load of a normal size merchant
vessel.

Advantages

● With only little increase in the

dimensions, enough power can be
generated from main engine operation.
 ● Fuel saving as the heat recovery
system is used for driving the
alternator.

● The generator can function as

motor at low load operation to drive
blower for maintaining scavenge air
pressure of the main engine.

● Eliminate the installation of

auxiliary blower for main engine.

● As no extra fuel is used, it helps in

emission cut down from ship.

Application

MV Shin Koho, a 292 m long 180,000 dwt

bulk carrier with a draft of 24.5m is the
world’s first merchant vessel to successfully
equipped with the hybrid turbocharger
technology.
4 Ways to Measure
Main Bearing
Clearance of Two
Stroke Marine
Engine
The revolving and reciprocating crankshaft,
camshaft, and cross head of a marine engine
are supported by numerous types of bearings,
allowing the engine to accomplish the
intended power production activity. To avoid
engine breakdown, it is critical to keep a
proper quality and amount of lubricating oil
in all of these bearings.

The long-running crankshaft of a marine

engine is supported by the main bearing
throughout the engine's length. As a result,
it's critical to inspect the bearing's condition
at regular intervals.

The amount of wear down the main bearing

has experienced is determined by the
clearance measurement. To assess the
clearance of a marine engine's main bearing,
different marine engine manufacturers use a
variety of methods. The following are some
of the most common methods for measuring
main bearing clearance onboard ships:

1) Bridge with Depth Gauge

This method is used in SULZER 2 stroke

marine engines where the bearing‘s shell is
removed along with the keep (the bearing
shell is lined with the keep). After that a
bridge is fitted over the top of journal pin,
from port to starboard, making a bridge over
the crankshaft with two ends supported on the
cross girder.
A simple vernier type depth gauge is then
inserted in the hole provided on the bridge
and the scale of depth gauge is rested on the
crankshaft pin. The total depth on the scale is
measured and compared with the previous
reading and the reading in the manual for
calculating the wear down of bearing.

In old model SULZER engines, a collar is

provided in the bearing shell along with a
small hole. Thus without removing the keep,
the bridge is fitted adjacent to the keep and
the depth gauge is used from the hole
provided in the shell to measure the shell
wear down.

2) Bridge With Feeler Gauge

In some engines, after removing the shell and

the keep, the bridge is installed as explained
in the above point. Also, in place of depth
gauge, a feeler gauge is used to measure the
clearance between the journal pin top and the
bridge bottom. The bridge used here is
different in terms of height and the gap
between the pin and the bridge is very less as
compared to that of the bridge used in the
above mentioned method.

3) Telescopic or Swedish Feeler Gauge

In engines like MAN B&W, this is the most

common method used to measure the bearing
clearance of the top shell. In this method
there is no need to remove any connection or
keep for measuring the clearance.
The telescopic gauge is inserted between the
gap of the crank web and the bearing keep.
When the tip reaches the shell top, the feeler
is inserted between the shell and the pin to
check the clearance.

4) Dial type Depth Gauge

This method is used in new MAN B&W

engines (SMC-C) which does not require the
top keep to be removed. The lube oil pipe
connection screw hole is in the bearing keep
which can be accessed from the hole on the
bearing shell.
The dial gauge is inserted in this screw hole
and the reading is taken as the clearance for
upper shell.
Biggest Diesel Engine
In The World!
Here is a diesel engine that you can really
sink your teeth into. It's built in Japan and my
jaw dropped when I first saw this mega
machine! I'm thinking about what the
machining tools look like that built this
thing?

The fuel costs amaze me (data below) and

being a 2 stroke...how loud is this engine and
what do the higher rpms do to the life of the
engine?
PISTON AND CONNECTING ROD

ENGINE BLOCK
The Wartsila-Sulzer RTA96-C turbocharged
two-stroke diesel engine is the most powerful
and most efficient prime-mover in the world
today. The Aioi Works of Japan's Diesel
United, Ltd built the first engines and is
where some of these pictures were taken.
It is available in 6 through 14 cylinder
versions, all are inline engines. These engines
were designed primarily for very large
container ships. Ship owners like a single
engine/single propeller design and the new
generation of larger container ships needed a
bigger engine to propel them.
The cylinder bore is just under 38" and the
stroke is just over 98". Each cylinder
displaces 111,143 cubic inches (1820 liters)
and produces 7780 horsepower. Total
displacement comes out to 1,556,002 cubic
inches (25,480 liters) for the fourteen
cylinder version.
Some facts on the 14 cylinder version:
Total engine weight: 2300 tons (The
crankshaft alone weighs 300 tons.)
Length: 89 feet
Height: 44 feet
Maximum power: 108,920 hp at 102 rpm
Maximum torque: 5,608,312 lb/ft at 102rpm
Fuel consumption at maximum power is
0.278 lbs per hp per hour (Brake Specific
Fuel Consumption). Fuel consumption at
maximum economy is 0.260 lbs/hp/hour. At
maximum economy the engine exceeds 50%
thermal efficiency. That is, more than 50% of
the energy in the fuel in converted to motion.

For comparison, most automotive and small

aircraft engines have BSFC figures in the
0.40-0.60 lbs/hp/hr range and 25-30%
thermal efficiency range.
Even at its most efficient power setting, the
big 14 consumes 1,660 gallons of heavy fuel
oil per hour.
This an amazing diesel engine and I wonder
if they will ever go hybrid? Just Kidding...I
don't think they would room for the battery
pack. It would be one heck of an
accomplishment. Japanese technology reigns
supreme once again. It makes me wonder
why they can build these huge machines in
their own country and HOW A CRUISE
LINE run them without going broke with the
fuel costs & diesel engine maintenance. I
would guess ticket sales would have to be
adjusted UP (most times) in accordance with
the price of fuel.

Check out this Detroit 8V 71 2 Stroke

Diesel Running (Takes me back to the non
emission control days...where there's
smoke there's a screamin' Jimmy!).
Having 2 strokes instead of 4 makes it easy
to understand how much higher the RPMs
are. If I were these guys I would have rigged
up a decent engine stand.
What is the 4-valve
engine?

An engine contains valves that allow the air-

fuel mixture to enter the combustion chamber
and then pull out the exhaust gas once it has
been burned. One intake valve lets in the air-
fuel mixture, and one exhaust valve lets out
the exhaust gases in a traditional engine. The
4-valve engine, on the other hand, has two
intake and two exhaust valves. Four valves
are better than two, much as having two
doors allows more people to enter and leave a
room in a given length of time than having
one entrance, and having more exits allows
for a more efficient flow of people. Four
valves provide a more stable low-speed
performance as well as a greater acceleration
sensation. That's why most high-performance
engines and race engines have four valves.
Yamaha's YZR-M1 MotoGP race bike, for
example, features four valves.

Two intake and two exhaust valves are

present in the 4-valve combustion chamber
used in this engine. The first advantage of
this design is that it permits the spark plug to
be placed in the combustion chamber's centre,
allowing for more efficient flame spread and
combustion. To put it another way, it allows
for extremely efficient combustion.

In addition, a 4-valve system has a larger

overall valve area than a 2-valve system,
allowing for more efficient intake and
exhaust function (per unit of area). This is the
second significant benefit.
The YZF-R15 engine's combustion chamber
is a hemispherical four-valve design with the
smallest possible area for the two intake and
two exhaust valves. It's also constructed with
the smallest intake and exhaust valve angles
possible to provide the best combustion
chamber shape. The surface area/volume ratio
(S/V ratio) has also been recognised as an
essential component in determining
combustion efficiency.
This, together with the benefits of the fuel
injection system, results in superb engine
performance characteristics and contributes to
more pleasurable long-distance riding in
suburban areas and mid-to-high-speed runs.
Dual Fuel Engines

Wärtsilä dual-fuel engines

Because they have two distinct injection
methods, Wärtsilä dual-fuel engines are
unique. When the engine is in gas mode, a
micro pilot injection system injects a very
small amount of liquid fuel. The common rail
technology used in the micro pilot system
allows for very small injection quantities.
This allows for the achievement of extremely
stringent emission requirements, which
would be hard to achieve with a traditional
injection system. When the engine is running
on liquid fuel, such as heavy fuel oil or, of
course, diesel oil, a conventional injection
system is employed. The key advantages of
dual-fuel technology are fuel flexibility and
excellent efficiency. The Wärtsilä 32 DF and
Wärtsilä 50DF are the two engine models
currently available. The latter has
demonstrated efficiency of above 48%, which
is likely a new high at this moment.
Wärtsilä's gas-diesel engines were the
company's first gas engines. The initial
engines have now been running for about
70,000 hours. The concept was first created
for the offshore industry, where it has been
implemented in a significant number of
floating production units with great success.
Because of their fuel adaptability, these
engines have also been deployed in a number
of power plants. In the gas diesel, the gas is
injected at high pressure using a diesel
process. When the engine is in gas mode, a
little amount of liquid fuel is pilot injected.
With pilot injection, a gas diesel may run on
gas as well as liquid fuels like diesel oil,
heavy fuel oil, or even crude oil. The gas
diesel is more tolerant of methane number in
gas mode than other gas engine ideas. The
Wärtsilä 32GD and Wärtsilä 46 GD are
Wärtsilä's gas-diesel engines.
Engine working
principle of dual-fuel
(DF) engines
When running on gas, the dual-fuel engine
uses a "lean-burn" otto combustion
mechanism. During the air intake time, the
gas is mixed with air before the intake valves.
A little amount of liquid pilot fuel is used to
ignite the gas/air mixture once it has been
compressed (LFO). The exhaust gas valves
open after the working phase, and the
cylinder is emptied of exhaust gases. When
the exhaust gas valves close, the incoming air
valves open, and the process begins again.

A backup fuel system is included with the

dual-fuel engine. In the event of a gas supply
disruption, the engine automatically switches
from gas to fuel oil operation (LFO, HFO) at
any load. In addition, the independent backup
fuel system allows for a seamless transition
from LFO to HFO with no load reduction.
The DF engine uses the traditional diesel
process when running on fuel oil.

Engine working principle of gas-diesel

(GD) engines
The GD engine utilizes the diesel combustion
process in all operational modes. In gas
mode, the gas is injected at high pressure
after the pilot fuel and is ignited by the flame
from the pilot fuel injection. The amount of
pilot fuel is equivalent to approximately 5%
of the fuel energy input at full engine load.
The gas-diesel engine can be switched over
instantly to liquid fuel mode operation. The
liquid fuel can be light fuel oil, heavy fuel oil
or crude oil. In this case, the process is the
same as the conventional diesel process.
In fuel sharing mode, the ratio between liquid
and gas fuel amounts can be controlled and
varied during operation. The operating
window for the fuel sharing mode is 30 to
100% load and the gas/liquid fuel ratio can
vary according to the fuel sharing window.
The gas-diesel process can tolerate big
variations in the gas quality and is especially
suitable for “non-pipeline quality gas”, such
as associated gas in oil fields.
Wärtsilä 32GD main
technical data
The Wärtsilä 32GD was created to set new
industry benchmarks for high-performance,
fuel-flexible engines. The Wärtsilä 32GD is a
four-stroke gas-diesel engine that can run on
either gas or fuel oil using the diesel cycle.
Under any working conditions, switching
from one fuel to the other is possible.
The power range of the Wärtsilä 32GD is
2520 – 8400 kW. The engine delivers 405–
420 kW per cylinder and runs at 720 or 750
rpm for use with 50 or 60 Hz generators.

The main features of the Wärtsilä 32GD are:

• Low-NOX combustion
• Reliability and low maintenance costs
• Integrated monitoring and control or basic
automation system
• Ergonomic interface
• Minimized consumables
• Unique fuel flexibility
Technical 6L32GD 9L32GD
data 50 Hz/
750 rpm

Power, kW 2636 3974

electrical

Heat rate kJ/kWh 8304 8260

Electrical 43.4 43.6

efficiency

Technical
data 60 Hz/
720 rpm

Power, kW 2579 3888

electrical

Heat rate kJ/kWh 8304 8260

Electrical % 43.4 43.6

efficiency

Dimensions
and dry
weight of
generating
sets

Length mm 8400 10400

Width mm 2780 2780

Height mm 3840 3840

Weight tonne 58 77

Wärtsilä 34DF main technical data

The WÄRTSILÄ® 34DF tri-fuel engine is

the ultimate ‘fuel flexibility’ engine. The
Wärtsilä 34DF is a four-stroke dual-fuel
engine that can be run on natural gas, light
fuel oil (LFO) or heavy fuel oil (HFO).
Moreover, the engine can switch over from
gas to LFO/HFO and vice versa smoothly
during engine operation. The Wärtsilä 34DF
is manufactured in configurations from 6L up
to 20V giving 435/450 kW per cylinder and a
total maximum mechanical output of 9000
kW. The engine speed is 720 or 750 rpm for
use with 50 or 60 Hz applications.

Technical 6L34DF
data 50
Hz/750 rpm

Power, kW 2579
electrical

Heat rate kJ/kWh 8347 (8257)*

Electrical % 43,1 (43,6)*

efficiency

Technical
data 60
Hz/720 rpm

Power, kW 2493
electrical

Heat rate kJ/kWh 8347 (8217)*

Electrical % 43,1 (43,8)*

efficiency

Dimensions
and dry
weight of
generating
sets

Length mm 8400

Width mm 2780

Height mm 3840

Weight tonne 58

Wärtsilä 50DF main technical data

The Wärtsilä 50DF tri-fuel engine is the
ultimate ‘fuel flexibility’ engine.
The Wärtsilä 50DF is a four-stroke dual-fuel
engine that can be run on natural gas, light
fuel oil (LFO) or heavy fuel oil (HFO).
Moreover, the engine can switch over from
gas to LFO/HFO and vice versa smoothly
during engine operation.
The Wärtsilä 50DF has a total maximum
mechanical output of 17,100 kW. The engine
speed is 500 or 514 rpm for use with 50 or 60
Hz applications. The engine has a maximum
thermal efficiency of 47%.

Technical 18V50DF 18V50DF*

data 50
Hz/500 rpm

Power, kW 16638 16638

electrical

Heat rate kJ/kWh 7616 8185

Electrical % 47.3 44.0

efficiency

Technical
data 60
Hz/514 rpm

Power, kW 17076 17076

electrical

Heat rate kJ/kWh 7616 8185

Electrical % 47.3 44.0

efficiency

Dimensions
and dry
weight of
generating
set

Length mm 18780 18780

Width mm 4090 4090

Height mm 6020 6020

Weight tonne 355 355

Titanic Facts

1.Titanic Was Built at Harland and Wolff,

Belfast.

2.Titanic Had 24 double-ended and 5 single-

ended boilers

3.The Center Propeller had 4 blades and the

wing propellers both starboard and port had 3
blades each.

4.RMS Olympic and HMHS Britannic were

sisterships of Titanic.

5.2 Dynamos of each 30 kW was Titanic's

emergency source or auxiliary
source of power.
6.The Main Power Generation system was 4
Dynamos producing 400 kW each.

7.one port, one starboard, one in the

centreline and two kedging anchors

8.It had unbalanced rudder right behind the

center propeller

9.She was Propelled By 2 steam Engines and

a steam turbine

10.She was a Triple screw Vessel

11.Port of Registry: Liverpool, UK.

Rolls-Royce to
deliver world's first
gas power system for
tugs

The worldwide power systems business

Rolls-Royce has signed a contract to supply
extremely efficient engines and propulsion
systems for the world's first LNG-powered
tugboats.
The two vessels were ordered by the
Norwegian business Buksér og Berging AS
and will be delivered to Statoil, an
international energy company, and Gassco,
the operator of the gas transportation network
off the Norwegian coast, in late 2013.
“This is a breakthrough for our Bergen gas
engines and leading edge propulsion
technology,” said Robert Lseth, Senior Vice
President - Merchant, Propulsion Systems
and Engines, Rolls-Royce.
Our customer's decision shows Rolls-
industry-leading Royce's engine performance,
fuel efficiency, and low methane emissions,
which are now being applied to tugs.
In addition to two gas engines and an LNG
tank system, each tug will receive an azimuth
propulsion system from Rolls-Royce, which
will offer the tug operators with the swift and
responsive manoeuvring they require. The
new Rolls-Royce US35 azimuth thrusters,
which have increased hydrodynamic
performance and hull integration, will be
used on these tugs for the first time.
When compared to equivalent traditional
boats, the integrated power and propulsion
system is expected to reduce CO2 emissions
by 30%, and it will meet all known future
emission limits.
Rolls-Royce will also provide automation and
control systems for the two vessels.
1. Rolls-Royce is a world-leading
provider of power systems and services
for use on land, at sea and in the air, and
has established a strong position in global
markets - civil aerospace, defence
aerospace, marine and energy.
2. As a result of this strategy, Rolls-
Royce has a broad customer base
comprising more than 500 airlines, 4,000
corporate and utility aircraft and
helicopter operators, 160 armed forces,
more than 4,000 marine customers,
including 70 navies, and energy customers
in nearly 120 countries, with an installed
base of 54,000 gas turbines.
3. Annual underlying revenues were over
£10.8 billion in 2010, of which more than
half came from the provision of services.
The firm and announced order book stood
at £61.4 billion at 30 June 2011, providing
visibility of future levels of activity.
4. Rolls-Royce employs over 39,000
skilled people in offices, manufacturing
and service facilities in over 50 countries.
Over 11,000 of these employees are
engineers.
5. In 2010, Rolls-Royce invested £923
million on research and development, two
thirds of which had the objective of
further improving the environmental
performance of its products, in particular
reducing emissions.
6. Rolls-Royce supports a global network
of 28 University Technology Centres,
which connect the company’s engineers
with the forefront of scientific research.
7. The Group has a strong commitment to
apprentice and graduate recruitment and to
further developing employee skills.
8. The Marine business of Rolls-Royce
employs 9,000 people in 35 countries with
the main manufacturing centres being in
the UK, the Nordic countries, the United
States and increasingly Asia.
9. Rolls-Royce is a world leader in
marine solutions, providing products,
 service and expertise to more than 30,000
vessels in the offshore, merchant, naval
surface and submarine markets. It designs
ships and its product range includes
propulsion systems featuring diesel
engines and gas turbines, propellers,
thrusters and water jets. Rolls-Royce also
provides manoeuvring and stabilising
systems and deck machinery.

M250 Turboshaft-
Helicopter Engine
The industry-standard 420-
715 shp turboshaft engine
Product details
● Over 200 million fleet flight hours
● Over 30,000 engines delivered
● Lowest cost of operation
● Continuously improved
● Customer Support Center available 24
hours daily
● M250 FIRST network of worldwide
authorized repair and overhaul centers
The Rolls-Royce M250® engine is the
leading powerplant in its class worldwide.
First certified at a rating of 317 shp,
continuous improvement programs have
increased the latest version's rating to 715
shp.

Virtually every turbine-powered light

helicopter manufacturer produces an aircraft
which offers one of the Rolls-Royce M250
engines. This fleet of engines has accrued in
excess of 200 million fleet flight hours on
over 30,000 engines delivered.
The M250 product line enjoys continued
integration of advanced turbine engine
technology designed to make the M250 the
most reliable, cost effective and durable
engine in the world. In addition to a proud
heritage the M250, is backed by a worldwide
authorized repair and overhaul network.
Customers can thus expect professional
support anywhere.
Rolls-Royce provides extensive service
training for the full range of M250 engines.
"Hands on" sessions are coupled with self-
paced, computer-based training, supported by
knowledgeable instructors. Our objective is to
enable the operator's personnel to perform
maintenance, inspection, troubleshooting, and
ground checkout on the entire family of
M250 engines.
● Power (shp) - 420 – 715

● Length (in) – 23.2

● Width (in) – 19
● Basic weight (lb) - 173
Parachute Sea
Anchors – New
Maritime
Technology Hopes
To Save Lives At Sea

A dynamically positioned (DP) drillship

operating in the Gulf Of Mexico prepares for
an approaching hurricane. They secure the oil
well, chain the deck cargo and fly all non-
essential personnel to the “safety” of dry
land. They are prepared and running from the
storm at full speed ahead but are they out of
danger? Considering the average drillship is
capable of a max transit speed of less than 12
knots, how far away from the hurricane can
they get?
The answer is always, not
far enough.
Now these ships are designed to ride with the
bow into the swell and the DP system is
designed to prioritize vessel heading over all
else, including forward propulsion. This is a
good thing because waves hitting against 138
feet of steel, the beam of a new drillship, puts
the lowest possible load on the power and
propulsion systems. It also applies it’s energy
to pitch, rather than roll, the vessel. The
problem is, what happens if the DP system
fails or a large wave knocks the bow off
heading?
At this point the waves hit against a 750 foot
steel wall, the full length of the ship, forcing
it to roll heavily and putting significant strain
on the power systems. Loose propulsion
completely and the ship naturally sits
perpendicular to the forces of wind waves
and current… a dangerous situation for the
people aboard this, now heavily rolling, ship.
Miko Marine has new and interesting,
potentially lifesaving, technology that
addresses the problem. New technology
applied to an age old idea, the use of a Sea
Anchor. Miko Marine explains:

A vessel in drift represents a serious thread to

life and environment. The time required for a
salvor to reach the casualty and to attach a
towing line is essential for the result.
Miko’s integrated Sea-Anchor provides
increased chances for a successful salvage
operation. The combination of a sea-anchor
(with diameter up to 15 meters), the synthetic
fibre towing line and the pick-up buoy
solution provides the salvor more time and
when in place, a fast and secure way to
connect and start the tow.
The Sea-Anchor may be used as a “stand
alone” product, in combination with
Emergency Towing Systems for tankers, or in
combination with MiCon as presented earlier.
The self-inflated sea anchor is activated in the
sea when the anchor reaches a predetermined
depth. Before deploying, a “pilot-anchor”
drags the anchor away from the vessel. The
anchor reduces the drift speed and allows the
salvor up to 5 times longer time to reach the
casualty.

The particulars of the Sea–Anchor are

adjusted to optimize the effect to:
1. Increase drag force to reduce drift speed by
up to 80 %.
2. The bow of the vessel will be heading
towards the environmental forces from wind,
waves and current, hence reducing exposed
area and motions of vessel.
3. The tow-line – sea-anchor combination
attached to a pick-up buoy will allow the
salvor to – efficiently and safely, pick up the
tow and start towing the casualty into safe
haven.

Anti-Pirate PPE – 7
Cool Tools To
Defend Yourself
From At-Sea Attacks

Three years ago this month, four young

Somali men cranked up the speed on their
little motorboat and targeted the bow at the
American-flagged container ship Maersk
Alabama in broad daylight. The crew
regained control of their ship within hours,
but at the cost of one captive. Captain
Richard Phillips sat in the confines of a small
lifeboat for the next four days, unprotected,
facing armed gunmen who were afraid for
their lives. The situation was quickly “taken
care of” by a Navy SEAL operator, but it was
a close call. Phillips may have killed if the
pirates had fired just one shot at him before
the SEALs had eliminated the threat. While
we can't speak for Phillips, we believe he
would bring anti-pirate PPE with him if he
ever returned to risky waters. Here are several
possibilities:

The Ballistic PDF

In the United States you can buy bulletproof
vests online or via the internet, but they
typically come in only two options; an
uncomfortable and ungainly concealed vest
that’s worn under your work clothes or a
military style vest which makes you more
like a para-military mercenary than a ship's
officer. But there is a third option…. a
bulletproof life vest!
Looking like an inflatable PFD on steroids
the Mullion Ballistics Life Jacket is SOLAS
approved and provides NIJ3A rated ballistic
protection, the highest soft armour level for
stopping flying bullets, knife stabs and even
spike attacks.

Maritime Body Armor

A ballistic lifevest can save your life both in
and out of the water but isn’t foolproof. It
can’t stop close range rifle shots or
fragmentation damage from an RPG. To take
your protection to the next step try Pinnacle’s
maritime body armour.
And if you want one that looks more like a
traditional lifejacket then try the Northgear
Ballistic Floatation Vest which comes
complete with reflective tape and an
international orange color scheme.
Kevlar Clipboard
While a bulletproof vest is nice to have it
certainly isn’t discreet. One option is the
Clint Eastwood method of hanging a steel
plate from a string around your neck… but
that would be awfully heavy. A better option
might be a kevlar clipboard. Weighing in at
just under one pound, the Armor Dynamics
Ballistic Clipboard is a lightweight,
concealable armor panel that slides into a
clipboard and is capable of stopping hand and
shotgun shots for a fraction of the price of
full body armor (one model sells for just
$69).
While not a replacement for a ballistic vest
this unit looks just like a clipboard and, while
not recommended, could be stuffed under a
traditional lifejacket.
High-Impact Sunglasses
To avoid pirates you first need to see them
and, considering they attack mostly during
the day, you need a pair of high quality
sunglasses. But rather than spend $200 on our
favorite pair of shades you can spend half that
on a pair of ESS 5B’s which come complete
with U.S. Military Spec MIL-PRF-31013
ballistic high-impact lenses. And while these
glasses won’t stop a direct shot to your eye
they will protect your vision from shrapnel
and during the course of your normal work on
deck.

Handheld Thermal Imaging Camera

While the pirates don’t typically attack ships
at night, it’s best to keep your guard up and to
see in the dark night vision goggles are nice
but a thermal imaging camera is best. We like
the Flir First Mate because it’s lightweight,
portable and is designed for the marine
environment. And if the pirates to invade
your ship then don’t try to reinvent the wheel,
rather take a page from Maersk Alabama
Chief Engineer / certified badass Mike
Perry… just turn off the lights and wait. For
that tactic you don’t need thermal imaging
but it would help you track those bad guys.

Voice Scrambler
For handheld VHF radios we like most of the
Icom and Standard Horizon submersible
models, but for dealing with pirates we’ll take
the HX271S! Why? Because the pirates have
access to the same VHF and UHF radios most
ships use on a daily basis and can listen in on
your conversations with ease. But to
coordinate a proper defense against attack
you need covert communications and the
HX271S provides just that with an integrated
Voice Scrambler that makes conversations
between two (or more) HX271S’ crystal clear
but gives eavesdroppers an ear full of ugly
static noise. The HX271S has another nice
feature, FRS which stands for Family Radio
Service.
These are those small radios that you see
families carrying around themeparks and
campgrounds. While not very secure the FRS
system limits communications to just 500
milliwatts which contains the signal to less
than a couple of miles. The FRS also uses
designated UHF frequencies so you can’t
listen in on the conversation using a
traditional marine VHF regardless of your
proximity or the size of your antenna. The
HX271S is also rugged, small and waterproof
making it an good companion during your
nightly security rounds.
Halligan Tool
The Halligan Tool, which is the standard
forceable entry tool used by most fire and
police departments, is bar-none the most
intimidating weapon you’ll ever see and it’s
wholly effective for ripping down burning,
battle-damaged walls, prying open locked
doors, anchoring repelling line and hundreds
of other heavy rescue tasks. Yes, the typical
Somali Pirate armed with an an automatic
rifle will just laugh at you and shoot if you try
to use the Halligan against him but…. it is
effective against lowly dock criminals,
unarmed looters and other seedy characters
that hang out near commercial ports.
Clean and Efficient
Shipping by CAT:
New Marine Engine
Burns Both LNG and
Diesel

M 46 DF – Marine Dual Fuel Engine, image courtesy

Caterpillar Marine

Caterpillar (NYSE:CAT) Announces

the Development of Their First High
Performance Dual Fuel Marine
Engine.
Caterpillar Marine Power Systems is pleased
to announce the development of the MaK M
46 DF, a new marine dual fuel engine
platform for the commercial marine industry.
The M 46 DF dual fuel engine boasts a power
rating of 900 kW per cylinder at 500 and 514
rpm in diesel and gas modes, and is available
in an in-line or vee configuration. The engine
is currently being tested at Caterpillar’s
medium-speed engine facility in Rostock,
Germany. First engine deliveries are foreseen
for 2014.
“We’re pleased to
introduce this reliable, safe and efficient
propulsion engine for the commercial marine
market,” said Bob Hallengren, Caterpillar
Marine Power Systems product manager.
Able to alternate from gas to diesel mode
during operation, the M 46 DF offers the
flexibility to operate vessels reliably in all
geographical areas, whether the fuel in use is
gas, marine diesel oil (MDO) or heavy fuel
oil (HFO). In gas mode, the M 46 DF features
industry-leading fuel consumption and will
comply with IMO III as well as EPA Tier 4
regulations. The engine has been designed to
allow retrofitting of current M 43 C engines.
“It was important for us that M 46 DF and M
43 C share the same footprint features, and
the same system interfaces. The M 46 DF
was designed to provide operators with
industry-leading thermal efficiency for lowest
total cost of operation,” said Detlef Kirste,
MaK product definition manager.
“The engine offers optimized load response
and load stability in addition to numerous
support features, such as remote monitoring
and engine system diagnostics, helping
engine operators with their daily service and
maintenance work. Our target was to keep the
typical MaK marine engine attributes like
reliability, safety and efficiency while
striving for an engine design that is easy to
service and maintain.”
With a bore of 460 millimeters and stroke of
610, the engine was designed for electric
drive propulsion systems as well as
mechanical propulsion systems. Although
designed for unlimited operation on LNG,
marine diesel oil and heavy fuel oil, the M 46
DF will reach industry- leading efficiency in
gas mode.
 10 Amazing Facts
About Viking Boats
and Ships

The Vikings were sailors from the far north

of Europe. The Vikings were varied, ranging
from merchants to fearsome warriors, and
their name is still spoken with reverence and
awe today. They ruled over all of Northern
Europe for three centuries, from the ninth to
the eleventh centuries, ushering in the growth
of a force unlike any other in history.
Because the Vikings lived in an area that was
suited to marine transportation, they devised
amazing ship-building techniques. Viking
ships and boats were unique, giving them the
push they needed to win conflicts and
commercially dominate the world.
The following is a list of ten such Viking ship
facts that can help you better comprehend the
dynamics of the Viking ships and perceive
them:

I. Used Not as War Ships but as

Continuous platforms
The ships that were used by the Vikings to
wage wars were long and robust. By
themselves, the Viking Long Ships were
never utilised by the Vikings to serve as a
war vessel, but rather such numerous long
ships were tied to make a continuous
platform on shallow water areas, enabling the
naval warriors to stave off attacks and defend
themselves respectably – without offering
any advantage to either party.

II. Ships as Reward

Viking ships were highly regarded for the
resourcefulness and utility. The long ships
that were conquered were souvenirs for the
victors as a demonstration of their superior
naval strength.

III.Unique Design, Easy Manoeuvrability

The Viking Long Ships were categorised for
their flatness, lightness, and speed (around 15
knots). Their length did not hinder the ships’
movement in the waters and the ships could
be used to move in the shallower waters as
well. The unique design of the ships made
changing directions easy and abruptly in the
water.

IV. Viking Ships also used as Funeral

Ships
Superstitions played a major role in the
Scandinavian culture. One important
superstitious attribute was that of the Viking
funeral ritual. A unique mummification, the
Viking funeral ceremony involved a dead
person being elaborately dressed in finery and
placed in a Viking vessel. The Scandinavians
believed that the Viking ships could carry the
dead to the deserved hereafter, making the
funeral rites so detailed.

V. Extensively used as Cargo Ships

Apart from long ships, the Vikings also used
commercial vessels for cargo hauling and
transportation.
- The Knarr was a boat that was used for
major long distance voyages in the Atlantic
Ocean with a cargo capacitance of 50 tons.
- The Karves were used for ferrying
passengers and could be used in the shallower
water parts. Apart from ferrying of
passengers, the Karves were also used to
carry small cargo and farm animals.
- The most commonly used boat was the
Faering, incorporating a simple oaring
mechanism.

VI. Unique Design

Designing aspects of Viking vessels were
note worthy. The vessels were built of wood
overlapped and supported with the help of
iron impales. The edges of the boat were
curved in the form of dragon warheads,
creating an aura of veneration across.

VII.Dual Maneouvering Capability

Viking boats and ships could be dually
manoeuvred. When required the sails would
be used and when the need arose, the
oarsmen could manoeuvre the ship
appropriately. The presence of the oars made
the ship movement incredibly easy in the
shallow water parts.

VIII. Vikings Invented Ship Keel

The world owes the innovation of the concept
of keel to the Vikings. In order to reduce the
sustained dependence on wind power, the
Vikings came up with the designing of the
keel, which could offer stability to the vessel
for extended periods – laterally.

IX. No Sitting or Storing Space

An oaring ship has pre-designated places for
the oarsmen to power the oars. The Viking
vessels contrarily did not have any specific
seating area for the oarsmen. This flexibility
allowed the Vikings to conserve space in the
vessel without having to compromise on the
manoeuvrability aspect.

X. Robust Ships and Unique Navigation

Tricks
In terms of navigation, the Viking sailors
used whale sightings to decipher and
determine the course of their journey. In
addition to whales, the then prescribed
methods using the sun as a focal navigating
point was also used by the Viking navigators.
Moreover, Viking ships were supposed to be
known as the most robust and beautiful ships
of the ancient marine world.

The Vikings provided a completely different

perspective of water navigation from the then
existing standards. Their way of thinking and
their ability to design vessels to enhance their
marine transportation capacitance, makes the
Vikings’ architectural abilities worth
appreciating and admiring.
List of rights of
women seafarers

A list of rights of women seafarers that

cannot be denied to them:
● The first and most basic right
according to International Labor
Organization states that all women
seafarers hold right to equality in job and
education
● All female seafarers, like their male
counterparts, are entitled to minimum
wages and working conditions which has
been set at $465.
● Women seafarers shall be allowed
same working hours as their male
counterparts, with maximum limit being
14 hours in a 24 hour period.
● Women seafarers will be entitled to be
paid for overtime above the stipulated
hours of work as set by the International
Marine Organization (IMO) for all
seafarers.
● IMO states that no lady mariner can
be denied any maritime post on a vessel in
lieu of her gender.
● Women have right to be guaranteed
against any form of discrimination
between men and women for any
maritime job, in terms of equipment,
working conditions or facilities.
● In case of maternity, women seafarers
are entitled to same rights as in any other
profession.
● For Flag of convenience vessels, the
rights for maternity leaves for a lady
mariner are as mentioned by the flag state.
In certain cases, there may be no specified
rights for such a situation at all. However,
ITF secures their position with minimum
rights that those women would still be
entitled to.
● Women seafarers have the right to
form or join any trade unions to represent
themselves.
● ITF's agreements with seafaring
vessels ensure that in case of pregnancy,
women seafarers will be allowed to
repatriate with no deductions in salary.
● The time for repatriation is influenced
by the state of legislation and the
conditions on board. Depending on the
country under whose legislation the vessel
is sailing or the availability of a medical
practitioner on the vessel, the time of
repatriation can vary.
● ITF states that a pregnant lady
mariner cannot be exposed to hazardous
conditions while aboard.
● Under rights of women seafarers, ITF
guarantees re-employment of the seafarer
after the maternity leave.
● A lady mariner shall be given two
months of salary as part of the maternity
payment.
● ITF has developed a policy for
women seafarers against bullying and
harassment aboard. This policy applies to
both men and women and indicates that no
 form of bullying or harassment would be
tolerated against seafarers.
● Under the policy to improve the
current rights for women, ITF proposed to
include the following:
●

1. The vast gap between percentage of

women and men holding important
maritime jobs like officers should be
bridged. At present, only 7% females are
appointed in ranks of officers as opposed
to 51% males. 93% female mariners are
involved in ratings while only 41% of
marine men are employed for this job.
2. Better representation for women
through trade unions
3. Access to better facilities which include
sanitary facilities, contraception, access to
medical assistance onboard and onshore
4. Seek combined assistance of
international organizations and ship
owners' organization to lower the extent of
discrimination between men and women
for important seafaring positions
5. Dealing with cases of sexual
harassment, along with strengthening their
safety aboard
Issues that jeopardize women's safety and
rights aboard vessels are constantly raised
so that improvements can be made. ITF
along with other organizations is
constantly working towards making the
marine industry fairer in offering
opportunities to both genders of the
society.
How To Buy Second
Hand Boat Engine?
It is unrealistic to expect everyone to be able
to afford a luxury yacht or to have the time to
cruise on a luxury ship. You may, however,
consider purchasing your own basic boat to
utilise for fishing or recreational purposes.
However, you will almost probably need to
purchase a diesel engine for this.
Introduction
If you're looking to buy a used marine diesel
engine, this post will be really valuable, as I'll
provide you with some very practical and
useful buying advice. But first, I'd like to
make the point that there is no substitute for
knowledge. I mean, I could give you a dozen
things and you could check them out and
come up with a great deal. However, it would
be preferable if you were familiar with some
of the theory behind these engines. If you
want to learn more, I recommend reading the
articles recommended in the paragraph
below.
We've discussed about their theoretical cycles
and numerous components including the
crankshaft, bedplate, pistons, cylinder liner,
and cylinder head in a number of educational
articles on this site regarding marine diesel
engines. One thing to keep in mind is that
these articles focused on the common marine
diesel engines seen in large commercial
merchant marine vessels or ships. Even if you
want to acquire a relatively small marine
diesel engine for your own boat, lifeboat,
Formula 1 boat, powered kayak or yatch,
which you might wish to use for leisure
fishing or relaxing, these articles will help
you enhance your knowledge. If you believe
you have a thorough understanding of the
background information, you can skip to the
next part and study the tips.

Going Shopping
There are basically 3 ways to go about while
buying a marine diesel engine.
1. Buy a New Engine

2. Buy an RTO
3. Rebuild the Engine
The first way is quite obvious; you shop
around for the best available engine in terms
of your power requirements, size,
performance and so forth and buy a brand
new engine directly from the manufacturer or
from their authorized dealers. All goes well in
this scheme except that more often than not,
you may find yourself a bit short of cash as
new marine diesel engines cost a lot and it is
a lot different from going to the corner shop
to buy a loaf of bread. There are several
popular manufacturers which you could
consider buying such as MAN, Caterpillar,
Yanmar, Detroit and so forth. But we wont
consider this option and will delve straight
into the other options namely RTO and
Rebuild.

RTO vs Rebuild
RTO
RTO refers to Running Take Out engine and
basically it means the engine which has been
taken out (from its original or previous boat)
while running (not literally though). This
obviously ensures that there no serious
defects in the engine though you still would
have to assess its condition either yourself or
get the help of a professional. This is
necessary to ensure that the engine is not at
the edge (not of technology but its lifespan).
Using an RTO can save you substantial sum
of money and if you take proper care of your
RTO engine you can certainly make it last a
long time.
● Do not depend totally on what the
salesman says but do check out for the
running condition yourself.
● Make sure there are not abnormal
noises/vibrations when the engine is
running or if there are any leaks of oil, gas
or fuel
● Check out the speed control and
governor functioning
● Since used engines do not have a fixed
MRP like new company engines, try to
bargain reasonably and if the seller feels
that you know your stuff, you would be in
 a better position to bargain
Rebuild Engines
The only difference between a rebuild engine
and a new engine is that most of the parts are
replaced with brand new parts except the
basic block of the engine. So they are almost
as good as new engines with a much lower
cost but they should have been rebuilt by a
thorough professional and not a hobbyist, I
mean unless you find it adventurous to get
stuck in the middle of the sea when your
engine fails you at that critical time.

Using Technology
Reading the above information may be quite
useful but there is one problem. A loaf of
bread is available at literally every corner
shop but unfortunately the same cannot be
said about second hand marine diesel
engines. So why not use the modern day
technology of Internet and use websites for
searching for such engines.
This would give you a lot of options in terms
of make, model, condition and price. You can
correspond with them and find out if they can
ship the required model to your place. Even if
not such an online research would give you a
deep insight into the price levels etc which
will help you to make a buying decision.
Also though size does matter and normally
bigger is considered better, it could also be
true the other way round since large websites
might have too many options which means
you might get confused and lost. So
sometimes it is better to contact smaller
websites which might have the time to
provide personal and customized service to
you.
Some of the sites which could be of help are
as follows and it depends on what sort, type,
model, size and power engine you are looking
for.
How such a huge
ship is able to move

Do you wonder how such a huge ship is able

to move. Let us discuss the phenomenon
behind ship movement

Introduction
A modern day ship consists of all the luxuries
which can be imagined in a top rated hotel,
but still the basics of propulsion remain the
same, as perhaps they were when human
beings started to cross the first small stream
of water perhaps in a skin boat or a coracle.
Of course a lot has changed since then and
nowadays modern ships do not use ores or
manual means for propulsion, but depend on
huge machineries for this purpose.
We all wonder how such a huge ship is able
to move forward. There are different forms of
propulsion. Some are by taking power
directly from the engine or by means of
electrical means or by means of steam
turbines. Some ship can even be driven by a
nuclear energy powered engine. We will
learn about various types of propulsion
systems used in other articles on this site.
For the time being let us focus on the topic
under discussion and take a look at the
forward ship movements....

How a ship moves ahead?

● We all know that a ship is moving with
the help of a propulsion device. The
propulsion device may be a fixed pitch
propeller, controllable pitch propeller,
azimuth propeller, shrouded propeller, or a
voith schneider propeller. Now lets
consider the case of a simple propeller of
fixed pitch.
● Main engine or whatever may be the
propulsor, when it rotates it imparts
momentum to the medium (ie) to the
 water.
● When a propeller is rotating, it
produces thrust on water. Now the thrust
from propeller is transferred to the water.
Since the amount of water is enormous
according to Newtons Third Law, the
thrust comes back to the ship and this
thrust moves the ship in ahead (or astern)
direction.
● This thrust is acting on the ship.
Why do we need astern movement?
It may seem a bit strange that one asks why
an astern movement is required on any means
of land transport, but yes this question
certainly has a relevance in context of
shipping (as well as aviation). A ship
normally would not move in the astern
direction but here are a few situations
wherein the navigation officers might be
required to move the ship in astern direction
and these situations can be either of the
following
● Astern movement is given to stop the
ship soon. Even when the engine is
stopped, due to the momentum, the ship
will further move to some extent.
● At this situation when you give astern
movement, this momentum will be
stopped as the propeller starts to rotate in
other-way-round.
● This is achieved by means of reversing
the engine. There are different methods of
reversing. They may be achieved by axial
shifting of the cam shaft or by using
servomotors or by shifting the cam
follower rollers.
Top 13 Things a
Junior Engineer
Should Do As Soon
As Possible When
New to a Ship
A Junior Engineer when new to ship is
surrounded by doubts, confusion, and fear.
When new to ship, it is very normal for any
marine engineering professional to make
mistakes. For this reason, senior engineers in
the engine room keep themselves a bit lenient
and give the fresher space and time to absorb
and learn things. However, a

junior engineer shouldn’t expect unlimited

time to learn and grasp things. After the very
first month, or probably after 15 days, the
new engineer would be expected to carry out
his or her duties independently without
making mistakes.
It is therefore important that a junior
engineer, though officially on a training
period should know and learn as fast he or
she can. The faster the engineer grasps and
learns things; the better would be the future
learning process. In this article we bring you
the top 13 things that a Junior engineer
should do when new to a ship.
Top 13 Things a Junior Engineer Should
Do As Soon As Possible When New to a
Ship
1. Ship Familiarisation
Familiarise yourself with the ship as soon as
possible. Don’t have a mindset that you are
going to be there on the ship for several
months and thus have ample of time to do so
later. The sooner you familiarize with the
ship, the better and easier it would be for you.
2. Know the Escape Routes Thoroughly
While familiarizing yourself with the ship,
make sure you remember ship’s emergency
escape routes and doors like the back of your
hand. This is the first lesson of safety on ship,
especially for newcrew members.
3. Know the location of Muster Stations
Find and remember the way and location of
muster stations. You don’t want yourself you
get lost during an emergency or a drill.
4. Should know who the DPA is
Junior engineer should find out who the
designated person ashore (DPA) of the ship
is. This is important according to the
International Safety Management Code
(ISM).
5. Segregation of garbage
Junior Engineer should know what garbage to
throw in which designated coloured garbage
box. This would be the same for all the ships
and thus would be helpful for him throughout
his sailing life.
6. Company rules and policies
In order to save himself and the ship from
any trouble, the junior engineer should know
the company rules and policies thoroughly.
This would give him a clear idea as to what
he can do and what he cannot when on ship.
7. How to Use Emergency Equipments
Personal safety comes first for any crew
member new to the ship. Junior engineer
should learn how to use emergency
equipments such as emergency generator, life
saving appliances, fire fightingappliances etc.
along with their locations.
8. Learn About Various Alarms
Learn about identifying various alarms such
as Co2 alarm, general alarm, engine room
alarm, and fire alarm, along with actions to
take in case of such situations.
9. Launching of Life Boat
It is imperative that everyone on ship knows
how to launch a life boat. A junior engineer
should know how to launch and operate a life
boat, along with the procedure to start the life
boat’s engine.
10. Know SOPEP
Know about the sopep locker and what all
things are present in it.
11. Know the Automation in the Control
Room
Know how to operate the basic operations
and equipments in the engine room’s control
room.
12. Learn About Manuals
Find out what all manuals are available in the
engine room and where are they located.
13. Familiarize with Engine Room and
Engine Room Workshop
This is where you would be spending most of
your time on ship. Know each and every
corner of these places.

Hyundai Heavy
Develops Mini
Welding Robot for
Shipbuilding
Hyundai Heavy Industries (HHI), the
world’s biggest shipbuilder and a leading
industrial robot manufacturer, today
announced the Company has developed mini
welding robots for building ships.
The compact design of the welding machine,
measuring 50 cm by 30 cm by 15cm when
retracted its welding arm, can operate in
confined areas inaccessible to human
welders.
The robot’s six joints enable the machine to
carry out almost all types of welding work at
a similar speed usually done by a welder.

Moreover, a magnet on its body means the

machine can be attached to steel walls or
ceilings. Weighing just 15 kg, an operator
can control three machines at the same time
increasing productivity threefold.
With the installation of software for steel
cutting, blasting and painting, the robot can
perform these other shipbuilding roles.
Hyundai Heavy also plans to improve the
robots to be usable for building
onshore/offshore facilities and construction
equipment. The mobile welding robots are
scheduled to be used in building ships in
Hyundai Heavy from the second half of this
year.
Hyundai Heavy, South Korea’s largest
industrial robot manufacturer, also
manufactures 20 models of car assembly
robots, 10 models of LCD handling robots,
and is in the process of developing various
types of surgical robots in association with
Asan Medical Center.
Nigerian survives two
days at sea, in
underwater air pocket
Jed Chamberlain, from DCN Global diving
company, describes how Harrison Okene
(pictured) was rescued
A Nigerian man has survived for two-and-a-
half days trapped 30m (98ft) deep in freezing
seawater.

Harrison Okene, 29, was on board the

tugboat Jascon-4 when it capsized in heavy
swells.

It sank to the seabed, upside down, but Mr

Harrison was trapped in an air pocket and
able to breathe.
 Mr Harrison survived in an air
pocket, 30m underwater in pitch darkness
Of the other 12 people on board, 10 bodies
have already been found and Mr Harrison
is assumed to be the only survivor.
Mr Harrison told Reuters journalist Joe Brock
that he could hear fish eating the dead bodies
of his fellow crew members.
Intense thirst
The Jascon-4 capsized on 26 May, about
32km (20 miles) off the coast of Nigeria,
while it was stabilising an oil tanker at a
Chevron platform.
Mr Harrison was working there as a cook,
according to the ship's owners, West African
Ventures.
Mr Harrison told Reuters he was in the toilet
when he realised that the boat was beginning
to turn over, and as the vessel sank, he
managed to find his way to an area with an
air pocket.
"I was there in the water in total darkness just
thinking it's the end. I kept thinking the water
was going to fill up the room but it did not,"
he said.
"I was so hungry but mostly so, so thirsty.
The salt water took the skin off my tongue."
"I could perceive the dead bodies of my crew
were nearby. I could smell them. The fish
came in and began eating the bodies. I could
hear the sound."
But after 60 hours, Mr Harrison heard the
sound of knocking.
A team from the DCN global diving company
had come to investigate - sent by Chevron
and West African Ventures.
"We expected it to be a body recovery job,"
DCN spokesperson Jed Chamberlain told the
BBC's Impact programme.
Mr Harrison "actually grabbed the second
diver who went past him," Mr Chamberlain
said, adding that the diver concerned got
quite a fright.
"This changed the whole nature of the
operation to a rescue operation."
Decompression
But even after Mr Harrison had been found,
he still faced a complex process to bring him
out safely.
Having been at such depth for so many hours,
he needed time in a decompression chamber
to normalise his body pressure.
Christine Cridge, a medical director at the
Diving Diseases Research Centre (DDRC),
advised the rescue team during this process.
"It's a situation I've not come across before,"
she told the BBC's Newsday programme.
"After a certain amount of time at pressure,
nitrogen will dissolve into the tissues. If he'd
ascended directly from 30m to the sea
surface..... it's likely he'd have had a cardiac
arrest, or at best, serious neurological issues.
Mr Harrison describes his story as a
"miracle", but he also told Reuters: "When I
am at home sometimes it feels like the bed I
am sleeping in is sinking. I think I'm still in
the sea again. I jump up and I scream."
Jan Messchendorp, general manager of West
African Ventures said in a statement: "We are
very grateful for the survival of Mr Harrison.
Our thoughts continue to be with the families
of the rest of the crew."
He added that the search and rescue operation
has now been stopped for safety reasons.
LNG Bunker Barge
for large volumes
Design study developed by NLI Solutions,
Rolls-Royce
and Wilhelmsen Technical Solutions.
Offshore oil and gas engineering specialist
NLI Solutions (NLI) has developed a concept
for a LNG Bunker Barge based on the NLI
LNG tank design. The concept has been
further developed in a design study together
with the Marine division of Rolls-Royce and
Wilhelmsen Technical Solutions (WTS).

LNG as is the cleanest commercially

available fuel for ships today. The movement
towards LNG is rapidly increasing, but a
limiting factor is practical availability of
LNG bunker facilities. LNG Bunker Barges
are often called the "missing link" for LNG to
happen. Today only one such exists, capable
of 187m3 of LNG, whilst oceangoing ships
need to bunker several thousand cbm.
Building a small carrier for bunker purposes
is expensive so our suggestion is a high-tech
low cost barge, the High Tech Barge (HTB).
The HTB will for safety reasons be very
maneuverable with pod-drives, as is used in
offshore support vessels, have state-of-the-art
electronics for danger detection and early
evasive maneuvering.
The NLI LNG tank is an atmospheric,
prismatic steel tank, type "B", in this study
capable of containing 4000m3 of LNG. It will
be covered with a new insulation system with
very low levels of boil off gas (BOG).
The electricity production for both propulsion
and all barge and LNG/gas systems is of
course from an environment friendly clean
burning gas engine. The HTB has a large
pressure tank on the aft deck for BOG
handling and gas delivery to engine. Since re-
condensation equipment is very expensive,
takes a lot of space, and has very low
efficiency for small installations like this, the
HTB will use BOG for its own purposes.
If the HTB has long periods without activity
(bunker customers), excess BOG can be
delivered to a shore side gas grid, or the barge
can deliver electric power to a shore side
electric grid. The study has been carried out
and planned with:
- NVC, responsible for design, Bergen gas
engine, pod drives and bridge systems
- TI Marine Contracting (part of WTS)
responsible for insulation systems
- NLI responsible for tank, LNG/gas systems,
bunkering systems
The design challenges existing class
regulations and codes, and DNV has
participated in looking at limitations and
possibilities in this area.
The HTB study is being present ed at
Wilhelmsens stand E03 - 05 at Nor-Shipping
4th-7th of June.
High-Tech LNG Bunker Barge - HTB
LOA 63m, BMAX 20m, DEADWEIGHT
abt. 2000 T, Service speed 8 knots, LNG tank
capacity 4000m3, CNG tank for compressed
BOG 270m3, aft deck contains compressors,
vaporizers etc. Bunkering operations from
tank top. Main engine and gen-set, size
pending operation: Bergen C26:33 gas
engine; Bergen C gas engines are available
with powers from 1440 to 2,430kW.
ABB's Amazing
Container Crane
Remote Control
There will be no more manual operated
cranes.....To know more read and wath the
video at the end of post.........
As ships grow bigger & cranes taller,
a key technology in the handling of
shipborne containers is the remote handling
of STS cranes.

For a crane operator sitting in a small crane

cabin, far above ground and a long way from
the containers, the ability to operate the crane
with speed, precision and consistency is
almost impossible. It is also physically
demanding, frequently causing motion
sickness and stress to the back and neck,
which often leads to absenteeism.

In July this year, the first of 20 vessels in the

new Maersk Triple-E class will enter service,
each with a capacity to carry about 18,000
TEUs. Four hundred meters long and 50
meters wide, the Triple-E is a giant in every
respect. It will require 5-7 of the tallest ship-
to-shore(STS) cranes on the planet to load
and unload these vessels at full capacity, each
one capable of lifting a container 52 meters in
the air and 20 meters below the quayside – a
total lifting height of 72 meters.

ABB is the first company in the world to

develop a solution that enables the crane
operators to leave the stressful confines of the
cabin and operate the crane remotely from a
specially designed control room that can be
situated anywhere in the terminal.

The key to this breakthrough are the smart

automation features in ABB’s crane systems.
These features run the loading and unloading
process automatically, under the supervision
of crane operators located in a remote control
room. This minimizes loading and unloading
cycle times by bringing consistency - in
speed, efficiency and precision - to crane
operations. And, it provides the operators
with the best and most ergonomic working
environment possible.

ABB piloted the world’s first remotely

controlled STS crane in Panama in December
2010. Shortly after in 2012, ABB received
three orders from the largest container
terminals in Europe and the Middle East –
from two terminals at the Maasvlakte 2
extension at the Port of Rotterdam, and from
the new Jebel Ali T3 container terminal in
Dubai.

All the STS cranes at both Maasvlakte 2 and

Jebel Ali T3 terminals will be equipped with
ABB remotely operated crane systems, a total
of 41 cranes that will start production in
2014. This represents 20 percent of the STS
market in 2012 – a remarkable achievement
in such a short time and strong confirmation
of customer acceptance of the new ABB
technology.
No more flares on life
boats ---Laser device
maker hopes its
products will replace
flares
“Slowly move the laser back and forth
across your target.”
At 16 miles, the beam is some 6,000 feet
wide,the laser has a 72-hour burning life on
two AA batteries. The company recommends
using lithium batteries for longer storage life
(five years) and for use in cold
temperatures,the company says.
A traditional pyrotechnic flare and a laser
device made by Greatland Laser, which
hopes to interest the Navy in its products
for use in its lifeboats and rafts.
Courtesy- Greatland Laser

In product tests in the Baltic Sea, conducted

by the Swedish firm Protagia for Greatland
Laser, the beams were visible at a distance
of 31.5 miles to a helicopter crew flying at
140 knots between 1,500 and 1,750 feet.
The pilots reported not being bothered by the
flashing beams. (Daytime range is up to three
miles.)
Recall the grisly final scene in the
movieDead Calm involving a flare gun.
Picture the bright flares firing briefly over the
doomed Titanic.
Potentially dangerous in a confined space,
brief in burning duration ¬— these are the
sorts of risks that Greatland Laser is hoping
will prompt the maritime industry to switch
from pyrotechnic flares — required by the
U.S. Coast Guard and International Maritime
Organization to be in every vessel’s
emergency kit — to laser flares.

Greatland Laser has been offering such

rescue lasers for years, but the company’s
efforts have been gaining traction recently in
private industry and perhaps the U.S.
government. While pyrotechnic flares are still
required, Jim O’Meara of Greatland Laser
hopes the U.S. Navy will switch to laser
flares on its vessels.
“We have been working closely with the
Naval Life Raft Program,” O’Meara said. He
is hopeful that the Navy will choose the EF
10 Strobe and Laser for use in lifeboats.
Tom Apple, life raft program manager in the
Navy’s Combatant Craft Division, said in a
statement that the Navy is seriously
considering the use of non-pyrotechnic flares:
“NAVSEA’s Naval Surface Warfare Center
Carderock Division has conducted testing on
a variety of non-pyrotechnic emergency
signal beacons as part of an initiative to
reduce hazardous materials, improve efficacy,
and reduce costs. Evaluating commercial off
the shelf technologies that meet military
specifications for an identified need in the
Fleet, is one of the ways the Navy saves time
and money on research and development.”

O’Meara extolled his product as enjoying

every advantage over traditional
pyrotechnics: laser flares “have the range and
duration required for a successful recovery,”
he said. “The laser flash stands out from any
background lighting much better than any
visual electronic signal device and you won’t
burn your flesh or catch the woods on fire as
the hazardous pyrotechnics do. There are also
no carriage restrictions on commercial
airlines and they are safe and friendly to the
user and environment. You can also test the
product at any time unlike regular flares.”
Laser beams themselves are not visible; they
must be in contact with an object — cloud
cover, the hull of a vessel or the eyes of a
would-be rescuer, for example. In this sense
the rescue laser is not unlike an emergency
signaling mirror, the kind with a small hole in
the center that allows the user to direct the
beam at a target. Greatland Laser instructs the
user in the same way: “Slowly move the laser
back and forth across your target.”

Unlike a laser pointer, the kind familiar to

anyone who has ever attended a slide-show
presentation, Greatland lasers are vector-
shaped, much like a transmitting beam from a
radar signal; they fan out as they leave the
unit. At 16 miles, the beam is some 6,000
feet wide, the company says.
The laser flare is supposedly safe for the
would-be rescuer’s eyes, according to the
company and the Navy’s independent tests,
and the beam is mild enough not to cause a
pilot to lose night vision.

The laser has a 72-hour burning life on two

AA batteries. The company recommends
using lithium batteries for longer storage life
(five years) and for use in cold temperatures.
Laser flares are waterproof and are equipped
with a sighting device that allows the user to
aim the red or green beam at a vessel or
aircraft.
In product tests in the Baltic Sea, conducted
by the Swedish firm Protagia for Greatland
Laser, the beams were visible at a distance of
31.5 miles to a helicopter crew flying at 140
knots between 1,500 and 1,750 feet. The
pilots reported not being bothered by the
flashing beams. (Daytime range is up to three
miles.)

The Navy corroborated Greatland Laser’s

claims with regard to the product’s benefits.
The Navy also acknowledged several
environmental and safety factors the laser
offers:
“Non-pyrotechnic beacons could reduce
release of water contaminants such as
perchlorates, increase cumulative signal time
from minutes to days, and produce significant
material and logistical cost savings.”
The statement identified several existing rafts
that could accommodate such a product in
emergency kits: “U.S. Navy Mark-7 and
Mark-8 life rafts, already unique in that they
inflate with regular air instead of greenhouse
gases such as carbon dioxide, would become
even more environmentally friendly with the
inclusion of non-pyrotechnic beacons.”
The Greatland Laser product retails for $100
to $200, depending on options. As a
complement, and not a legal requirement,
such an expense may be daunting for some
mariners or companies.
Chinook Medical Gear, Inc., in Durango,
Colo., offers a similar product that retails for
about $240. The Green Rescue Laser Flare
offers a lithium battery standard and makes
similar claims as Greatland’s.
Odeo Flare, based in Dorset, England, offers
a green laser flare to the U.K. market. The
company states that its laser flare is
“designed with consideration to SOLAS
requirements.” The company has applied for
approval, but acknowledges that pyrotechnic
flares are still a SOLAS requirement.
No life raft company surveyed offers a laser
flare in its survival kits, although Roy
Vargas, materials manager for EAM
Worldwide, a maker of life rafts for the
airline and maritime industries, said his
company is evaluating their use in life rafts.
How much bigger
can container ships
get?

The world's cargo ships are getting big,

really big. No surprise, perhaps, given the
volume of goods produced in Asia and
consumed in Europe and the US. But are
these giant symbols of the world's trade
imbalance growing beyond all reason?
What is blue, a quarter of a mile long, and
taller than London's Olympic stadium?
The answer - this year's new class of
container ship, the Triple E. When it goes
into service this June, it will be the largest
vessel ploughing the sea.
Each will contain as much steel as eight
Eiffel Towers and have a capacity equivalent
to 18,000 20-foot containers (TEU).
If those containers were placed in Times
Square in New York, they would rise above
billboards, streetlights and some buildings.
Or, to put it another way, they would fill
more than 30 trains, each a mile long and
stacked two containers high. Inside those
containers, you could fit 36,000 cars or 863
million tins of baked beans.

This image from Maersk shows what

18,000 shipping containers look like in the
wrong place

The Triple E will not be the largest

ship ever built. That accolade goes to an
"ultra-large crude carrier" (ULCC) built in
the 1970s, but all supertankers more than
400m (440 yards) long were scrapped years
ago, some after less than a decade of service.
Only a couple of shorter ULCCs are still in
use. But giant container ships are still being
built in large numbers - and they are still
growing.
It's 25 years since the biggest became too
wide for the Panama Canal. These first "post-
Panamax" ships, carrying 4,300 TEU, had
roughly quarter of the capacity of the current
record holder - the 16,020 TEU Marco Polo,
launched in November by CMA CGM.
In the shipping industry there is already talk
of a class of ship that would run aground in
the Suez canal, but would just pass through
another bottleneck of international trade - the
Strait of Malacca, between Malaysia and
Indonesia. The "Malaccamax" would carry
30,000 containers.
The current crop of ultra-large container
vessels can navigate the Suez - just - but they
are only able to dock at a handful of the
world's ports. No American harbour is
equipped to handle them.
The sole purpose of the soon-to-be-launched
Triple E ships will be to run what's called a
pendulum service for Maersk - the largest
shipping company in the world - between
Asia and Europe.

They arrive in Europe full, and when they

leave a significant proportion of containers
carry nothing but air. (At any given moment
about 20% of all containers on the world's
seas are empty.)
"Ships have been getting bigger for many
years," says Paul Davey from Hutchison
Ports, which operates Felixstowe in the UK,
one of the likely ports of call of the Triple E.
"The challenge for ports is to invest ahead of
the shipping capacity coming on-stream, and
to try and be one step ahead of the game."

“When you get bigger ships, you can more

efficiently carry more cargo, so the fuel
footprint you get per tonne of cargo is
smaller”
Overcapacity in the world's ports
means there is huge competition for business.
Operators cannot afford to get left behind,
says Marc Levinson, author of The Box -
How the Shipping Container Made the World
Smaller and the World Economy Bigger.
"The ports are placed in a difficult
competitive position here because the carriers
are basically saying to them, 'If you don't
expand - if you don't build new wharves and
deepen the harbours and get high speed
cranes, we'll take our business someplace
else.'"
These big beasts of the sea present ports with
other challenges too.
Ship owners also want vessels to be unloaded
and loaded within 24 hours, which has
various knock-on effects. More space is
needed to store the containers in the harbour,
and onward connections by road, rail and ship
need to be strengthened to cope with the huge
surge in traffic.
Felixstowe, which handles 42% of the UK's
container trade, has 58 train movements a
day, but plans to double that after it opens a
third rail terminal later this year.
Bigger vessels also behave differently in the
water. The wash created by a large ship can
be enough to cause other ships moored in a
harbour to break free - just as the passenger
liner SS City of New York did in 1912 when
the Titanic set out on her maiden voyage.
"These days with the increase in traffic, we
experience this more and more often," says
Marco Pluijm, a port engineer working for
Bechtel. "A simple thing you can do is just
slow ships down and add some tug boats for
better manoeuvring - but that all has cost
implications."
There are currently 163 ships on the world's
seas with a capacity over 10,000 TEU - but
120 more are on order, including Maersk's
fleet of 20 Triple Es.
Bearing in mind that the carbon footprint of
international shipping is roughly equivalent
to that of aviation - some 2.7% of the world's
man-made CO2 emissions in the year 2000,
according to the International Maritime
Organization - the prospect of these
leviathans carving up the oceans in ever
greater numbers is likely to be a source of
concern for green consumers.
Maersk, however, argues that the Triple E is
the most environmentally friendly container
ship yet. (The three Es in the name stand for
economy of scale, energy efficiency and
environmentally improved.)

Big beasts

Name Size Record

Marco Polo (CMA CGM)

396mx54m Largest
container ship
now afloat at
16,020 TEU -
1,980 TEU
less than the
Triple E.
Launched
November
2012.

E class (Maersk)

397mx56m Longest ship

now on the sea
- 3m shorter
than Triple E.
The first of
eight, Emma
Maersk, was
launched in
2006.
T1 class supertanker (Euronav)

380mx68m Biggest
tanker,
holding 503m
litres of oil.
Also strongest
ship, carrying
up to
442,000t.
Launched
2003. Two
remain in
service.

Oasis of the Seas (Royal Caribbean)

362mx65m Biggest
passenger
ship, carrying
8,072 people.
Launched
2009. Sister
ship of Allure
of the Seas.
Although it will only be three metres longer
and three metres wider than the 15,500-TEU
Emma Maersk, its squarer profile allows it to
carry 16% more cargo.
Re-designed engines, an improved waste-heat
recovery system, and a speed cap at 23 knots
- down from 25 - will produce 50% less
carbon dioxide per container shipped than
average on the Asia-Europe route, Maersk
calculates.

The Triple E's bridge has been brought

forward so containers can be stacked higher
with no loss of visibility
"When you get bigger ships, you can more
efficiently carry more cargo, so the carbon
footprint you get per tonne of cargo is
smaller," says Unni Einemo from the online
trade publication Sustainable Shipping. "So
on that basis, big is beautiful."
To achieve maximum fuel efficiency,
however, a ship has to be fully loaded.
"They are massive ships, and a really big ship
running half-full is probably less energy-
efficient overall than a smaller ship running
with a full set of containers," says Einemo.

Widening the Panama canal

There was 6in to spare when the USS
Missouri passed through the Panama
Canal in 1945. Wider locks are due to be
completed in 2014, allowing 49-metre-wide
"New Panamax" ships to use it. But it will
remain off limits to the largest container
ships.
Maersk's Triple Es will be going into service
at a time when growth in the volume of goods
to be shipped is comparatively low - some
experts don't expect it to pick up until 2015.
But the world's container fleet capacity is
expected to grow by 9.5% this year alone, as
Maersk and others receive the ships they
ordered years ago.
Some of the extra capacity will be absorbed
in the new practice of slow steaming -
industry-speak for sailing more slowly.
Sailing at 12-15 knots instead of 20-24 knots
brings enormous savings on fuel - but it does
mean that extra ships are required to transport
the same volume of goods in the same
timescale.
Maersk are counting on container trade
continuing to grow at 5-6% - less than half
the growth rate of seven years ago, but
enough to recoup the company's investment
in the Triple Es, which cost $190m (£123m)
each.
"The history of container shipping involves
ship lines taking huge gambles," says Marc
Levinson, who points to a trend for some
American and European companies to move
manufacturing back from Asia.
"There are a lot of people in the shipping
industry who aren't sure that Maersk is on the
right track," he says.
Jean-Paul Rodrigue at Hofstra University
believes that big container ships like the
Triple E will prove their value on specific
trade routes, nonetheless.
"Each time a new generation comes along,
there's the argument 'Oh is this going a little
too far this time - is there enough port trade to
justify this?'" he says.
"But each time the ship class was able to put
itself in the system and provide a pretty good
service."

Ever Seen a
Monument for
Marine Engineers?-
Engine Room Heroes
of the “Titanic”
Have you ever seen a monument erected for
Marine Engineers?
Wondering what it is and where is it?
Coming back to the memorial, here is a
picture which I took from internet.
I am sure When Engineers see such a
monument, they will definitely be happy and
be proud too.
The intention of this article, is to let our dear
Marine Engineers know the location so that
they can visit if they have time.
Name: Memorial to the Engine Room
Heroes of the “Titanic”.
Location: Liverpool.
This memorial stands on Pier Head in
Liverpool. It is inscribed on the north face

“IN HONOUR OF ALL HEROES OF

THE MARINE ENGINE ROOM THIS
MEMORIAL WAS ERECTED BY
INTERNATIONAL SUBSCRIPTION”
inscription
and on the south face
“THE BRAVE DO NOT DIE THEIR
DEEDS LIVE FOR EVER AND CALL
UPON US TO EMULATE THEIR
COURAGE AND DEVOTION TO
DUTY” inscription
Comprises a granite column with a carved
Egyptian scene at the top and statues of
engineers by Goscombe John on the West
face. There are depictions of Water,Earth,Sea
and Fire on each corner.
The memorial commemorates the 122
Engineers who died when RMS Titanic sunk
on 15 April 1912.
Troubleshooting
Centrifugal Pumps
Because most of the pumps on board ship are

centrifugal pumps, we will examine the

symptoms and common causes of centrifugal

pump problems here.

Centrifugal pumps work, as the name
suggests, on the centrifugal forces acting on
the liquid being pumped.

The centrifugal force is imparted to the liquid

through the high-speed rotation of a specially
shaped impeller.
Whenever we find a centrifugal pump not
performing well, the causes can usually be
traced back to 3 common reasons:
● Suction related problem

● System related problem

● Mechanical related problem
Now you can easily pinpoint the trouble.
Download free DiagnoPump, the pump
troubleshooter software.

Suction Related Problem

The liquid inside the impeller must behave
like a solid column in order for the
centrifugal pump to work. More liquid must
replace whatever liquid forced out by
centrifugal force. If the solid column of liquid
is broken, by the presence of air, the pumping
effect is reduced or broken, and the pump
does not perform properly. Some of the
common suction related faults are:
● Pump not primed
● Pump suction pipe not completely
filled with liquid
● Suction lift too high
● Insufficient margin between suction
pressure and vapor pressure
● Excessive amount of air or gas in the
liquid
● Air pockets in the suction line
● Air leaks into the suction line
● Air leaks into the pump through the
stuffing box or gland
● Foot valve too small
● Foot valve partially clogged
● Inlet of suction pipe insufficiently
submerged
● Water seal pipe plugged
● Seal cage improperly located in
 stuffing box, preventing sealing fluid
entering space to form a seal
System Related Problem
Most of the system related problems occur
because of design flaw. For example, the
designer may have chosen the wrong pump
whose characteristic does not match the
system requirement. For the Marine Engineer
working on board ship, these problems are
rare. Perhaps sometimes, when replacing
motors, and starting up. Below are some of
the common reasons:
● Speed too low

● Speed too high

● Wrong direction of rotation
● The total head of system higher than
design pump head
● The total head of system lower than
design pump head
● Specific gravity of liquid different
from design
 ● Viscosity of liquid differs from that for
which the pump was designed
● Operation at very low capacity
● Parallel operation of pumps unsuitable
for such operation
Mechanical Related Problem
This group of problems is most often
encountered on board ship. The effects of
mechanical related problems could manifest
themselves as suction related problems, like
air leaks in the system, worn out impellers,
and mouth rings, but the most common
occurrence is the presence of vibration and
abnormal noise in the equipment.
All equipment on board ship, including
centrifugal pumps will encounter mechanical
related problems. The practice of good
maintenance, and vigilant watchkeeping will
lessen the damage to the equipment. Some of
the common mechanical related problems
are:
● Foreign matter in the impeller
● Misalignment
● Foundations not rigid
● Shaft bent
● Rotating part rubbing on stationary
part
● Bearing worn
● Wearing rings worn
● Impeller damaged
● Casing gasket defective, permitting
internal leakage
● Shaft or shaft sleeves worn or scored at
the packing
● Packing improperly installed
● Incorrect type of packing for operating
conditions
● Shaft running off-center because of
worn bearings or misalignment
● Rotor out of balance, resulting in
vibration
● Gland too tight, resulting in no flow of
liquid to lubricate the packing
● Failure to provide cooling liquid to
water-cooled stuffing boxes
● Excessive clearance at bottom of
stuffing box between shaft and casing,
causing packing to be forced into pump
interior
● Dirt or grit in sealing liquid, leading to
scoring of shaft or shaft sleeve
● Excessive thrust caused by a
mechanical failure inside the pump or by
the failure of the hydraulic balancing
device, if any.
● Excessive grease or oil in anti-friction
bearing housing or lack of cooling,
causing excessive bearing temperature
● Lack of lubrication
● Improper installation of anti-friction
bearings
● Dirt getting into bearings
● Rusting of bearings due to water
getting into housing
● Excessive cooling of water cooled
bearing, resulting in condensation of
moisture from the atmosphere in the
bearing housing
How To Extract
Broken Bolts
?
I. With use of LEFT-HAND Drills
Removing broken bolts is one of those pesky
jobs that few people look forward to. This is
one of those “try-it-you’ll-like-it” methods.
During many years of working with cars and
machinery this method has proven to be very
successful.
The champion of methods for removal of
stubborn broken bolts is to drill them
out,using a left hand drill bit and a
reversible drill. (The good quality, variable
speed, 3/8" models, which produce good
torque at low RPM, work best.) As always
with drilling holes, drill a small “pilot hole”
first, then drill a larger hole through the
broken fastener. (It’s easier to drill centered
and straight by using a small drill first, but be
careful not to break the small drill!)
Most bolts come out before the hole drilling
operation is finished.

(Then there is no need for "easy-outs,” which

sometimes break off in the drilled hole and
make matters worse.)
We just happened to have a few tightly rusted
studs and nuts, which all broke off when
attempting to remove the nuts. The project
was rear fender mounting studs in a 1930
Model A FORD. These studs are threaded
into fixtures at the body, behind the rear
wheel, where seventy years of road grime
splashed on them. And back in those years
nuts and bolts were not plated with zinc or
other anti-rust coatings, as our modern
fasteners often are. The nuts were nearly
welded to the studs by rust, and the studs
were equally rusted into threads at the body.
It was impossible to remove the fenders
without breaking the studs. This was about
the worst possible case of corroded and rusty
fasteners.
In photos, we will show the removal of the
old studs, and also the tools we used for this
work.
The first step is to flatten the surface at the
end of the broken bolt. Where bolts have
broken, the surface is often jagged and
sloped, which will cause the drill bit to
wander off-center, when attempting to drill
the hole. The stud in the photo was broken
just above the surface, and we used a grinder
to flatten the surface at the broken stud.
When a bolt is broken off below the surface
of a threaded hole, a jagged break often can
be flattened with punches to get a better
surface for drilling.
We used a heavy hammer and center
punch to leave a “dent” for the drill to
follow. Without center punching first, it
would be impossible to keep the drill in the
center of the bolt.
Before this step, we drilled a small pilot hole
using a 1/8th inch drill. (The small diameter
drill is easier to keep straight and centered
than a large diameter drill.) Then we used a
¼ inch drill to finish with this 5/16inch stud.
The drill will attempt to grab the bolt just
when breaking through the backside.
Typically, that’s the moment when the
broken fastener will spin out of the threaded
hole. Also, when drilling through the broken
bolt, vibration will help to break it free. And
drilling completely through leaves the bolt as
a hollow tube, which may allow it to slightly
collapse and loose some its grip at the
threads.
This classic case of rust frozen fastener,
shown above, came out squealing and with
much powdered rust pouring from the
threads. Notice that the threads at the
fastener are even galled. Before installing a
new stud we oiled the threaded hole and
cleaned the threads with a tap.

Notice that these are LEFT-HAND

drills, and they must be used with a
reversible drill. Ours are by Snap-On tools,
and Snap-On offers more than one model of
Left Hand drills. Snap-On tools are typically
excellent in quality, but other tool companies
also make left-hand drills. (Check with the
tool dept. at Sears, or your favorite tool
store.)
The drills in the set shown above are short
length High Speed Drills, and are rated for
drilling in steel and other metals.
The set shown below are COBALT, long
length, left-hand drills. The Cobalt is harder
material than the standard high-speed drills,
and the Cobalt drills are our choice for
drilling out grade 8 bolts.

The short-length drills, used with an angle-

head drill motor, can get into places where
lack of clearance would prevent working with
a long drill and typical drill motor.
Sometimes the longer drill bit with typical
drill motor is needed to reach down into
places where the angle-head and short drills
would not work.
What ever the set-up used, the DRILL
MOTOR should be powerful enough to drill
at low RPM without stalling. Smooth
running, powerful, and strong even at low
RPM drill motors are best suited for this
work.
IMPORTANT
As with any drilling operation, watch for
chips while drilling. When making chips
material is obviously being removed. If the
drill is smoking and not making chips, then
stop immediately. The drill may have to be
sharpened, and probably reduce the RPM
while drilling.
If a fastener does not come out with this
left hand drill method, there are various
types of “easy-out” extractors. Or,
sometimes there is opportunity to drill an
over size hole and then re-thread the hole to
the next size larger. Some applications can
use the next size larger bolt, otherwise the
“heli-coil” method can restore the threaded
hole to its original size. But, these alternative
methods will require drilling first, so the left-
hand drill method is never a wasted effort.

Two types of “EASY-OUT” extractors are

shown in the photo above. When available,
the type on the right is a favorite and has been
less likely to break off in the broken bolt.
But the three at the left have also been
successfully used to remove broken bolts.

Especially in soft aluminum, the “HeliCoil”

thread repair kit is very useful. The hardened
steel thread insert actually adds strength when
used in soft metals such as aluminum. The
method is to drill the proper size hole for the
next size larger thread tap. Then cut new
threads in the drilled hole using the tap. And
then use the tool to install the new thread
insert. The thread insert is threaded both
inside and out.

And always when using a thread tap, turn it

in about 1/3 turn at a time, or until it begins to
feel snug. Then back it up to cut the removed
material. And then turn the tap in some
more. (Simply forcing the tap into the hole
will plug the tap and not result with good
threads.)
TIP
A stud is stronger than a bolt, especially
when the threads are questionable, which
sometimes is the case after struggling to
remove a broken bolt from a threaded hole.
Minor damage to threads when struggling to
remove the broken bolt can reduce the
strength of the threads. And then when the
new bolt is tightened into place, sometimes
the remaining threads will pull out.
With correct stud installation, the stud is
screwed into the threaded hole without
applying pressure to the threads, and without
galling the threads. After stud installation,
the part is slipped over the stud, then install
the correct washer, and then tighten the nut.
The stud is stronger because thread contact
at the stud and at the threaded hole will be
stationary at the time pressure is applied
(when tightening the fastener). But when a
bolt is used to mount a part, the bolt is rotated
in the threaded hole during tightening, which
can tear out weak threads.
When installing the stud into the threaded
hole, the author prefers to strengthen and
anchor the stud into place with Loctite.
(Rather than double nut the stud and force it
against the bottom of the drilled and threaded
hole.) The “red version of Loctite,” is
preferred. (“stud and bearing mount”
purpose version, it’s the permanent version)
No doubt there will be times when clearance
problems will make it impossible to use a
stud, rather than a bolt. Sometimes there is
not room to slip a large part over a stud, but
rather the part has to be slipped into place
from the side. (The stud gets in the way–
making it impossible to slip the part into
place from the side.) But when a stud can be
used rather than a bolt, the stud will result
with greater fastener strength than the bolt.
II.Apart from this the stud can also be
removed by welding the bolt tip to the
stud,thereby removing the welded bolt along
with the broken stud by use of simple
spanner.....
III.Another method is to making a undercut
on the stud surface such that it resembles like
an screw, so that it can be removed with the
screw driver....

How to Avoid Food

Poisoning in Ships
Incidents of food poisoning in ships are not a
surprise. Recently on January 08, at least 340
passengers of MSC Sinfonia, docked in
Salvador, Bahia suffered severe vomiting and
diarrhea. It was reported that an inspection
found problems with the amount of chlorine
in the ship’s drinking water and with the
storage of some perishable food items,
notably mayonnaise.
Ensuring food safety onboard is a team effort
and here are some tips to avoid food
poisoning in ships:

Storing
● Check goods before taking onboard

○ Source of supply: to be from

approved vendors/brands
○ Check for expiry date

○ Do not accept damaged or open

packages

○ Inspect frozen goods: to be inhard

frozen state
○ Store frozen and chilled goods first

○ Do not store rotten vegetables and

fruits
○ Follow FIFO (First In First Out) for
using
○ Cold/Cool rooms: Check
temperatures regularly and report
problems if any
○ Cold/Cool rooms: Check indication
lights are working and door seals on
closure
○ Cold/Cool rooms: Check internal
 safety alarms, opening mechanisms
operation
○ Use protective clothing to enter
cold rooms and freezers

○ Carry goods safely

Food Handling
● Galley

○ Food contact areas to be kept clean,

use right detergents
○ Keep work tops and cooking
utensils clean and disinfected
○ Disinfect raw meat,fish cutting
boards after use
○ Keep clean: Deck, bulk head,
ventilation ducts

○ Secure cleaning gear in the right

place after use
 ○ Follow housekeeping

Personal hygiene of Food Handlers

○ Wash your hands with soap in hot
running water before you handle food
○ Dry your hands in single use towels
or air dryer

○ Trim your nails

○ Be medically fit

○ Wash your hands again after you

handle raw meat,poultry,fish
Water quality
 ○ Polluted or contaminated water
may taste same, but if used causes
sickness
○ Boil water before you use

○ Regularly flush taps that are not in

constant use
○ Maintain a log

Storing prepared food

○ Store at temperature 8 degree
Celsius or less, or 63 or higher

○ Do not expose food items for more

than two hours in 8 to 63 degree
Celsius

○ Ensure food storing place is free

from rats and other insects
Personal Hygiene
● Wash your hands
○ before you eat

○ after you eat, drink, smoke

○ after using restroom

○ after blowing your nose

● Do not eat if you find your food

abnormal in terms of taste, smell, color or
if there is dirt or foreign objects
● Before you sip directly bottled drinks
or cans, wash the bottles or cans
MV Solitaire"of All
Seas is the largest
pipelay vessel in the
world.
Some interesting features of MV Solitaire
are:

Here is a photograph of MV Solitaire, from

All Seas.

● has a pipe carrying capacity of 22000 t.

● maneuvers with full dynamic
positioning to work safely in congested
areas.
● operational since 1998.
● has a lay speed of over 9 km a day
with in-house Phoenix automatic welding
system.
● has a deepwater pipelay record of 2775
m (9100’).
● after modifications in 2005, now with
a holding force of 1050 t can lay the
heaviest pipelines.
 People on the ship
and what do they do
?
Below is a brief description of various
positions on a typical - larger vessel. This is
given as an overall view there may be more
or less people depending on the type of vessel
and companies.......

DECK DEPARTMENT:
Master (Captain) - In command of vessel and
all of its departments, in most cases a pencil
pushing job doing the payroll, ships
paperwork, only on bridge for entry and
departure of ports and to check on
navigational watches. Almost always a day
worker.
Chief Mate - Directly supervises Bosun, 2nd
and 3rd Mates during all deck evolutions
(cargo/maintenance/repairs/drills), on most
ships also stands a navigation watch.
Traditionally the Chief Mate was a day
worker, but more recently a watch standee as
more and more positions are eliminated from
ships he has been made into a watch standee.
Second Mate - Responsible for all aspects
navigation (voyage planning,
chart/publication correction, navigation
equipment maintenance, and recently added
GMDSS Communications responsibilities as
well) while at sea, in charge of cargo watch
while in port for the safe and efficient transfer
of cargo. Usually a watch standee.
Third Mate - Responsible for all safety
inspections, usually designated as medical
officer, maintains navigation watch while at
sea, in charge of cargo watch while in port.
Usually a watch standee.
Deck Cadet - A student from one of the
Maritime Academies doing a sea
apprenticeship to become a Third Mate. Entry
Level
Bosun / Boatswain - Highest unlicensed
rating that supervises all A/B's during deck
maintenance and repair. Usually a day
worker.
Able Bodied Seaman (A/B) / Leading
Seaman / Quartermaster - While on
navigation watch under the supervision of the
mate on watch, responsible for keeping a
lookout (for other vessels, land masses, etc.)
and steering the vessel in and out of port.
Deck maintenance primarily include chipping
rust, painting, lubricating fittings, cleaning
various areas, and splicing line. Usually a
watch standee.
Ordinary Seaman (O/S) - Same as A/B with
no steering, and heavier concentration on
cleaning. If a vessel carries O/S's they are
usually watch standees. Entry Level

ENGINE DEPARTMENT:
Chief Engineer - In charge of the Engine
Department, responsible for most paperwork,
ordering, maintaining spare parts inventory,
and directly supervises critical engine repairs.
Almost always a day worker.
1st Assistant Engineer - Is in charge of all
engine room repairs and maintenance.
Maintains overtime records. Can either be a
watch standee or day worker for the same
reasons as a Chief Mate.
2nd Assistant Engineer - Maintains an
engine room watch and is responsible for the
smooth operation of all engine room system.
Also performs system checks on engine room
systems. Usually a watch standee
3rd Assistant Engineer - Maintains an engine
room watch and is responsible for the smooth
operation of all engine room system. Usually
a watch standee
4th Assistant Engineer - Maintains an engine
room watch and is responsible for the smooth
operation of all engine room system. Usually
a watch standee
Engine Cadet - A student from one of the
Maritime Academies doing a sea
apprenticeship to become a Third Assistant
Engineer. Entry Level
Electrician - Responsible for anything on
ship's electrical system. Usually a day
worker.
Mechanic - Responsible for the taking apart
of machinery and their repairs, usually under
the supervision of the day engineer. Normally
the most senior rating.
DEMAC / QMED / Motorman - Make
Rounds in Engine Room and report to
Engineer on watch, assist as directed. Can
either be a watch standee or day worker.
Oiler / UJE (Unlicensed Jr. Engineer) -
Make rounds, clean, assist as directed.
Usually a watch standee. Can either be a
watch standee or day worker.
Wiper - Responsible for cleaning various
engine spaces, and to assist as directed. Can
either be a watch standee or day worker.
Entry Level

STEWARD DEPARTMENT:

Chief Steward/Baker - In charge of steward

department, creates daily menus, orders and
stock sufficient amounts of food for voyage,
cooks, bakes, and prepares food.
Chief Cook - Cooks, bakes and prepare food.
Assistant Cook - Cooks, bakes and prepare
food.
GSU/BR (General Steward Utility/Bedroom)
- Responsible for cleaning officer's
staterooms, and also cleaning of galley areas
around meal hours. Entry Level.
Why work at sea?
1. To see the world
Some people choose to work at sea because it
gives them a chance to travel or because they
like the way they can get responsible jobs
relatively early in their careers. But for
others, it may be the only way they can earn a
wage to support themselves and their
families.
2. New horizons

The classic reason for going to sea was to

visit exotic foreign countries. Although the
experience could easily be seeing the sea for
the first time, rather than seeing the world!
Undoubtedly, seafaring broadened horizons
in more ways than one. It meant you had to
work with the rest of the crew, often drawn
from very different circumstances. Then there
were foreign officials and workers who had
to be dealt with, requiring tact and respect for
local customs.
Lots of seafarers did see the world. Many
British seafarers have very fond memories of
visiting ports in Australia, New Zealand and
North America. Their ships would often
spend a week or more in a port, long enough
for them to strike up a friendship with the
local people. For the locals, the ship and its
crew gave an important point of contact with
an overseas country, sometimes the one from
which they had emigrated.
3. To taste early responsibility
Not many people in their early thirties will be
given sole responsibility for something worth
tens of millions of pounds. This can and does
happen to the master of a ship. It is the
master's responsibility to manage a crew that,
in a big cruise ship, can number thousands.
The master has to ensure the ship plus its
cargo or passengers arrives safely and on
time. There are many people to do the work,
but the ultimate responsibility is the master`s
alone.
It is not just the captain who takes
responsibility when fairly young. A junior
deck or engineering officer will take watches
where he or she is in sole charge of the bridge
or engine room. Of course, a superior can
always be called. However, there is a strong
incentive for the juniors to show they can
solve a problem without help.
WHY IS A SHIP
CALLED SHE?

A ship is called a ‘she’ because there is

always a great deal of bustle around her;
There is usually a gang of men about,
She has a waist and stays;
It takes a lot of paint to keep her good
looking;
It is not the initial expense that breaks you, it
is the upkeep;
She can be all decked out;
It takes an experienced man to handle her
correctly;
And without a man at the helm, she is
absolutely uncontrollable.
She shows her topsides, hides her bottom
and, when coming into port, always heads for
the buoys.

Test and Overhaul of

Fuel Injection Valves
This article discusses the testing and the
overhaul of fuel injectors of marine
engines,the testing of the needle and guide
condition of the fuel valve, and the procedure
to overhaul and inspect the injectors taken out
of the marine diesel engines.
Fuel Valve Checks
The fuel valves taken out from the engine
must be checked for function and
performance. Even in engines which are
stopped on heavy fuel oil in ports the fuel
injector taken out must be immediately tested
with diesel oil before they get cold as this
will flush and clean the components. It must
be noted that if the fuel valves taken out are
tested after they have cooled, will show bad
performance even if they were performing
satisfactorily in service.

In the majority of cases the fuel injectors

have a good spray profile but they open up at
a less pressure. The pressure adjustment can
be done without opening up the valve and
should be done so. The engine manufacturers
also instruct that unless the fuel injector valve
has a major problem like holes choked or
valve dripping, they should not be opened up.
The valve should be cleaned from the outside,
pressure checked, pressure adjusted and
tagged.

Inspection and Repairs

In the case where the fuel injector valve is not
performing as required and has some defect,
then it needs to be opened up and overhauled.
The assembly and the disassembly have to be
done as per the instructions given by the
engine manufacturer. However, below is a
general guide about what you will most likely
have to do.

After the fuel valve has been disassembled

then the following checks have to be done:

1. The needle guide should be immersed in

clean diesel oil and the needle taken out and
checked for free movement. In the case of
any resistance which may be due to the
presence of carbon or fuel sludge the needle
may be put in and pulled out in succession
many times while keeping it submerged in
diesel oil. It is important to do this in a
container full of clean diesel oil so the
contaminants can be flushed away.
2. After the needle guide has been cleaned,
the needle should be taken almost out and
then let it fall in with its own weight. A free
and smooth movement with small jerks as the
clearance is making way for the oil to come
out is an indication that the clearances are all
right and the needle guide is in good
condition. It must be noted that the needle
should fall fully into the seat.

3. On the other hand if the needle falls fully

in one go, then the clearances have increased
and the fuel will leak past the spindle and less
fuel will go in the cylinder. The needle must
be inspected for any wear marks if this
happens. The needle guide can be used but
must be changed soon.

4. If the needle does not go down and gets

struck then it must be thoroughly cleaned
again. If still there is no improvement then
the needle might have become bent. Check
the needle for any signs of overheating.

5. The push rod end should be checked for

any abnormal wear.
6. The seating between the nozzle body and
the valve body if damaged can be repaired by
lapping with fine lapping paste. It must be
noted that the lapping paste should be
thoroughly flushed away with clean diesel oil
and thereafter blown dry with compressed air.

7. Check the nozzle spring for breakage, poor

seating and other defects. Change if required.

8. Check the leak off pipes, shims, packing

etc for the condition. If the fuel valve is water
cooled, the cooling pockets should be cleaned
with compressed air.

Tests and Adjustments

1. After the parts are cleaned and inspected
the fuel valve is assembled as per the
manufacturer’s instructions and thereafter
tested for function and performance.

2. The assembled fuel valve is installed on

the test stand and after purging the pipe line
the manual handle is operated in quick
succession. The nozzle should start
discharging with a sharp crackling noise at
the set pressure. The pressure at which the
injector is supposed to fire depends upon the
manufacturer’s engine design but normally is
between 250 to 350 kg/cm2 with an
allowance of plus or minus 10 kg/cm2.

3. In case the lifting pressure is not correct, it

can be adjusted by the adjusting screw.

4. The spray characteristics should be

satisfactory and as per the manufacturers
advice.

5. All the holes of the injector should be

firing and can be checked by a torch light or a
filter paper can be folded as a cone and then
the injector tested. The holes on the filter
paper will show the number of holes firing. In
this procedure you must be careful as the high
pressure spray can enter the skin and is toxic
for us.

6. The spray angle should be as stated by the

manufacturer. The atomization of the fuel
should take place and solid spray should not
come out.
7. Clean diesel oil should be used for the
testing purpose.

8. In the case that the fuel valve is dripping

the needle guide should be taken out and
repaired.

Caution
The needle and the guide is always a pair and
should not be interchanged with another one.
Cleanliness is the most important factor in
making fuel valves. A clean fuel valve lasts a
longer time. The fuel under pressure can enter
the skin and the blood stream and is toxic for
humans. Take care that you stay away from
the spray. The fine mist can catch fire and in
inflammable. Do not smoke or use naked
lights where the fuel injectors are being
tested.
Use of Compressed
Air for Engine
Starting
Compressed air is not only useful to inflate
your car tyres but can be used to start an
bulky ship engine as well.
Introduction

In one of our previous articles, we learnt

about the compressed air system on board a
ship for control purposes, and the uses to
which compressed air is put on board various
types of ships. In this article we will learn
about one of the most important uses of
compressed air on board a ship, namely to
start the diesel engines; which could be either
main engine or auxiliary engines.
Diesel Engine Starting Problems
If you live in a very cold climate and own a
diesel automobile such as a car or an SUV, I
am sure you know what it means to start the
engine on a cold morning. In some vehicles
such as tractors and other diesel engine
machines, there is a cranking arrangement
wherein the driver can turn the engine by
putting a rod which meshes with the
crankshaft and an arrangement to rotate the
whole thing is given like the adjacent picture
where the person is starting a farming
machine by rotating the engine by foot.

Of course in most situations batteries are used

to crank the engine during starting and this is
exactly what happens when you insert your
ignition key in the car and simply go zip zap
zoom. If you car has run out of battery, you
could ask a couple of people to give it a push
till some distance and then you engage the
gears. In other cases such as small home
generators you have a rope to pull with full
force.

The net effect of all the above methods is just

to give an initial rotation to the engine so that
it starts and once the ignition has taken place,
there is no need for further external power;
rather the engine starts to supply power to the
external source through its shaft.
Marine Engine Starting
It is all very well to start an automobile by
pushing it across the road or a small boat
overboard engine by pulling its string but
how would you think of starting an engine as
massive as the main engine of even an
average sized ship, or the huge generator
engines which supply power to the entire
ship. You certainly would need Herculean
power to achieve these results; which
unfortunately is not a practical possibility.

Even the though of using batteries is not a

practical reality because of the immense
power required to rotate such an engine, it
might require an army of batteries to achieve
the same.
It is here that the compressed air comes into
the picture and the literally invisible air
shows its immense strength. Before we learn
the exact mechanism by which compressed
air system works, let us see why a marine
diesel engine should be difficult to start in the
first place.
○ We know that inertia is a property
which resists change in state of
motion which means that anything at
rest would resist motion and the
initial energy required to put that
object in motion is quite more as
compared to the force required when
 it is set into motion.

○ There is lubricating oil between

all parts having relative motion.
When the engine is running the oil is
in a hot state and very viscous but the
same oil gets thickened and very
sticky when in stopped position.
○ In the automobile it is possible to
de-clutch the engine from the tyres
thus effectively reducing the load to
zero, but in case of main diesel
engine it is not possible to cut of the
propeller from the engine hence the
load is always present.
○ The movement of the engine
means that the entire piston has to
move up and down inside the engine
cylinder which also has cold
lubricating oil and offers much
resistance.

Because of the above mentioned reasons the

power of the compressed air is used to turn
the engine for a short duration until ignition
takes place and the engine is in a self
sustaining mode. A lot of care has to be taken
in designing this air starting system since an
engine should be capable of being started
from any position and not a particular
position otherwise it would defeat the whole
purpose of the setup.
Role of Compressed
Air In Starting a
Marine Diesel Engine
Do you know how diesel engines are started
in ships? Equivalent in size to a four-story
building, the main propulsion engine is
started with the help of compressed air at a
pressure of 30 bar. Learn more about where a
ship gets its compressed air supply from.

We discussed diesel engine starting problems

in our previous article and saw how various
methods are used to overcome this problem.
We also saw how a marine engine is different
due to its size and location, and that
compressed air is the solution to starting the
diesel engine.
As you know that a ship is a mobile power
plant or a moving mini-city. It has all
facilities, sometimes better than what we find
ashore.

These moving giants have a pre-designed and

erected compressed air system, which
facilitates many activities onboard a ship.
There are mostly 4 to 8 and sometimes 10 air
compressors found onboard. These air
compressors take suction from the engine
room atmosphere which is already under a
slight positive pressure. These air
compressors compress the air in stages and
fill up the huge air bottles, which acts as
accumulator. They compress usually up to 30
bar and keep the air bottles filled up all the
time. The number of air bottles and its
volume(capacity) depends on the power
(size) of the main propulsion engine. Air
compressors are of varying capacity and used
as per the requirement onboard.

Role of Compressed Air on a Ship

The role of compressed air onboard is of a

very vast nature. Every ship will have a
"DEAD-START" or "The FIRST START"
arrangement. This is nothing but when the
ship is totally "Dead" i.e, with out any power
and no machineries running and no
compressed air in the air bottle to start the
generator engine(auxiliary diesel engine),
then a provision is given for every ship to get
the air bottle filled up to bring back the ship
to safe, normal, working condition. This is
provided either by a "Emergency Air
Compressor" driven by a small diesel engine
or electric motor getting its power supply
from "Emergency Generator". The various
uses of compressed air onboard ship are listed
below:
1. To start main propulsion engine

2. To start Auxiliary diesel engine(power

generation)

3. To blow ship's whistle

4. For Engine Room general service and

cleaning.

5. For the operation of pneumatic tools

6. For deck services, to carry out chipping.

7. For Automation & Instrumentation of

various machineries,

8. For fresh & sea water hydrophores,

9. Fire alarms & operation of Quick closing

Valves,

10. For Soot Blowing Exhaust Gas

Economizer

11. And more!

Compressed Air System Layout

The compressed air system onboard typically
has a set of 4 to 6 compressors, out of which
3 will be main are compressors, 2 service air
compressors & one topping up air
compressor. The Emergency air compressor
is not to be counted as a normally used
machinery.

Main air compressors: These are used only

when a ship enters or leaves a port, mostly
during maneuvering only. They are of higher
capacity of all. During maneuvering, these
compressors when put in use, fills up the air
bottle faster than other compressors, thus
enabling the ship to berth herself in the port.
Topping-Up air compressors: These are
comparatively of lesser capacity than the
main air compressors. They are just used
when the ship is sailing in the mid-seas where
the consumption of air is very less (only for
engine & deck services).

Service Air compressors: These are general

service air compressors, which are used either
for engine or deck service. They are of lesser
capacity and their are designed for their pure
strict oil free air quality. These compressors
are used for pressing up the control air bottle
and thus the control air of high purity is used
for various automation purposes in the engine
room and the pump room for oil tankers.

There may be set of main air bottles, service

air bottle and a control air bottle for their
respective purposes. The system also
incorporates many pressure reducing valves
and driers(de-humidifiers) to get rid of the
moisture present in the compressed air.

Starting of an Auxiliary Diesel Engine

The auxiliary diesel engine is mostly started
with the help of compressed air,depending
upon the size of the engine. Other means of
starting includes Electric start(battery) and air
motor(engaged in the flywheel). The most
common method is the use of compressed air.
The lay out for starting the auxiliary engine is
given below.

Before starting the auxiliary engine, the

following safety checks must be carried out:

1. Turning gear disengaged(if available).

2. Lubricating oil sump level normal

3. Turbocharger oil level( both turbine &

blower)side normal

4. Lubricating oil priming pump running.

5. Fuel oil/diesel oil booster pump running.

6. lube oil, cooling fresh water, fuel oil
pressure normal.

7. Rocker arm tank level normal.

8. All valves in compressed air line open to

the engine.

Referring to the above starting diagram of an

auxiliary engine, the" main air" from the
main air bottle arrives at the air starting
valve. There is a tapping from the main air
starting line, "pilot air" going to the starting
air distributor. When the engine rotates, the
camshaft also rotates which in turn rotates
"the starting air distributor cam". This cam is
designed as per the firing order of the engine
such that, the distributor rotates and lets the
pilot air to the particular unit. The pilot air
reaches on top of the air starting valve,
opening it, in turn making the long awaited
main air to let inside the combustion
chamber. The main air which is at 30 bar,
pushes the piston down making the
crankshaft to rotate. This leads to continuous
rotation of the crankshaft making the engine
to achieve the minimum r.p.m at which firing
of the injected fuel takes place. When the
engine picks up on fuel, the air is cut off and
drained. Thus the auxiliary diesel engine is
started with the help of compressed air.

In the next article, we will take up the study

of the various valves mentioned in the
starting air systems namely master air starting
valve, cylinder valves and so forth.
Simple Fluid
Mechanics
Experiments and
Calculations
This article explains how to do a simple fluid
mechanics experiment based on Pascal's law.
Also included is a description of the
experiment's calculations as well as an
example application in the hydraulic steering
system used on board a ship for steering.
This article explains the notion of a simple
fluid mechanics experiment and how to
calculate it, as it is used in the marine
industry and other hydraulics-related
industries. The hydraulic steering gear system
onboard ship uses the fluid mechanics
experiment concept mentioned below to
guide the ship towards starboard or port. The
notion of Pascal's law is used in this simple
fluid mechanics experiment.
Fluid Mechanics Experiment:
Consider a fluid system consisting of two
cylinders of different diameters. One cylinder
is of large diameter and contains a ram in it
that can be moved up and down. Another
cylinder is of small diameter and contains a
plunger that can move in it. The large
diameter cylinder and small diameter cylinder
are connected by a pipe of suitable thickness
in order to withstand the pressure created
inside. The cylinders and pipe contain liquid
or hydraulic oil through which the pressure
can be transmitted.

When a small force is applied on a plunger

(in the case of a hydraulic steering gear, this
is located in the navigation bridge of a ship
and force can be applied by rotating the
steering wheel either clockwise or
counterclockwise - see the sketch below) in a
downward direction, a pressure is produced
on the liquid in contact with the plunger. This
pressure is transmitted equally in all
directions and acts on the large diameter ram
to move it.
It has been seen that the movement of the
plunger in the small cylinder due to the small
force applied displaces the hydraulic fluid in
it. Since the hydraulic fluid or oil cannot be
compressed inside the cylinder, pressure will
build up inside the cylinder which depends
upon the force applied and the diameter of the
plunger. The pressure that has been created
inside the cylinder will act equally in all
directions as stated by pascal's law. The same
pressure will now act on the ram that is in
contact with the hydraulic fluid.This will
exert a force on the ram and now the ram
moves in the desired direction corresponding
to the force applied. The force which is
moving the ram will depend upon the
diameter of the ram and the pressure
developed in the hydraulic fluid due to the
force applied manually on the plunger.
Finally, the force applied manually (input to
the system) on the plunger is converted into
the desired movement on the ram which is the
output of the system.

Simple Experiment Using Pascal's Law

Practical Example
Calculations Related to above Experiment

○ Let f1 be the force applied on the

plunger and
○ f2 be the force acting on the ram.

○ Let A1 be the area of the plunger

and
○ A2 be the area of the ram.

○ p will be the intensity of pressure

produced by the force f1.
therefore,

pressure intensity produced by the force f1 =

(force applied on the plunger f1) / (area of the
plunger A1)
As per Pascal's law, the intensity of pressure
in a static fluid is transmitted equally in all
directions, so the above intensity of pressure
produced by the plunger will be equally
transmitted in all directions. Therefore the
pressure intensity at the ram will be equal to
the force applied on the plunger f1 divided by
area of the plunger A1.

Also pressure intensity on the ram = (force

acting on ram f2) / (area of the ram A2).

Equating the pressure intensity on the ram,

we get

(f1 / A1) = (f2 / A2).

The total force acting on the ram f2 = (force

applied on the plunger f1 × area of the ram
A2) / area of the plunger A1

Example for the above Derivation

For Example,

Let us consider a ram of 300 mm diameter to

be moved, the diameter of plunger is 20mm,
and the force applied on the plunger is 100N.

Then the Force available at the ram = (Force

applied on the plunger × Area of the ram) /
Area of the plunger

Area of the ram = ( 3.14×0.32 ) / 4

Area of the ram=0.07068 mm2

Area of the plunger or piston = ( 3.14 ×.022 )

/4

Area of the plunger or piston =0.00031 mm2

Force available at the ram = (100 × 0.07068 )

/ 0.00031

Force available at the ram =22509.55 N

From the above example, it is clear that the

force applied manually on the system is only
100N and this is converted to 22510N
approximately which can be able to operate
the heavy system that cannot be operated
manually.
Application in the Field
The above explained simple experiment is
used in hydraulic steering gear with some
special arrangements. The small movement of
the steering wheel in the navigation bridge
may actuate the rudder to turn towards
starboard or port side due to oil pressure
acting on the ram.

Hydraulic Steering Gear

Working of the Hydraulic Steering Gear

When the wheel 1 (usually called a steering
wheel) is turned anticlockwise, the pinion 2
moves the toothed rack 3 downward and
moves the toothed rack 4 upward. As it is
fixed to the two piston 5 and 6, the piston
also moves correspondingly. As these two
cylinders 7 & 8 are filled with oil, the
movement of the pistons result in oil pressure
being applied to the bottom of the piston 10
and moves it upward and these forces the oil
in upper part of cylinder 9 up in to the
cylinder 8.

Piston 10 has a piston rod connected to a

slide valve 11. In its middle position, the slide
valve just closes the ports 12, 13, 14 in the
slide valve housing 15. As the piston 10
moves upward, the slide valve 11 also moves
along with it and opens port 12 and 14. These
cause oil from the pressure vessel to come
under side of the piston 20 and the oil above
piston 20 is forced in to the slide valve
housing 15 and out through the port 12 to the
discharge tank 16. As a result the piston 21
moves upward along with the piston 20 since
both these piston are connected together by
piston rod. These upward movements of the
two pistons impart movement to the tiller arm
which is mounted on the rudder stock and
hence moves the rudder.

Conclusion:

Here we have seen how Pascals law is used in

hydraulic steering gear system employed
onboard for steering a ship. The main basic
principle of this experiment is that intensity
of pressure exerted by hydraulic fluid is equal
in all directions.
Control Tests on
Ships Explained
The main engine and the steering engine are
located aft and far from the bridge and
controlled by a maze of wires, pipes,
machines, and electronic devices. Prior to
entering a port and departing the port, these
control systems have to be tested to ensure
they are working properly and are effective.
Control
Tests
The ship is controlled from the bridge, which
is at the top deck of the accommodation. The
wheel house, so called as it houses the wheel
to control the steering engine, has a number
of control stands including the main engine
control stand and the telegraph. The main
engine is housed in the engine room which is
at the aft of the ship below the water line. The
main engine is controlled by electro-
hydraulic and pneumatic controllers that give
signals to the main engine. It is essential that
this complex piece of machinery is tested
prior to any crucial operations like
maneuvering, and these tests are called
control tests.

The control test is performed before sailing

out and before arrival at a port. It is mainly
done to confirm the safe operation of the ship
and to ensure that all the control systems
necessary for sailing are correctly functioning
in a satisfactory manner.

The control tests are:

○ Telegraph checks

○ Steering gear checks

○ Main Engine try out in ahead

and astern directions on fuel
○ Communications tests
After carrying out the control tests it should
be logged in the bell book stating that the
control test was carried out in a satisfactory
manner and was successful (for legal
purposes).

Telegraph Check
Before the pilot comes on board, it should be
checked that the telegraph is functioning
properly. The duty engineer in the engine
room should acknowledge the telegraph
orders from bridge. The navigation officer in
charge on the bridge and the duty engineer
would ensure that the telegraphs orders are in
sync and there is not deviation of orders
given via the telegraph.

Steering Gear Checks

Communication in the steering gear room
should first be checked and then the rudder
angle indicator on the steering gear should be
compared to that on the bridge. There should
be no discrepancy.

The remote rudder angle indicator is located

in the Bridge and in the control room inside
the engine room.

In the bridge, the indication is placed in three

positions.

○ Port side of bridge wing

○ Starboard side bridge wing

○ In the wheel house

These are provided for the easy maneuvering
for the pilot from the side he boards the ship.
He gives the order by seeing the respective
indicator located in the bridge.
Steering gear checks also includes the
following checks for correct operation:

○ Over load alarm

○ Power failure alarm

○ Low oil level alarm

Greasing should be done for all necessary
parts.

Main Engine Try Out

The main engine must be tried out in ahead
and astern directions on fuel. The response of
the main engine is checked and sluggishness,
if any, is investigated.

Before testing, the engine is to be lubricated

by handle of the cylinder lubricators and
turned by turning gear with the indicator
cocks open. The amperage is to be checked
for any abnormal behaviour. Thereafter the
engine is blown through on air and the
discharge from the indicator cocks checked
for any sign of fuel or cooling water.
Thereafter the control is given to the bridge
and they are told to test the main engine to
their satisfaction.

Starting & Reversing

Problems in Marine
Engines
There are a number of reasons for starting
and reversing problems in marine engines.
This malfunction is one of the most
frightening and dangerous situations to
encounter when maneuvering a ships main
diesel engine, but it can be avoided through
regular maintenance of the air start
components.
A ship’s main marine diesel engine is started
on compressed air that is controlled by
various components of the air start system. It
is a well-tried and tested reliable system, but
it can go wrong if not properly maintained.

The following sections examine a typical air

start system, with the first section providing
an overview of the system.

Overview of System
The air start system looks rather complicated,
but it is quite simple when you examine it
without the safeguards. These are put in place
to prevent such occurrences as starting the
engine without having a signal from the
engine room telegraph, trying to start the
engine with the turning gear engaged, or
trying to start ahead when the telegraph asks
for astern. There are also safety systems
incorporated such as a bursting disk and
numerous non-return valves in the event of a
leaking air start valve.

The next section lists some of the problems

that can be encountered when maneuvering.

Problems in Air Start Systems

We shall look at two common problems
encountered when maneuvering the main
engine: not starting and starting in the wrong
direction (reversing instead of starting ahead).

○ Not Starting
As we have seen, there are various interlocks
in place to prevent the engine being started
until certain criteria are met. If the engine
won’t turn over on air, the bridge should be
informed then the following checks should be
carried out.

○ Check air start supply valves from

air receivers are open and that the
pressure is 30 bar.
○ Check that the turning gear is
disengaged
○ Check that the turning gear and
telegraph solenoid valves have
actuated. This will supply air to the
automatic valve, air distributer, the
air manifold, and air start valve.
These are the initial checks that can be
quickly carried out. If these are all
satisfactory, then the problem lies in the
controls ahead/astern solenoids. The air
distributer or the air start valve itself may be
stuck in the closed position. The ship will
need to anchor or be towed alongside for
these checks to be carried out.

Engine starts in wrong direction

If the engine starts in the astern instead of

ahead direction, the following checks should
be carried out.

○ Ensure the air start control moves

to reverse mode at the control station.
This is a visual check and can be
observed when the telegraph rings
from ahead to stop then astern. If this
does not happen, the solenoid valve
may be stuck.
○ The oil and air supply to and from
the reversing valve should be
 checked. A blockage of either will
stop the reversing servo motor
operating and allowing change over
from the astern to ahead position.
This again will take further investigation, so
the ship should anchor or remain tied up to
the quay.

As this ahead/astern changeover is controlled

by lube oil and compressed air and is
interlocked with the fuel pumps. These are
the usual culprits and the starting point of a
thorough investigation. I have experienced
this situation only once and fortunately we
were leaving port and still tied to quay by
stern spring. Once the bridge was informed, a
rope from the fo’c’sle was thrown ashore and
made fast. This gave us the chance to check
for the fault, which turned out to be the oil
supply from the crosshead oil supply pipe
being blocked.

As I have said before, the maintenance of the

air start system components is paramount to
the operation of the system.
Main Components of the System
Air supply system

○ Two air compressors

○ Two air start vessels

○ Numerous non-return valves

○ Numerous drain valves

Control system

○ Turning gear out sol v/v

○ Telegraph signal sol v/v

○ Automatic valve

○ Ahead and astern change-over

○ Air distributer

○ Air start valve

Anti-explosion components
 ○ Air supply to manifold from air
vessels non-return valve- this
prevents hot gasses from returning to
air receivers.
○ Air manifold pressure relief valve
– this operates if pressure rises due to
heat from gasses.
○ Air supply to air start valve
bursting disk – this disk ruptures
under increased pressure caused an
air start valve leaking back.
Mandatory Safety Precautions
Before we get into the operation of the
system in the next section, this is an
opportune moment to make a closer
examination of the precaution against
explosion, which is a very real threat even in
today’s modern engines that incorporate the
latest in engine management systems.

○ Compressors
The compressor air inlet filters should be
positioned in an oil-free zone, i.e. no oil
fumes should be present.

The compressed air supply lines to the air

receivers must be protected by non-return
valves.

○ The air receivers

There are two air receivers, linked by a
common discharge pipe to the system. The air
from the compressors will contain oil and
water (there is no way around this). This
mixture ends up in the air vessels as a mist,
eventually settling to the bottom of the vessel.
It is imperative, and I cannot overstress this,
that the mixture be drained from the vessels
after every charge, and regularly when
maneuvering. The oil also coats the internal
of the supply pipes; this too can be reduced
by draining the air vessels.

These actions, as well as checking by hand

for heat in the air supply pipe between the air
start valve and the air manifold, form part of
the watch keeper’s duties. Any excess heat
here, and the fuel and air to that particular
cylinder should be isolated, and the bridge
made aware of the situation.

Before we leave the precautions there are

many examples of air start system explosions.
One of worst ones occurred on the MV
Capetown Castle, killing seven engineers.
Lloyd’s register recorded 11 such explosions
between 1987 and 1998; all down to oil
gathering in the receivers and piping and
ignited by exhaust gasses. One a year speaks
for itself: drain the air vessels regularily and
maintain the system.

A sketch showing an air start system where

the air start valve is leaking is shown below.
Note the pipe that should be checked by hand
for overheating;
The Operating Principles of Marine
Engine Air Start Systems
I have sailed on quite a few marine diesel
engines, including B&W, Sulzer, and
Stork/Werkspoor. All had variations of the
system I am about to describe, but the
principles are much the same.

I drew a sketch from memory (45 years ago)

but updated it from a very good website
referenced at the end of the section. The
sketch also appears at the end of the section
and can be referred to during the reading of
the notes.

We begin then with the bridge ringing down

standby on the engine room telegraph. (We
used to change over fuel from Heavy Fuel Oil
to Modified Diesel Oil for maneuvering.)

1. If in port, ensure turning gear is not

engaged.

2. Open both air receivers’ isolation valves

and start up a compressor to fill receivers to
maximum; drain oily water of reservoirs and
also from dead leg on supply pipe work.

3. This allows the compressed air to flow as

far as the turning gear solenoid valve.
Provided the turning gear is disengaged, this
will allow the supply of air at 30 bar to the
automatic valve passing though the non-
return valve and into the manifold. From here
the air is piped to the air chamber in the air
start valve. (This is the pipe that will get hot
if you have a leaking air start valve.) The
valve is held in the shut position by the spring
tension.

4. When an ahead or astern movement is rung

and answered on the engine room telegraph,
the telegraph start signal sol v/v is activated
allowing air to the ahead and astern solenoid
valves mechanism.

5. The air is now directed to the starting air

distributer that is fitted on the end of the
camshaft. This enables it to select the
appropriate cylinder(s) to supply air to. This
will be the relevant cylinder that is just
passed TDC and on the downward stroke.

6. The air from the starting air distributer is at

30 bar, and this is injected into the air start
valve top piston. This overcomes the spring
tension and forces the piston downwards thus
opening the valve and introducing the air at
30 bar to the cylinder(s) having been supplied
earlier to the air chamber.

7. Depending on the engine make and model,

air can be supplied to several cylinders to
assist starting. A "slow start" supply can be
used if there has been a lapse of half an hour
between movements when maneuvering.
Maintenance of System Components

○ Compressors
Regular inspection of filters, suction and
discharge valves, as well as piston and ring
checks should be performed at the
manufacturer’s recommended periods.
Intercooler tube nests should be cleaned
ensuring optimum air flow.

○ Air supply Manifold Relief

Valve
This should be regularly inspected to ensure
that the spring is operating correctly, with the
complete overhaul being to manufacturer’s
instructions.

○ Air Start Valves

This is the most important component and if
not maintained, will begin to stick due to a
weak/badly adjusted spring or worn piston
rings allowing hot combustion gasses into the
compressed air piping.

The valve should be replaced regularly with

an overhauled and tested spare, the spare then
being stripped and spring, pistons, and rings
inspected. The valve is ground into the seat
using fine lapping paste before rebuild and
bench pressure testing.
Functions of Ships
Main Engine Thrust
Block, Prop Shaft,
and Stern Tube
In a marine engine the function of the thrust
block, propeller shaft, and stern tube are
closely related, being responsible for the
efficient transmission of the engine’s power
to the propeller and ensuring the control of
torque and propeller shaft alignment from the
thrust block to the stern tube.
The thrust block is also known as the "Tilting
Pad Bearing" or often the "Michell Bearing"
after its inventor Anthony Michell, an
Australian mining engineer.

Before these came along, ship’s engines were

forever breaking down due to overheating
thrust blocks. In those days (which were even
before this old Irish Engineer’s day), multiple
thrust collars were machined onto the
propeller shaft with slots accurately machined
into the thrust block to match these.
Lubrication was supplied by a pump, but it
was virtually impossible to obtain equal load
on all the components, and hence the
breakdowns.

Back to the present: the thrust block is

situated just aft of the main engine and its
purpose is to transmit the torque produced by
the rotating propeller and shaft down into the
ship’s structure.

The propeller shaft runs between the thrust

block and the stern tube and is supported by a
number of shaft bearings fitted along the
length of the shaft. The stern tube contains
supports and several seals for the propeller
shaft as it passes through the ship’s stern
before connection to the propeller.

The following sections examine the purpose

of the thrust block, propeller shaft, and stern
tube. We start by looking at the construction
and operation of the thrust block.

Thrust Block Purpose and Operation

When I was at sea as a first tripper Junior
Engineer, I well remember asking an old
Auzzie chief engineer about the purpose of a
thrust block. He thought for a few moments,
and then answered that if there was no thrust
block the propeller and shaft would try to
push the engine into the foc’s’le head. That
was over forty five years ago, and it was not a
bad analogy.

A more technical answer would have been

that the purpose of a thrust block on a large
marine engine is to transmit the torque
produced by the rotating propeller through
the housing hold-down bolts into the ship’s
structure. (Remember this definition when
sitting your marine engineer’s exams.)

The structure under the thrust block is

reinforced with steel plates and I-beams
above and inside the double bottom tanks or
cofferdams.
The thrust block itself consists of a housing
which contains a number of wedge-shaped
white metaled pads with generous helical oil
grooves cut into them. The pads are arranged
and fixed around a steel support, holding
them against a machined collar on the drive
shaft.

The pads are prevented from overheating and

premature wear by a fluid film of oil between
them and the collar, with the oil supply being
hydrodynamic (self-pressurized) due to the
rotation of the drive shaft.

There is an oil reservoir in the bottom of the

housing which may contain an oil-cooling
coil through which seawater is circulated.

I have included a sketch of a Mitchell type

thrust block of the type used when I was a
boy at sea. However, it will not have changed
much except perhaps the pads may now be
PTFE lined.
Purpose and Operation of the Propeller
Drive Shaft
The propeller shaft is bolted to the main
engine flywheel, passing through the thrust
block then along the shaft tunnel. Here it is
supported by the shaft bearings before
passing through the stern tube to drive the
ship's propeller.

The shaft is manufactured from forged steel,

complete with coupling flanges. It is
machined leaving a larger diameter at the
location of the shaft bearings; this section has
to have a fine finish to run within the white
metal bearing.
The shaft coupling flange faces are accurately
machined and the bolt holes reamed to accept
fitted bolts. They are bolted together using
high tension bolting, which is tightened using
hydraulic tensioning gear.

The supporting bearings are cast in two

halves and are usually white metal lined.
These have oil scrolls cut into them to
distribute the splash lubrication. Nowadays
ball bearing shaft supports are being used, but
they have been reported as being quite noisy
with a tendency to run hot.

A typical prop shaft white metal bearing with

splash lubrication is shown here.
Purpose and Operation of Stern Tube
The stern tube is used to support and seal the
propeller shaft as it passes through the aft
hull. It consists of a cast iron tube welded into
the stern frame. In the old days, the shaft
inside the tube was bronze coated and run
against a longitudinal bearing, which, when I
was serving my time in Harland & Wolff
Belfast, was made of narrow strips of a very
hard wearing wood known as “lignum vitae."

However nowadays, the propeller shaft has a

CUNI (copper nickel alloy) liner shrunk onto
it. Babbitt metal is applied over this and then
machined, providing the bearing surface
between the cast iron stern tube and the
propeller shaft. This is lubricated and cooled
by lube oil supplied from a gravity tank
located under the aft peak. The propeller shaft
has mechanical and/or adjustable gland seals
fore and aft to prevent the ingress of oil to the
sea and the aft bilge well.

Note:
There are several different arrangements of
stern tube bearings. Some are similar to the
one described, and some having additional
water-cooled strut bearings fixed to the
outside hull of the vessel, supporting the shaft
right up to the propeller. (Notably on RN &
US Warships.)

A typical stern tube arrangement is shown

below.
Parts of Ships -
Guide to Component
Descriptions
Ships come in various descriptions and have
hundreds of thousands of components, but
there are a few parts that are common to all
ships. In this guide, you can learn about how
the basic parts of ships have evolved over the
centuries.
● Evolution of Ships over Time
● From floating vessels made of wood to
ultra-modern cruise ships, the evolution in
design and architecture of ships have
come a long way. However there are a few
parts that are and will always be common
to ships (or rather sailboats or floating
vessels) from those that were built 4000
years ago to the newest cruise ships that
are nothing less than floating cities.
Parts of Ships Common to All Ships
Body of the Ship or The Hull:
The hull of a ship is responsible for the
floatation property of the ship. Generally
ships are single hulled (monohull design). It's
only other vessels like catamarans (two hulls)
and trimarans (three hulls) that have more
than one hull to keep it afloat. It is the hull
that houses the engines that to which the
propellers are attached. Hulls have to be
desingned very meticulously because they are
always subjected to stress and strains and the
failure of the hull will lead to diasastrous
results.
Propulsion System:
The propulsion system powers the ship and
moves it in the desired direction. Back before
engines were introduced in ships, sails and
oars were used to direct the ship. Depending
on the type of the ship and the age to which it
belonged to, the propulsion system consists
of at least one of the following: sails, oars,
steam engines, paddle wheels, diesel engines,
nuclear powered engines, and propellers. For
steering the ship, once again, depending on
the type of ship, the angle of the sails,
rudders, or the propellers are changed.
Communication and Navigation
Equipment:

Getting lost at sea can be sooner and easier

that you anticipate. A few miles into the sea
and chances are high that you have no idea
which side is north. The greatest explorers
made the greatest discoveries way back when
there was no onboard radio, telephones,
computers and RADAR systems. How did
they do it? They use a very simple equipment
called a compass and knew the art of looking
at the stars and learning which direction they
were sailing in. Things have changed a lot,
and the modern day ships have highly
sensitive equipment that take care of the
ship's navigation right from the boarding
point to the destination.

Various Other Parts of a Modern Ship

Apart from the major parts of the ships that
we read about in the above section, there are
a few equipment itmes present in almost all
modern day ships. Theseare the safety
systems, anchors (anchors were present in
olden day ships, too), electrical equipment,
cranes, etc.

Anchors:

Anchors are used to hold the ship in one

place and prevent it from being carried away
by waves. They look like hooks and are huge
and heavy, connected by huge iron chains.
They are dropped from the ship when the ship
has to be docked or kept in one place.

Electrical Systems:

Modern ships use a lot of electricity to

maintain ithe cargo at the required
temperature. Also, in the case of passenger
ships, a lot of electricity goes into satisfying
the needs of the passengers. Thus modern day
ships are not only concerned in going from
point A to point B, but a whole lot of other
things, too.

Safety Equipment:
A large number of rules and regulations
concerned with safety come into play when a
modern day ship is built. Due to these
precautionary measures, we have seen the
number of fatalities related to ships dwindle.
Even if the ship is damaged beyond repair, it
is made sure that the passengers and the crew
members of the ship remain safe until help
arrives.

Ship's Systems and

Controls
Numerous different ships systems and
controls being maintained by engineer
officers are used on all types of vessels today.
These consist of engine room systems such as
lube oil, fuel oil, and seawater, along with
deck officer's roles such as cargo recording
and navigation.
Management of the Various Systems
Within the Engine Room and Deck
Departments
A ship could not function without
management of the systems incorporated
within her hull and deck. The following
sections provide articles on this subject, and I
have put these in their relative groups with a
brief description. The subjects have been
divided under general headings and linked to
articles written by myself and other Bright
Hub writers in the Marine Engineering
channel. We begin with the various systems
and controls within the engine room, before
moving onto examples in the deck
department.

Ships Electrical Systems

The electrical power is supplied from the
generators to the main switchboard from
where it is distributed to all parts of the ship
through numerous breakers and relays. It is
maintained by the Electrical / Electronics
Engineer. There are normally three
generators, one running and supplying power,
one on standby, and one down for
maintenance whilst at sea. When
maneuvering or alongside working cargo, two
generators share the load with the other on
standby.

Lube Oil Systems

The lube oil system comprises of the main
engine sump, suction and discharge filters,
circulating pump, coolers and centrifuge. The
sump is the main storage tank, located under
a grill in the crankcase. The suction and
discharge filters remove any particles
contained in the oil. (Any pieces of white
metal in these could indicate bearing wiping,
and must be investigated)

The cooler is required to maintain optimum

temperature and viscosity and cools the oil
using seawater that passes through tubes or
plates depending on the type of cooler.

Regular centrifuging of the oil is essential for

removing particles and water from the oil
sump; some engines have the centrifuge
running twenty-four hours a day; only being
stopped for cleaning.
Heavy Fuel Oil System
The majority of ships engines use heavy fuel
oil (HFO) being a by-product of crude oil
refining. It is taken on board ships as bunkers,
a sample of which should be checked by the
Chief Engineer, as some suppliers abroad
have been suspected of mixing old sump oil
and even scavenge drains with bunker oil.

Before use in the main engine the HFO must

be processed by heating, filtration, purifying,
and clarifying. The heating is to keep the oil
from waxing and improve the usually high
viscosity; filtration is carried out at various
stages of the process to remove particles.
Purifying removes the water and sludge in the
HFO, and clarification removes the solids.

Ship’s Deck Systems and Control

The Deck Officers use various methods to
control the various systems of navigating,
tank cleaning, steering the ship, or control of
the cargo. Control of the cargo and producing
a cargo plan is also the duty of the Deck
Officers, usually the mate or Second Officer.
It is a very important document required to
keep a record of the type, description, and
weights of the various pieces of cargo stored
in the holds or on deck. It also notes its
location as well as the sequence of loading,
and thus the reverse order of discharge, in the
various ports of call.

Navigation System
The bridge is the Deck Officers domain.
When I was at sea as an engineer, I used to go
up to the bridge when off watch and marveled
at the sophisticated navigation gear even in
those far off days of 40-odd years ago.

This consisted of the auto-pilot, gyro-counter,

radar screen, ship's speed and distance run, all
neatly arranged on the bridge. The links
below provide further information on this
subject.

Cargo Tank Cleaning Systems on Oil

Tankers
When I was an engineer at sea, I used to
dread the tank cleaning as the whole ship
smelt like a petrol station forecourt! However
it must be done in preparation for the next
cargo. Gas freeing of the tanks is carried out
first, with this being a combination of inert
gas flooding and venting of the tanks.

Gas freeing and tank cleaning is under the

remit of the Deck Officers; the Chief Officer
normally being in charge of operations.

Tank cleaning occurs after discharge of cargo

and gas-freeing, usually while on the sea
voyage to the next loading port. The
following two links explain the process
involved in these systems.

Ships Ballasting Systems

This is under the control of the Deck Officers
using their own pumps in the pump-room or
requesting the use of the engine room
seawater on deck pump. Ballasting is carried
out as the cargo is loaded or discharged to
maintain the ships stability. There has been a
lot of controversy lately regarding taking
ballast on in one port and discharging in
another port. This can transport and transfer
alien species that will wreak havoc with the
local flora and fauna.
The Production,
Handling, Storage,
and Use of Marine
Fuels
Marine fuels and fuel handling are a common
part of a ship’s engineers routine from taking
on bunkers to ensuring the fuel is kept at
optimum temperature, and as free from
contaminates as possible, for use in the main
engines or boilers.
The heavy fuel oil (HFO) used by our ship’s
main engines and boilers is a viscous tarry
substance; very high in sulfur so when
combusted in a diesel engine large quantities
of sulfur oxide/dioxide along with nitrogen
oxides and particulates are produced.

By using the links in the following sections,

the methods used for treating and storage of
the HFO are explained. We begin with the
origins of the heavy fuel oil.

The Production and Processing of Heavy

Fuel Oil
Heavy fuel oil, or residual oil as it is also
known, is a by-product of the refining of
crude oil produced from oil wells/reservoirs
both on and offshore.

Offshore, the oil is brought to the oil

production platform through risers that
connect the reservoir to the platforms. Here it
is filtered to remove sand and grit before
being pumped through various separators that
remove the inherent gas and water. It is then
heated and pumped ashore using sub-sea
pipelines.

Once at the crude oil refinery, it is processed

to remove any remaining water/salts before
being heated to over 650°F and passed into a
vertical distillation column. Here the various
fractions are drawn off, leaving a tarry
residue at the bottom of the column. It is here
the HFO is drawn off for distribution to ships
bunkers that after further on-board treatment
use it as engine or boiler fuel.

Recent rules and annexes by the International

Maritime Organization (IMO) and MARPOL
73/78 have capped the sulfur content of HFO
to 4.5%, being further reduced to 3.5% next
year. These "bottoms" therefore have to be
further processed by de-sulfurization to
reduce the sulfur level to within these limits.

Supply and Storage of Heavy Fuel Oil in

Ship's Bunkers
As we have seen, the HFO is produced at the
crude oil refinery and transported by fuel
tanker to the various port loading/storage
facilities. From here it can be supplied
directly into ships bunkers or pumped to
bunker barges with the ships being supplied
from these bunker barges while lying at
anchor.

When I was an engineer at sea, one of my

duties was to oversee the loading of HFO to
the bunkers after a sample was checked by
the Chief Engineer) and taking ullages
(sounding the tanks) to ensure we were
getting the amount ordered and paid for. In
those days the heavy fuel oil was black as tar,
being very high in contaminates. I am sure a
few solutions were added to the oil by
unscrupulous suppliers such as used engine
oil, scavenge drains, and sludge tank
contents. Anyway, nowadays there are
stricter checks and rules governing the quality
of supply of HFO to ship's bunkers.

Treatment of Heavy Fuel Oil aboard Ship

Once the HFO has been loaded in the
bunkers, steam is supplied to the heating coils
to prevent the oil from becoming waxy. It is
supplied from the bunkers daily to the setting
tanks, where again optimum temperatures are
maintained as the solids are allowed to settle
out.

The oil is then processed further through

various heaters, filters, clarifiers, and
purifiers. Eventually it is supplied to the fuel
pumps/common rail injection system on the
main engine.

Main Engine Fuel Components

In my day at sea as a ship's engineer, we had
most of the components in the fuel systems
that are used in today’s modern, more
efficient engines. These were the fore-runners
of the new components that have helped to
raise the thermal efficiency of the marine
diesel engine to over 50%

Effects of Fuel Oil Quality

The undesirable effects of fuel oil quality are
passed onto the diesel engine causing at the
least, a reduction in efficiency due to
viscosity and poor combustion. There can
also be serious effects such as corrosion and
scavenge fires.

Authors Note

Although I retired from the sea many years

ago, the experience and knowledge gained
whilst sailing as an engineer is still as
relevant now as it was over 40 years ago.
Modern marine diesel engines are
electronically managed and super-efficient.
Their exhaust gas emissions have become
much less polluting due to heavy fuel oil
treatment both at the crude oil refinery and on
board.

I hope the information given in the preceding

sections is useful to today’s young engineers
who may be starting on their career as marine
engineers or studying for their relevant
engineer certificates. Good luck to you all.
The Charge Air
Cooler in Diesel
Engines
The charge air cooler is an important device
fitted in all turbocharged diesel engines to
reduce the temperature of the charged air
before its entry to the engine in order to
increase the efficiency of engine. This article
deals with purpose, location, and
maintenance of charge air coolers.
In this article we discuss the charge air cooler
fitted between the turbocharger and the
scavenge air manifold in all modern four
stroke and two stroke engines. Readers will
be able to understand the concept of charge
air coolers, and their operation, construction,
and maintenance. One can also find reasons
for cooler fouling, its location on engine, and
methods of cleaning the charge air cooler.
Purpose of Charge Air
Cooler
The exhaust gas from the engine is utilized in
the turbocharger for compressing fresh air to
charge the engine with a positive pressure
greater than ambient conditions. This
compression causes the temperature of the air
to increase, which thus cannot be fed directly
into the engine as it is out of operating limits.
Thus a cooler that bring the air temperature
back to near-ambient conditions is fitted on
the engine. When the air is hot, its density is
less and thus the mass of air charged into the
engine is less when compared to the mass
when the air is cold. Thus the charge air
cooler improves the charge air density and its
temperature.

The compressed charged air at the outlet of

charge air cooler will have a reduced
temperature of about 40 to 50 degrees Celsius
from a temperature of about 200 degrees
Celsius. This reduced temperature of air will
increase the density of the charge air at low
temperature. Increased air density of the
charge air will rise the scavenge efficiency
and allow a greater mass of air to be
compressed inside the engine cylinder so that
more fuel can be burned inside the
combustion chamber, giving an increase in
power. Also the engine is maintained at a safe
working temperature. The lower compression
temperature reduces stress on the piston,
piston rings, cylinder liner, and cylinder head.
The charge air cooler has another advantage
in that it reduces the exhaust gas temperature.
It has been proven that every one degree
Celsius drop in scavenge air temperature will
reduce the exhaust temperature about five to
ten degree Celsius. This does not mean that
the air can be charged at cryogenic
temperatures. If very cold air enters the
cylinder liner, it would cause a sudden
thermal shock, leading to cracking of liner.
Thus charge air coolers also serve as heaters
when a ship enters cold climate areas. Let us
assume that the charge air cooler is cooled by
fresh water (LT) circuit. If the ambient air
temperature is very low, the fresh water,
which is usually at 30 degrees Celsius, will
heat the charged air and make it comfortable
for the engine.

Charge Air Cooler

Location of a Charge Air Cooler
Charge air coolers are located between the
turbocharger compressor side outlet and the
engine inlet manifold or scavenge manifold.
A clear view of the location of a charge air
cooler is shown in the diagram below. The
location of the charge air cooler between
turbocharger and entry to engine should be
such that the temperature of the charge air at
the outlet of charge air cooler should not be
increased before its entry to the engine
cylinder due to the heated condition of the
engine room. To avoid this, the air cooler
should be located as close to the engine
cylinder as possible. Also, the air duct
between the charge air cooler and the engine
inlet manifold should be insulated to avoid
increase in the temperature of the air.

Location of Cooler on Large Diesel Engine

Air Cooler Fouling and its Effect on the
Engine
When the air cooler becomes fouled, less heat
will be transferred from the air to the cooling
water (usually fresh water). This is indicated
by the changes in the air temperature and
cooling water temperature and a pressure
drop in the air passing through the air cooler.
To measure this pressure drop, a manometer
is connected between the charge air cooler
inlet and outlet. The amount of pressure drop
will depend upon the degree and nature of the
fouling.

Indications of Air Side Fouling:

○ Increase of air pressure drop

across the charge air cooler.
○ Decrease of air temperature
difference across air cooler.
○ Rise in scavenge air temperature.

○ Rise in exhaust gas temperature

from all cylinders.
Indications of cooling water side fouling:

○ Rise in scavenge air temperature.

○ Decrease in the difference of the

air temperature across the air cooler.
○ Decrease in the temperature of the
 cooling water across the cooler if
fouling is on the tubes.
○ Increase in exhaust gas
temperature from all cylinders.
○ Increase in the temperature of the
cooling water due to fouling or
chocking material in tubes that
reduce the amount of cooling water
flow.
Methods of air side cleaning:

○ Fins in the air side can be cleaned

by using compressed air at Low
pressure.
○ The air side can be cleaned by
dipping the air cooler in a chemical
bath for a certain period of time. This
will remove all deposits on the air
side.
○ Another method of cleaning the
 air side is by using the jet of water at
Low pressure.
○ Note: Usage of very high pressure
may lead to bending of fins and thus
causing permanent damage to the air
cooler.
Methods of Fresh water side cleaning:

○ For soft deposits on the water

side, dip the cooler in a chemical
bath. After a certain period of time,
take the cooler out and then clean
with water at some temperature
higher than ambient. It is always
preferred to circulate water using
wilden pump and drums.
○ For hard deposits use a long drill
bit to drill the hard deposits on the
tubes. Note this requires a specialist
to drill the hard deposits because
small mistakes in drilling may
 damage the tubes.

Marine Diesel
Engines - Assembly,
Components Of, and
Watchkeeping For
The invention of the diesel engine in 1893
has been attributed to Rudolf Diesel, a
German mechanical engineer and inventor.
This was an innovative internal combustion
engine that was the fore-runner of today’s
marine diesel engines used in ships
worldwide.
I was first introduced to a marine diesel
engine in the form of a Caterpillar (CAT)
inboard engine in my Uncle Jimmy’s boat
that he used for lobster/crab potting and local
fishing trips. I accompanied him on many
trips from when I was about ten years old and
got to know the CAT engine's idiosyncrasies
quite well.

I them worked on much larger engines while

serving my apprenticeship at Harland and
Wolff of Belfast; they had a license to build
Burmeister and Wain two-stroke diesel
engines.
Leaving the shipyard in 1966, I joined my
first ship in Portland Maine, the MV Orama,
a 30,000T Oil Tanker, as Junior Engineer
Officer. She had a B&W main engine so I felt
quite at home, except for rolling about across
the North Atlantic and gas-freeing of the
tanks. Like all first trippers, I suffered from
sea sickness for a few days, from a
combination of her gyrations and the constant
smell of crude oil.

The following sections supply links to marine

articles here at Bright Hub that deal with
diesel engines. After a brief introduction to
the theory and terminology involved, we will
move on to examining the components and
systems of these engines, and then watch
keeping duties, along with the operation and
maintenance of a typical two-stroke marine
diesel engine.

Engine Installation, Two Stroke & Four

Stroke Engines
Before we examine the two-stroke and four-
stroke engines, it is worthwhile to have a look
at one method of assembling the engines in
the engine room.

Engine Assembly aboard Ship

There are a number of marine diesel engine

manufacturers who assemble and test the
engines before stripping them down to the
main components and lowering them into the
ship’s engine room. We used to re-assemble
the components in the engine room in the
following order. (I imagine the same
procedures are used today, except for the
main foundation components being of a more
modern design.)

The bed plate consists of two longitudinal

girders, braced by cast steel traverse cross
sections. At selected cross sections, the main
bearing pockets are line-bored and two
vertical holes drilled through them and the
section. The main tie-rods are fitted through
these into the bed plate.

The bed plate is lowered into position onto

the supports that form part of the ship’s hull,
then shimmed level and caulked before being
fitted with hold-down bolts that run right
around the bottom support frame. The
crankshaft main bearing bottom halves are
then fitted to the bed plate bearing pockets
and the crankshaft lowered into them. The top
halves of the main bearing are then fitted and
checked for clearance and alignment.

The “A" frames and entablatures follow,

being bolted together using fitted bolts,
before other components are quickly fitted
until the engine is completely rebuilt.
There are two types of marine diesel engines:
two-stroke and four-stroke.

Two Stroke Cycle

Starting with the piston at bottom dead center

(BDC), the combustion air is supplied to the
liner air inlet ports and the piston starts to rise
up the liner. Depending on the scavenging
system, the piston either ejects the previous
cycle exhaust gases out exhaust ports in the
liner or out through an exhaust valve in the
cylinder head.

The combustion air continues to be

compressed to almost top dead center (TDC)
when the fuel is injected and combusted by
compression ignition, forcing the piston back
down the liner.

Four Stroke Cycle

1. Exhaust Stroke - Starting again with the

piston at BDC, it begins to rise up the liner,
with the exhaust valve in the cylinder head
opening and expelling the exhaust gasses
during the upward stroke.

2. Inlet Stroke - The inlet valve now opens

and combustion air is drawn in as the piston
continues downwards.

3. Compression Stroke - After reaching BDC

the piston starts to rise again and the inlet
valve shuts.

4. Ignition/Power Stroke - As the piston

continues to rise with both valves shut, and
just before TDC, fuel is injected and is
combusted through compression ignition,
forcing the piston downwards on its power
stroke.

Components of a Marine Diesel Engine

The marine diesel engine has changed a bit
since I was an engineer at sea in the 1960’s.
In those days the popular engines were
Sulzer, B&W, British Polar, and Doxfords.
Most shipping companies had a preference
for a particular make of engine and had these
installed in all their ships. This gave
continuity for their Engineer Officers, who
were both watch keepers and maintenance
engineers combined.

Nowadays, modern diesel engines being

manufactured by Wartsila Sulzer and
MAN/B&W have recorded a thermal
efficiency of over 50 percent. The Wartsila
Sulzer RT96 flex-C is one of the world’s
largest marine diesel engines: the14-cylinder
model produces 108,000 horse power.

Cylinder Head

○ Cylinder Head

○ Cylinder Relief Valve

○ Air Start Valve

○ Fuel Oil Injector

○ Exhaust Valve

○ Main Engine Firing Order

Cylinder Liners
 ○ Cylinder Liners
Pistons

○ Pistons

○ Piston Rings

○ Piston Oil Cooling

○ Piston Water Cooling

Turbo Blowers

○ Turbo-blowers
Thrust Block

○ Thrust Block

Watch Keeping Duties & Engine Room

Layout
Most engine rooms follow a basic design that
has stood the test of time. This includes the
location of the main and auxiliary engines,
pumps, coolers, and prop-drive shafting,
allowing the watch keeping engineers to
acquaint themselves quickly when joining a
new ship.

Fire and Explosion in the Main Engine &

Engine Room
Fire and explosion aboard ship is still the
most feared condition by today’s seafarers.
The ship’s engine room is particularly
susceptible to fire due to the hot surfaces and
pipes carrying the fuel and lube-oil.

In today’s ships the crew is trained in

firefighting both while at sea and by courses
when on leave. This has led to the formation
of fire teams who are competent at
extinguishing all types of shipboard fires and
rescuing the survivors of explosions.

Fire and Explosion - Main Engine

○ Oily Mist Detection of Crankcase

Explosion
○ Cause, Control and Prevention of
Scavenge Fires
Fire in Engine Room

○ CO2 Fire Protection for

Machinery Spaces
○ Engine Room Fire Protection
System
○ Engine Room Fire Fighting

Main & Auxiliary Engine Breakdown at

Sea
When the main engine or generators break
down at sea, it is the responsibility of the
ship’s engineer officers to repair them.
Sometimes there are no spare parts, so these
have to be made by the engineers using the
quite extensive engine room workshop. Major
repairs can take a long time. I remember one
occasion where we broke down in the Red
Sea and were working for twenty hours to
effect repairs. Then I stood my watch,
totaling 24 hours on my feet. Fortunately this
is the exception rather than the rule, and
nowadays engines are more reliable and a
better selection of spares is carried by the
major shipping companies.

Repairs to Main Engines & Generators at

Sea

○ The Main Repairs Carried out at

Sea
○ Repairs to Main and Auxiliary
Engines at Sea
○ Breakdown & Repair of Main
Engine at Sea
I Learned from That
We have an old saying in Ireland that
“Stranger things happen at sea."

This reminded me of a few articles I wrote

about accidents at sea and what I had learned
from them. Please use the links below to find
out more about these “learning curves" that
happened to me and other sea-going
engineers. Remember that this is how we
learn- and sure isn't hindsight a great thing!
Accidents in the Engine Room

○ Screw Compressor Failure

○ Oil Level Gauge Led to Failure of

Purifier
○ Hotwell overflow causes boiler
failure
○ Failure of Engine Room
Overhead Crane Brakes
○ Removal of Exhaust Valve Seat
Accidents outside the Engine Room

○ Bad Communication Causes

Damage to Ship’s Prop

Firefighting
Equipment in Ship's
Engine Room
Ships engine rooms are susceptible to fires
and explosions, as well as the engines
themselves. However, there is firefighting
equipment in a ships engine room to combat
these hazards, such as hand held fire
extinguishers and seawater hydrants/ hoses;
CO2 or mist injection being used in engine
spaces
As long as men have gone to sea in ships
there has been a fear of fire aboard; more so
on the old wooden hulled sailing ships than
today’s modern ships. However major fires
still occur on modern ships accounting for a
large number of lives lost, especially on
cruise ships and ferries.

Ship's engine rooms are the usual sources of

shipboard fires; either from a fire in the
engine room, or an engine internal fire or
explosion causing a subsequent fire. The
main portable means of fire fighting
equipment are the different types of hand
held extinguishers. These are located
throughout the engine room at different
levels, along with hoses and hydrants
supplied by the seawater pumps. Fires in the
engine internal spaces can be attacked and
extinguished using inert gas such as CO2,
foam, or water mist sprays.

The following sections examine the

firefighting equipment used in today's
modern engine rooms. The first sections deals
with the common causes of fires in the engine
room.

Common Causes of Shipboard

Fires
The causes of engine room fires can usually
be traced back to a lack of maintenance or
bad watchkeeping practices. They are usually
caused by fuel spills, overheating components
or careless use of electric welding or gas
brazing gear.

Oil Spills
It is imperative to combat the risk of engine
room fires by maintaining the fuel and lube
oil systems, more so on diesel engine ships
than steam turbines; although I have had a
few hairy oil-fired boiler room moments
where the donkey man has used sawdust to
mop up burner oil spills, instead of sand from
the old red-painted sand bucket. There must
be constant vigilance against leaking oil of
any type, pipes and unions being especially
vulnerable. Any leaking or damaged fuel pipe
should be reported to the senior engineer
immediately. There is not much you can do
about oil spraying onto a hot exhaust, except
shut off the supply and fight the fire, however
but engine room housekeeping is another
matter, this is something that we can all
participate in.

○ Engine room Housekeeping

The engine room should be kept clean and
tidy, free from inflammable materials such as
wooden crates, cardboard boxes, oily rags
and paper. Any oil spills cleaned up
immediately and the source investigated,
repaired and logged. An engine room No
Smoking Policy should be enforced, which
should stop people stubbing out their
cigarette ends in a sand bucket!

Repairs

The repair of components by welding and

brazing is common practice in ships engine
rooms. However, both are potential fire
hazards, due to the electric-arcing of the
welding rod and the open flame on the
brazing torch tip. There is also the additional
hazard when welding where the ensuing
molten metal can fall down through several
floors into the bilges.

It is therefore imperative that the component

for repair should be brought to the engine
room workshop. If this is not possible, then a
fire retardant blanket should be laid under the
component to be welded or brazed. A fire
watcher should be employed to keep an eye
on the proceedings; with a set of
extinguishers to hand.
Engine Room Fire Fighting Equipment
○ Engine room Sprinkler System
This is of the more modern type of water
nozzles that actually supply a very fine mist,
rather than a flow of water. These systems
cover of different areas of the engine room,
but not the switchboard or the electrical
generating component of the power
generators. The sprinkler system can be
operated automatically by sensors or
manually by the engineer. This starts the
water booster pump and opens up the
compressed air supply which can be from
dedicated high pressure air bottles or the
engine air-start receivers.

As we all know water is not normally used on

oil fires but, because fine mist is injected into
the area it not only starves the fire of oxygen,
but also dissipates the smoke.

○ Engine room Fire Extinguishers

There are four main types of fire
extinguishers all colored red nowadays, with
a different colored band around the top of the
body, denoting the type of medium it
contains. They are operated by removing the
protective pin, before pulling the trigger
smartly.

Fire extinguishers are usually stored in a

container together as shown below in a group
of four; one of each type. The containers are
positioned at different levels in the engine
room at high fire risk locations.

The four types are,

○ Dry Powder Fire Extinguisher– it

has a black band around the body and
is used for extinguishing electrical
and liquid fires.
○ Foam Fire Extinguisher – this has
a yellow band around the body and is
used for extinguishing oil fires.
○ Water Fire Extinguisher – this has
a red band contained between two
 thin white bands around the body. It
is used to extinguish paper, wood and
cloth.
○ CO2 Fire Extinguisher – this has
a black band around the body and is
used to extinguish electrical and
liquid fires.
Remember, only the Dry Powder and CO2
extinguishers should be used on electrical
fires.

○ Fire Hydrants and Hoses

These are positioned throughout the engine
room; a fire axe is sometimes alongside the
fire hoses. The hydrant valves should be
opened; hoses run out and discharged to the
bilges at regular intervals to ensure operation.

○ Aqueous Film Forming Foam

Known as AFFF and (pronounced A triple F)
was developed in the sixties and is a great
innovation to firefighting not only in ships
engine rooms, but on oil and gas platforms
worldwide. AFFF is supplied in its own
containers and added to an AFFF storage tank
and is operated by pressurized seawater. The
seawater mixes with the specialist liquid and
exits the 11/2" rubber hose through a brass
nozzle as a pressurized film of thick, viscous
foam. This is directed to the base of the fire,
quickly smothering the flames, dissipating the
heat, smoke and fumes.

Prevention and Control

The two main causes of engine room fires are
scavenge fires and crankcase explosions
occurring on the main diesel engines. Both
can be detected and prevented if discovered
early enough. The scavenge fire is detected
by high exhaust temperature, paint peeling of
the scavenge door or the Mate phoning down
to inform us of black smoke and sparks
emitting from the flue.

The much more serious crankcase explosion

is caused by a build up of lube-oil mist inside
the crankcase. This triggers the oil-mist
detector and the alarm will sound, giving the
engineer enough time to slow down the
engine allowing it cool. In the event of an
explosion, the explosion relief devices on the
crankcase doors will lift. This device prevents
injury from a flying crankcase door; the fine
wire mesh in the relief valve taking the heat
out of the flames, reducing the risk of fire.
The explosion door re-closes immediately,
preventing any entry of fresh oxygen entering
the crankcase promoting further explosion
and fire.

Both the above hazards have similar fire

control methods; injection of CO2 or water
mist into the scavenge space and injection of
CO2 into the crankcase. The inspection doors
must remain shut until the relevant
components and spaces have cooled down.

Firefighting Team and Equipment

This is a dedicated team with a team leader in
charge, who attend regular courses when on
leave. The team is usually made up from
members of the crew, engine room and deck
officers. They practice fire drill, evacuation
and rescue operations regularly on the deck,
accommodation and engine room areas.

Breathing Apparatus Set

The BA set consists of an oxygen tank which

is strapped to the firefighters back, supplying
a full face mask with oxygen.

Personal Protection

This consists of loose fitting fire retardant

clothes, fire retardant boots and a yellow
fireman's safety helmet; team leader having a
red band around his helmet.
Shipboard Level
Sensors - Types and
Theory
Measuring the contents of a tank is a job
which most mariners hate to do. For this
reason, many gauges and devices have been
produced for reducing the man hours of
mariners. Read here to learn about the
common different types and their
construction with detailed pictures of each.
Ships have various tanks as a part of their
structure. The usage may vary from ballast
purposes to sludge retention. All these tanks
store certain liquids whose level (quantity)
has to measured and checked on a daily basis.
Failure to do so will result in huge
devastation, ranging from a pollution incident
to stability problems. Instrumentation has
now been developed so that manual gauging
is no longer required; crew man hours have
been saved greatly due to remote gauging
techniques. In this article, the different types
of tank level measuring techniques used on
board ships will be discussed.

Gauge
Glass
This is the simplest of all instruments used to
measure the level inside a tank. The gauge
glass has a long tubular glass which extends
from top of the tank to the bottom in length,
usually circular in cross section. The tank has
openings in the top and in the bottom to
extend connections to the circular long tube.

Since the material is usually made of glass, it

is very fragile and should be handled with
extreme care. Some tanks may also be
equipped with plastic gauges. The main dis-
advantage of a plastic gauge is that they
cannot withstand heat and may discolour
soon.
Usually these gauges are equipped with self-
closing or auto shut off arrangements. These
gauges may tend to break at any time, thus
leading to localised flooding of the contained
space. For this reason,there is always a safety
shut off arrangement, usually at the bottom
end of the gauge. These type of gauges are
mostly found on small tanks with water or
diesel oil. Example: fresh water expansion
tanks. The same principle of gauge glass may
extend and can be found on boilers. Boilers
have water level gauge glasses that are
designed to withstand more rigorous working
conditions.

Floats:
Float type level sensors may be of different
types. They may indicate continuous
variation in liquid level or just alarm high or
low level. Floats are also used for filling a
tank when the level drops and stopping filling
when the level reaches optimum. These can
be witnessed in toilet flush mechanisms and
boiler feed tanks.

Most tanks have high and low level float

indicators provided on the tank walls. When
the liquid level in the tank reaches maximum,
the float is lifted up by the rising liquid
surface. The opposite end of the float device
has a magnet which flips another magnet in
the fixed body. The magnet's flipping action
makes or breaks the circuit which causes an
alarm. They also have a provision for testing
the alarm manually.

Pressure Based Level Measurement

The head of available liquid in the tank is
used and the head is converted into level
measurement. As the level inside the tank
varies, the head of liquid and thus the
pressure varies accordingly, and this is used
as reference for indicating the level in the
particular tank. For sensing the pressure
variation inside the tank, a slack diaphragm
pressure sensing device is used. One end of
the diaphragm is connected to the open end of
the tank where atmospheric pressure acts on
it. The other end is connected to the safe
bottom-most portion of the tank, enabling the
liquid in the tank to exert a corresponding
head on the diaphragm. The diaphragm
responds to the difference in pressure, which
moves a needle calibrated to indicate the
level inside the tank.

Bubbler Gauge

This is one of the famous types found in most

of the remote reading gauges. This type is
used usually for highly viscous oils like in
fuel oil tanks and the cargo tanks of product
carriers, etc. Compressed air is admitted at
the top of a small diameter tube which is
fixed vertically inside the tank. The base of
the tube is left open from the tank bottom
surface. When compressed air is admitted
from the tube top, it bubbles out from the
bottom and thus reaches the liquid surface.
The air pressure is dependent on the
hydrostatic head of liquid present in the tank.
This air pressure is measured and calibrated
to indicate the tank level continuously. A 3-
way valve may also be provided to by-pass
the compressed air from the restrictor, thus
allowing blowing off the tube inside the tank
to avoid any deposits.

Ultra-Sonic/Microwave Level Sensor:

These devices use ultrasonic or microwaves
to determine the ullage level of the liquid in
the tank. The device emits microwaves or
ultrasonic sound waves, which hit the surface
of the liquid inside the tank and bounces back
to the transmitter itself. The time taken to
receive the signal back is calculated and thus
ullage of the tank is determined. Main
advantage of this type is there are no moving
parts and mainly used for LNG/LPG tankers
where manual sounding is not possible.

Capacitive Level Sensor:

A capacitor is said to have two plates,
separated by a di-electric medium. For
measuring tank levels, the capacitance probe
acts as a single plate and the tank side wall
acts as the second plate. As the liquid level
inside the tank varies, the potential between
the tank wall and the probe varies
accordingly. Thus causes change in current in
the circuit and thus it is calibrated for
indicating the tank level.
Ship's Engine Room
Top Platform
Explored
Introduction
We have been talking about the various
platforms of the ship engine room and have
discussed about the bottom platform as well
as the middle platform of the engine room
layout. Now it is time to get on to the higher
level and talk about the top platform of the
ship engine room. As usual, there are lots of
tanks, and other paraphernalia on the top
platform as well.

Take a good look at the sketch given below

this section to visualize better about what is
being said here.
Tanks
 ○ Main engine crank case lube oil
tank
○ Hot well / cascade tank

○ Diesel oil settling tank

○ Diesel oil service tank

○ Heavy oil settling tank

○ Heavy oil service tank

○ Mixing column

○ Cylinder lube oil storage tank

○ Jacket cooling water expansion

tank
Pumps
○ sanitary hydrophore pump

○ Fresh water hydrophore pump

○ sludge discharge pump

Auxiliary Machinery

○ Exhaust boiler

○ Incinerator

○ Sewage plant

○ Fresh water hydrophore

○ sanitary hydrophore

○ Engine room over head crane

○ Auxiliary steam condenser

Top Platform Layout

Spare Parts
The top platform contains the spare parts of
main engine and spares for the operation of
the ship including the following.
 ○ Spare piston rod

○ Spare cylinder head

○ Spare cylinder liner

○ Spare propeller

○ Spare tail shaft

○

This section will explain some of the

paraphernalia found at the top platform.

What is an Incinerator?

Burning of waste oil, sludge, cotton waste is

carried out using the incinerator .The waste
oil which is obtained from the scavenge drain
tank, sludge from the purifier and oil water
separator cannot be disposed overboard so the
incinerator is used to burn this oil. Plastic is
not burnt in it because it would cause air
pollution.

What is Hot Well?

Hote Well recollects the steam after the work
is done and it is condensed. Boiler water tank
is known as the hot well because boiler feed
pump takes suction from the hot well and
gives it to the boiler through feed check
valve. It can be called by three different
names, they are:

○ Hot well - because the water

collected is hot
○ Cascade tank - because it collects
the water from the condenser
○ Observation tank - because it is
used for observe for any oil or dirt
entering the system
If any traces of oil are found in the system, it
indicates that there is a crack in the steam
heating line in side the fuel oil tanks. A sight
glass is placed to observe the traces of oil or
dirt present in the system.

If oil is present in the system then it forms a

coating in tubes of the boiler, which may lead
to lesser heat transfer to the water in the
boiler.

What is a Hydrophore System?

It is used to maintain the pressure of the

water supplied to the different parts of the
ship at various heights to keep the constant
presser of water in all lines and at all floors of
the ship.

There are two hydrophore systems used on

board:

○ Fresh water hydrophore system

○ Sanitary hydrophore system

What is the Jacket Cooling Water Expansion
Tank?

Expansion tanks are provided for venting of

gas, air or vapour formed in the jacket
cooling water line, which has to be released.

Expansion tank makes up the losses that

occur due to evaporation in the jacket cooling
space in the engine. The make up water is
provided in the expansion tank. It also
provides the vent to trap any vacuum or
vapour due to evaporation or leakage /cracks
in the closed cycle lines.

Low level alarm is fitted in the expansion

tank to give alarm when the level of the water
reaches the low line due to leakage in the
pipe or cylinder liner break down. Expansion
tank also consists of a sight glass to observe
the water level in the tank.

WorkShop
WORK SHOP is present in the top platform it
contains :

○ Lathe machine

○ Drilling machine

○ Grinding machine

○ Milling machine

○ Working bench
 ○ Bench vice
These machines are normally used for fitting
and maintenance purposes and not for
production obviously.

List of Stores
○ Engine room consumable store

○ Engine spare store

○ Electric store

○ Ordinary tools store

Layout Of Middle
Level Of Engine
Room
Introduction
We learned about the bottom-most platform's
engine room design and layout, as well as the
many machineries and equipment that can be
found there. Now we'll take a step forward
(or rather upward) and head over to the next
platform, or the middle tier of the engine
room, to see what we can find there.

At this point, I must emphasise that, while

this will give you a rough notion of the
equipment layout, it is not a hard and fast rule
that cannot be changed. As a result, you
might come across certain apparatus or
equipment in a different site or location than
described in these pages. This is because
there are so many various types of ships, each
with its own set of uses, sizes, and other
characteristics, that it is impossible to
generalise everything about all of them.

You can expected to find the following

pumps on the middle platform of the ship's
engine room:

○ Main engine booster pump

○ Boiler feed pump

○ Fresh water condenser pump

○ Maine engine fuel pumps

Coolers

○ Jacket cooling water cooler

○ Main lube oil cooler

○ Fresh water generator cooler

Heaters
 ○ Purifier steam heater

○ Main engine fuel oil heater

Auxiliary Machinery
The following auxiliary machinery can be
expected to be found at the middle level of
the engine room

○ Main air compressor

○ Auxiliary / topping air

compressor
○ Emergency air compressor.

○ Control air compressor

○ Dehumidifier

○ Fresh water generator

○ Auxiliary air blower for main

engine.
○ Auxiliary generators / alternators.
 ○ Heavy oil purifier

○ Diesel oil purifier

Middle Platform Sketch

Reasons for Location

Sometimes the location of a particular
machinery or equipment is not merely due to
aesthetic or design reasons but there might be
some operational features associated with the
specific location. Given below is a list of
reasons why some equipment is found at the
middle platform

Why generators are provided at the middle

platform?

Generator are provided at the middle platform

because in the extreme situation of flooding
of bottom platform. immediate shutdown of
the power supply or black out condition can
be avoided.

Why Fresh Water Generator is located at the

middle platform?

For normal steam generation the temperature

is equal to the boiling point of water that is at
100

o c at atmospheric pressure. In fresh water

generator the temperature to which the sea
water is heated is lower than that but because
of it being at low pressure, the steam is
generated. When the pressure is reduced, the
boiling point of water also reduced; this is the
basic principle behind the fresh water
generator.
Normally the waste heat is used to heat water
in the fresh water generator. Waste heat from
the jacket cooling water or steam line can be
connected for the purpose. If the fresh water
is generated is located at the bottom platform,
there would be a back pressure of sea water
and sufficient vacuum will not be created.
Hence the reason for it to be placed at the
middle platform.
Why lube oil & heavy oil heaters are
provided?

Heavy oil and lube oil is heated before

entering the purifier for the effective
purification of the oil, and since the purifiers
are located at the middle tier, the heaters have
to be there.

Air Bottles
Main air bottles contain air at a pressure of
(25 -30 )kg/cm2. These bottles provide air for
the starting of main engine. Compressed air
from the air bottle is taken and pressure
reduced to (6-8) kg/cm2 by the pressure
reducing valve and this air is used for control
and service purposes. As per regulations, the
air in one of the main air bottle with other air
bottle closed and with out the compressor
running should be enough to give at least 12
continuous KICKS / MOVEMENTS to the
main engine .

Mainly vertical air bottles are used for less

space consumption.
Auxiliary air bottles are used for the auxiliary
engines.

Emergency air bottle is used to start the

emergency generator in case of power failure
and gives control air for the QCV (quick
closing valve).
Marine Generators -
Starting Checks &
Procedure
Starting of generator engine
Starting of an engine from "stop" state is
something which needs to be done with care,
especially if the interval of starting is
sufficiently long. The following is a checklist
of all the checks which ideally need to be
carried out before starting the generator. In
actual practice sometimes the engineers
might take some of these for granted and
skip, but it is advisable not to indulge in such
a practice. Infact these checks are generic for
any four stroke engine starting process

1. Check the turbocharger sump oil

level, governor, alternator, forward
and aft lube oil levels, and diesel oil
level in service tank
2. Open the indicator cock

3. Prime the lube oil to all parts by

hand pump or by motor driven
priming pump
4. Ensure that all jacket cooler
valves, lube oil cooler valves, air
cooler valves should be in open
position
5. With use of the Turning bar turn
the fly wheel and check for any
resistance on the bottom end bearing
and check any water / fuel coming
out through indicator cocks
6. While turning engine, check all
visible lube oil points are lubricated
7. Remove the turning bar from fly
wheel and put in the place
8. Drain the auxiliary air bottle
9. Blow through engine (ie: by
turning engine with air). In order to
ensure that no water is inside
combustion chamber if it is present it
may cause water hammering
10.Close the indicator cocks and pull
lever from stop to start
11. When the needle in RPM
indicator deflects to some value of
(0-25 rpm) put the lever in run
condition
12. The engine will run on fuel oil
once the generator picks up the rated
speed
13. Put generator on load by closing
air circuit breaker
14. For checking the alternator fore
and aft bearing lube oil level by
opening oil plug in the alternator and
the ring bearing while rotating splash
 lube oil from the sump can be seen
15. In order to synchronize the
incoming generator with running
generator syncroscope method/dark
lamp method is used
16.

Starting of generator

Checks to be made while running

Once the generator has actually started to run,
there are several checks which must be
performed before it is left on its own to
continue running. These checks pertain to
verifying various parameters related to lube
oil levels, temperatures and so forth. Given
below is a brief checklist related to the same.

Lube oil checks

 1. Sump lube oil level

2. Governor lube oil level

3. Rocker arm lube oil level

4. Alternator forward and aft bearing

lube oil level
5. Lube oil in turbine & blower side
of turbo charger
Temperature checks

6. Exhaust gas temperature

7. Turbocharger (inlet-outlet)
temperature
8. Booster air inlet temperature
Cooler temperatures

9. Cooling sea water (inlet - out let)

temperature in cooler
10. Jacket cooling water (inlet -
 outlet) temperature
11. Air cooler (inlet -outlet)
temperature
12.

Safety devices
Once the above mentioned parameters have
been checked and found within normal range,
it is safe to continue running the generator.
Yet a fault can develop even at a later stage,
so for this very purpose various trips and
alarms are situated on the generators. An
alarm gives the signal of an impeding danger
and requires quick action while a trip actually
trips the generator immediately because of
the nature of the fault.

The various trips and alarms are mentioned as

follows

13. Alternator bearing low oil level

alarm & trip
14. Alternator bearing high
temperature lube oil alarm &trip
15. Low sump oil level alarm and trip

16. Lube low oil pressure alarm and

trip
17. Reverse current trip

18. Over speed trip

19. Over load trip

20. High and low frequency trip

21. Jacket cooling water low pressure

alarm
Treatment of Marine
Main Diesel Engine
Fuel and Lube Oils
Ships marine diesel engines run on heavy fuel
oil (HFO) nowadays a low sulfur content, or
marine diesel oil (MDO)The lube-oil coats
the revolving and reciprocating components
dissipating the heat caused by friction. It is
imperative that these systems have adequate
centrifuge and filtration systems.
The supply of good quality low sulfur heavy
fuel oil is essential to the marine diesel
engine combustion process.

Likewise the lubricating oil should be of the

correct grade and viscosity when supplied to
the different reciprocating and revolving
components of the main engine. It is very
important that the correct treatment of marine
main diesel engine fuel and lube-oils is
carried out. This is achieved aboard ship by
maintaining the optimum temperatures and
pressures of both the fuel and lube oil through
the use of pumps, heaters, and coolers.

Cleanliness is of utmost importance as is the

regular maintenance and inspection of the
lube and fuel oil cleaning components
consisting of centrifuges and filters.

In the following sections, these operations

will be examined, including the role of the
ships watch keeping engineer in maintaining
the optimum running conditions of the fuel
and lube oil systems.

The Operation of the Centrifuges

There are several types of centrifuges used to
remove water and particles from the fuel and
lube oil; the most popular being the disc type
as made by DeLaval rotating at 7000 revs
and, the tubular type by Sharples which
rotates at 15000 revs. However we shall look
at the disc bowl type which is suitable for
marine engine applications.

The centrifuges can be located close to where

they are needed or kept together in a
centrifuge room. I prefer them to be located
in their own room which allows room for
maintenance tools, a bench and cleaning
troughs, although it can get pretty warm in
the centrifuge room as the oil heaters are
contained there as well.

Anyway the dirty heavy fuel oil is drawn

from the bunkers, passing through several
screens and a heater. It then enters centrifuge
inlet pipe located at the centre of the top of
the upper circular cover. Fresh water is also
be supplied through a similar inlet and used
to form a seal inside the centrifuge bowl. If a
seal is not formed, oil will flow out of the
water/sludge outlet.

The centrifuge operates by centrifugal force,

the disc assembly spinning round at high
revolutions and throwing the water and
particles to the outside where they gather in a
layer on the inside of the bowl, liquid sludge
and water draining away from the lower
centrifuge outlet to the sludge tank. The clean
fuel oil is forced up the centre bore of the
discs exiting at the top ring. It drains from
here into the upper centrifuge outlet from
where the cleaned oil is piped to the settling
or day tanks ready to be supplied via the main
fuel pump and filters, up to the main engine
fuel pumps and injectors.

A sketch of the fuel oil system is shown

below.
The lube oil is subjected to the same
treatment except that it is drawn from the
main engine sump and heated before entering
the top of the centrifuge. The heater thins the
oil making it more amenable to centrifuging.
After cleaning it is returned to the main
engine sump, in a closed circuit 24 hour
constant operation.

A sketch of a typical lube oil system is shown

below.
Oil Filters and Screens
Another very important part in maintaining a
clean oil supply is the use of a good set of
filters on the fuel and lube oil systems.

The fuel oil bunkers have steam heating coils

which keep the heavy oil viscous and from
here it is drawn through a couple of medium
and fine mesh screens through the fuel oil
heaters, and through the centrifuge. The clean
oil is stored in the settling or day tank being
drawn out by the transfer pump which has
filters on either the suction or discharge
pipework or both.

The lubricating oil is drawn from the sump by

the lube oil circulating pump through a set of
duplex filters. It is discharged by the pump
through a similar set of discharge filters and
the main engine lube oil tube cooler, which
uses seawater to cool the oil. The cooled,
filtered oil is then supplied under pressure to
the main engine crankshaft bearings,
crosshead bearings and guides before being
returned back to the sump.

Screens, Filters and Centrifuge

Maintenance
Screens

The screens can be isolated and removed for

cleaning. This can be carried out in the
centrifuge room and using paraffin or diesel
oil to clean the dirt from the mesh.
Filters

Duplex oil filters can be changed over,

isolated and cleaned using paraffin or diesel
and blown dry with compressed air before
assembly. These filters will be very hot –
give them time to cool down before stripping
them.

Centrifuge Maintenance

1. Ensure the power to the centrifuge

is switched off; I used to isolate the
power from the control box as well to
avoid accidental starting of the drive
motor.
2. Remove the bowl cover and
remove the disc assembly from the
centrifuge bowl. This unit is quite
heavy and hard to grip but there is
usually a compact lifting device
supplied with the centrifuge
maintenance tools for this purpose.
3. Use the C spanner to unlock the
disc assembly
4. The individual discs can now be
released from the assembly and
cleaned with paraffin or diesel in a
suitable bucket or trough and well
dried.
5. The stainless steel conical discs
are uniquely numbered so they can
be reassembled in the correct order,
this is important as the holes in the
discs must line up.
6. The sludge can then be scraped
from inside surface of the centrifuge
bowl and the bowl washed and dried.
7. Everything is then reassembled,
taking care with gaskets and disc
securing devices.
8. Reinstate power supply and run
up the centrifuge, apply a water seal
 and introduce oil to be centrifuged.
A sketch of a typical centrifuge is shown
below.

Summary
Fuel and lube oils are the lifeblood of the
marine diesel engine and it is imperative that
the correct grade of oils are supplied to the
ships bunkers and lube oil sumps. Both oils
must be maintained in a clean condition being
pumped and circulated at the correct
temperature and pressure to the relevant
engine components, ensuring maximum
engine efficiency.

This is achieved through the use of various

mesh screens, filters and centrifuges which
remove particles and water from the oil.

Watchkeeping engineers maintain the filters

and centrifuges and also ensure through the
adjustment of heaters and coolers that the oils
are kept at their recommended optimum
values.
Marine Boiler
Auxiliaries, Fixtures
and Fittings
Marine boilers auxiliaries include the boiler
control system, forced draught fans, de-
superheater, fuel oil pumps, heaters and
filters, exhaust gas air and feedwater heaters.
Fixtures and fittings consist of steam safety
valves, feed control valves level glasses,
sootblowers and blowdown valves.
There are many different types of marine
boilers, however, they have all got one thing
in common their auxiliary components, and
their fixtures and fittings. These form an
equally important function as the boiler just
wouldn’t operate efficiently without any one
of them.

This article follows on from ‘Marine Boilers’

and I have written it in a similar manner;
listing the different types of boilers
auxiliaries with their function and location
and shown in an accompanying sketch.

Please refer to the sketch as

required

Combustion Air system

1. Forced Draught Fans

These are centrifugal fans and supply

combustion air under pressure to the furnace,
via the air heater.

2. Combustion Air Heater

This is a heat exchanger placed in the path of

the exiting furnace exhaust gasses it is
normally rectangular having horizontal banks
of tubes over which the hot gasses pass. This
heat is transferred to the air passing through
the tubes increasing its temperature and, the
efficiency of combustion in the furnace.

3. Furnace Air Register

This is a circular ducting which into which
the burner is fitted. It is fixed to the furnace
front and supplied with the combustion air
from the fans. It has dampers and diverting
plates fitted internally, to effectively swirl the
heated air into the furnace combustion
chamber along with the oil from the burner.

Feedwater System
4. Economiser

This is another heat exchanger which makes

use of the hot boiler furnace exhaust gasses as
they head up the flue. The economiser has a
bank of tubes through which the feedwater is
pumped under very high pressure by the
boiler water feed water. The hot gasses pass
on the outside of the tubes and a soot-blower
may be fitted to blow the accumulation of
soot from the tubes. A disadvantage is that
condensation of the flue gasses can lead to
acid eroding tubes and casing, the correct
choice of materials for these components is
imperative i.e. stainless steel used.
5. Main Feed Water Check Valve

This is a screw-down non return valve and is

fitted to the feedwater inlet pipe to the boiler,
normally being full open. A wee aside to this;
I was a young lad sitting part A of my
Second’s Tickets in the Board of Trade
Office in Belfast in the late sixties. I had got
about half way through the drawing paper
which was- yes a boiler check valve, when I
discovered to my horror that I had chosen a
wrong scale and was about to run off the
paper. Just then a loud alarm sounded,
everybody was evacuated to a safe area
outside as there was a bomb alert in the
building.

Great I thought, we will have to start over

again when we get back in and this time I will
get the scale right! Alas; it was a false alarm
and we were back inside in ten minutes,
being instructed to carry on where we left off.
Needless to say I had to resit the drawing part
of my tickets!

Anyway the check valve acts as an isolating

valve if working on the feedwater line with
furnace shutdown. Non-return or no – always
shut it tight!

6. Feedwater Control Valve

This is an automatic valve situated between

the economiser and the main check valve. It
controls the level of water in the boiler,
opening and closing as required.

Fuel Oil System

7. Fuel oil Pump

The fuel oil pump extracts the heavy fuel oil

from the fuel oil bunker tank. This tank
usually has steam heating coils inside it to
heat the oil and raise its viscosity for
pumping. The pump discharges the oil to the
furnace burners through a system of filters
and heaters.

8. Fuel oil strainers, suction and discharge

filters.

The strainers are placed before the suction

filter and remove any large globules of oil.
There is a set of duplex filters before and
after the fuel oil pump. These can be easily
taken of line for the required frequent
cleaning.

9. Fuel oil Heater

From the pump the oil passes through the

discharge filter and on to fuel oil heater,
usually a vessel with coils through which the
steam passes and heats the oil to atomising
temperature. From the heater the oil is
pumped under pressure to the burner.

10. Fuel oil Burner

The oil is now at the correct temperature and

pressure for efficient atomisation which takes
place at the end of the fuel oil burner, inside
the furnace. The oil burner is normally
located at the centre of the combustion air
register so that atomisation takes place with
the introduction of the combustion air
ensuring a good air/fuel ratio.
Steam System
11. Steam Superheater

The steam passes from the top of the steam

drum, back into the boiler where it passes
through a superheater. The superheater is
normally slung from the boiler drum,
between the banks of water tubes and in the
path of the furnace exhaust gasses. The
gasses heat the steam passing through the
superheater removing any moisture and
increasing its temperature and pressure,
imperative to the supply to the main turbine

12. De-superheater

As the main turbine requires superheated

steam, most auxiliary turbines require de-
superheated steam e.g. main power
generators, boiler feed pumps, and cargo
pumps on oil tankers. Desuperheated steam is
produced by spraying hot water through
single or multiple sprays into the superheated
steam, either in a pressure vessel or in a
section of sleeved pipe. De-superheated
steam can also used at reduced pressure for
bunker heating, fuel oil heating,
accommodation heating, deck and galley
steam.

Sootblowers
13. Sootblowers

The use of cheap heavy fuel oil to fire the

boilers along with incorrect air/fuel ratios
during maneuvering inevitably leads to the
outside of the water tubes becoming laden
with soot. To remove the soot, regular
cleaning is required and this is executed by
the use of a sootblower. These consist of long
perforated pipes, spanning the length of the
tube bundles and located between them at
spaced intervals. The pipes are rotated by a
motor and as they rotate and either steam,
superheated steam, or compressed air is
discharged through the nozzles blowing the
soot from the pipes. The air heater and
economiser can also have sootblowers.

Safety Valves
14. Steam drum safety valves

These fitted to the steam drum outlet header,

the Board of Trade stipulating the fitting of
two safety valves, should one fail to lift.

15. Superheater safety valve

There is normally only one superheater safety

valve, situated on the main engine steam
supply outlet header.

The superheater safety valves should always

be set to lift before the main drum safety
valves, this prevents the superheater coils
from becoming damaged due to lack of steam
flow. (We were always told that If the drum
valve lifted first, the steam would disappear
up the flue rather than go through the
superheater - Comments?)

Boiler Automatic Control Panel

Bailey Control Board

Most of the above boiler auxiliaries are

controlled by the Bailey board, an invention
by an American called E.G. Bailey in 1916.

The board controls the air/fuel input, boiler

feed water supply, steam flow temperature
and pressures. It also records all this activity
over a twenty-four hour period on circular
chart recorders.

The boiler is usually controlled manually

when on standby entering and leaving port.
Ship's Boiler Steam
Supply for
Accommodation and
Deck Equipment
Ships boiler steam supply for accommodation
and deck equipment must be reduced in
pressure before use. It is then used in the
accommodation for heating and, by the galley
for steam cleaning worktops / cooking
utensils. Steam is also supplied to the deck to
drive winches and anchor windlasses.
When I was a young engineer at sea serving
on oil tankers; the mate on the bridge would
phone down to the engine room and request
steam on deck. This was used to drive the
cable winches, anchor windlass steam engine,
and supply the Butterworth Pump when tank-
cleaning.
Steam is also supplied to the accommodation
for heating and galley use; in both cases
under reduced temperature and pressure.

Nowadays, steam is still supplied the

accommodation and galley, but windlasses
and winches are normally electric or
hydraulically driven, depending on the type
of vessel.

The following sections examine the use of

steam; beginning with an overview of its
supply and return system.

Steam - Supply and Return Overview.

Ships boilers operate at high pressure and
temperatures, often supplying superheated
steam to the main engines. Therefore the
steam pressure has to be decreased and this is
achieved by passing it through a number of
pressure reducing valves and de-
superheating if required. The de-superheater
is a pressure vessel where condensate is
sprayed into the superheated steam flowing
through it, converting the superheated steam
to saturated steam. The de-superheater is
located in the ships boiler room.

When steam is required on deck; the drains

on the steam driven components and supply
piping on deck are opened and all steam traps
checked to be operating correctly. Only then
is the steam to deck isolating valve in the
engineroom very slowly opened. This is
particularly important after the system has
been shut down during a long sea voyage and
will prevent damage to the pipes and flange
gaskets due to rapid thermal expansion and
water hammer.

Steam is supplied to the galley for cooking

and hot water and also supplied to and a heat
exchanger for the accommodation.

A steam hot water calorifier in the engine

room provides domestic hot water to the
accommodation.

The steam from these components and

functions is returned through piping back the
engineroom auxiliary steam condenser. This
is cooled by seawater and the resultant
condensate returned to the boiler feed system.

This condensate from the auxiliary condenser

is regularly tested for oxygen and acids
content, and an on-line salinometer is
normally fitted which dumps the condensate
if the salt ppm is too high. These feedwater
contaminates would corrode the insides of the
boiler water tubes if allowed to enter the
boiler water system. A sketch of an auxiliary
condenser is shown below.
Steam Windlass
The windlass is used to raise or lower the
ships anchor and is located on the foc’sle
head. It has a normal steam engine which
drives a single or dual horizontally mounted
notched wheel known as gypsies. The
notches in the wheels are forged or moulded
to suit the chain links size and profile exactly
to ensure efficient operation and prevent the
chains from jumping off.There is also a
gearbox and manual brake incorporated in the
windlass operation.

Before starting the windlass should be

thoroughly warmed through with all the
relevant steam drains open. The operating
hand-wheel which admits the steam to the
windlass should be slowly rotated until the
strain is taken, then further opened as the
anchor chain is drawn in or lowered. A sketch
of a twin drum steam windlass is shown
below.
Galley Steam Supply
I have sailed with a few ships cooks who
preferred cooking using steam ovens and
steamers. Nowadays of course electric ovens
are the norm, but I believe steam is still
supplied to the galley for water heating and
degreasing the galley deck and bulkheads.

Accommodation
Heating
The steam supplies a heat exchanger through
which air is blown and heated. This hot air is
then circulated round the cabins and
alleyways by a fan returning to the heat
exchanger. The temperature is controlled by
several instruments, some fitted to the
individual cabins or at the exchanger hot air
outlet.

The hot air ducting also doubles up as the air

condition supply ducting when the A/C is
operating.

A typical steam heater is shown below

Steam on Deck
So there we have it, steam on deck! Sadly
gone out of fashion, but in its day provided a
very simple, trouble-free means of operating
the deck machinery and a joy to behold and
work on. It was used for tank-cleaning on the
oil tankers, being sprayed around the
internals of the tank by a Butterworth Pump
the hot steam washing the oil from the tank
sides.
Steam is also supplied to an air heater used to
heat the accommodation and to the galley for
cooking and steam cleaning the stainless
working surfaces and equipment.

The steam returns from these systems to an

auxiliary condenser in the engine room where
it is condensed and pumped to the boiler feed
system.

A steam calorifier in the engine heats the

domestic water for the accommodation
showers etc.
Coastal and Marine
Environment
Concepts and
Significances
Oceanography is the investigation of features
found in coastal water. It extends from
shallow estuaries to deep oceans, everywhere
sea water can be found. This involves a broad
scope of issues, beginning with the physical
aspects of coastal dynamics and coastal
sedimentation to the seafloor’s geology and
ecosystems comprised by marine life.
Consequently, the study of the ocean is
always a challenging and intriguing process
when considering its size and global expanse.
Features of oceans are complex and challenge
for human beings to comprehend. All life and
climatic changes depend on ocean dynamic
fluctuations. There is no doubt that oceans are
important to life on this planet. It is not easy
to understand oceans because there are many
factors which control their features. Scientists
cannot study these factors individually as this
will deliver imperfect information. For
example, the chemical components of water
shape the nature of which organisms inhabit
the ocean. Consecutively, marine organisms
supply deposits to shape the ocean floor’s
geology.
Subdisciplines of oceanography
There are four major sub-disciplines of
oceanography. These broader subjects are
(i)marine chemistry,
(ii) marine geology,
(iii) marine biology and
(iv) physical oceanography.

MARINE CHEMISTRY
This is the examination of oceanic chemistry.
With regard to this, the ocean contains
practically all the element which exist in the
periodic table. Therefore, the dynamic
changes of these chemical elements can be
studied within the Earth’s oceans. Scientists
study the dynamic cycling of these elements
in both oceans and adjacent land. In addition,
scientists identify advanced cycles - known as
a biogeochemical cycles, the cycling of
substances or substance turnover. These are
considered routes by which a chemical
substances interchanges in the biosphere (i.e.,
biotic and lithosphere), atmosphere and
hydrosphere (i.e., abiotic partitions of the
Earth [3]).The term "biogeochemical"
expresses the involvement of biological,
geological and chemical factors in ocean
studies. For instance, the distribution of
carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus,
calcium and water, etc., within the physical
and biological system – this is known as a
biogeochemical cycle [3].
MARINE GEOLOGY
Marine geology studies the early and recent
structure of the ocean floor. It also explores
the heritage of the dynamic changes and the
development of underwater features within
the landscape. Marine geology
correspondingly investigates the chemical
and physical properties of ocean floor
sediments and rocks. In addition, it implies
geochemical, geophysical, sedimentological
and paleontological examination of the ocean
floor and coastal zones. Thus, marine geology
has extremely robust bonds to physical
oceanography (e.g., alongshore currents
which are induced because the oblique wave
propagation can cause sediment transport
along coastal waters [9]).The study of the
ocean floor is a corner stone to predicate the
Earth’s climate changes. The investigation of
climate and weather patterns over hundreds
of millions of years is a study known as
paleoclimatology - under ocean floor
sediments can be collected using resolution
drills taking sediment-core samples[7, 9].
MARINE BIOLOGY
Marine biology investigates exactly how
every one of the sub-fields of oceanography
operate either discretely or simultaneously to
affect the circulation of animals and marine
plants along with what purpose marine
organisms perform relative to their
environment. Marine biology additionally
emphasizes the way species fit with
conservational fluctuations (e.g., increased
water temperature, artificial and natural
instabilities, and pollution). A natural
turbulence can be caused by the explosion of
an underwater volcano or a hurricane, whilst
an oil spill and overfishing represent an
artificial disturbance [9, 11].
Marine biotechnology is a new technology
which is expanding the opportunity to
investigate in which way marine resources
can be expended to develop medical industry,
ecological inventions, and food technology.

PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY
Physical oceanography models the dynamic
relationship between the ocean’s physical
properties, the atmosphere, and the coast and
seafloor. The ocean’s physical properties
include temperature, salinity, and density
variations. The ocean’s dynamic components
are waves, current, and tides. Physical
oceanographers additionally investigate the
manner by which the ocean interacts with the
Earth’s atmosphere to generate climate and
weather systems [2, 7, 12]. Under this
circumstance, physical oceanography theories
and models must extremely be instigated to
investigate the mystery of flight MH370 [1,
17]. The observational procedures which are
taught to undergraduates of physical
oceanography do not work in this case.
Indeed, standard and modified models are
required to verify the information from the
Inmarsat satellite. In fact, there are many
researchers who just use physical
oceanography models and do not really
understand how the models operate. Physical
oceanography scientists who have been
correctly trained have deep background
knowledge of physics, mathematics,
numerical analysis, finite element models,
and modelling and can verify information
delivered by any source [6]. To date, some
marine institutes with a low quality of
physical oceanography research are unable to
explain, scientifically, how flight MH370
vanished in the southern Indian Ocean. It is
believed that researchers are not even able to
solve the 1-D mathematical coastal water
flow equation! In addition, these researchers
are blind users of software, and in situ ocean
observations in the water territories without
perfect understanding of the principle
theories.

Ocean data observations do not represent the

end work of scientists - they need to go
beyond in situ data collection by developing
models and solving boundary condition
problems. For instance, the turbulent water
flow throughout the southern top of Africa -
known as the Agulhas Current - is a portion
of a superior “ocean conveyor belt” which
distributes the water across the globe. The
Agulhas Current is based on currents, wind,
and water density changes. Scientists have
defined a new finding, named the Agulhas
leakage. This represents the increments of
water flow from the southern Indian Ocean
into the Atlantic Ocean. It may well be that
flight MH370 debris moved to the Atlantic
Ocean through the Agulhas leakage [7,
8].Modern physical oceanography studies
predict that the ocean conveyor belt will be
slow down, something which could cause
dramatic changes to weather and climate
patterns, and consequently sea level rise due
to the melting of ice caps. This melting could
reduce the salinity of ocean water and change
its biogeochemical matrix.
The significance of oceanography
and coastal studies
The main question which can of course be
raised is why ocean and coastal studies are
important to our lives? This book covers
some significant aspects of coastal studies.
There are countless benefits to be gained
from coastal studies which may represent
solutions to many economic crises around the
world. Due to the huge coverage of the
oceans, which are approximately 70% of the
Earth’s surface, the ocean plays a tremendous
role for transportation, natural resources,
weather and climate, biodiversity, and the
economy[2, 8].
TRANSPORTATION
Cities which are located on the coast and
have harbors always have great benefits,
however, they are exposed to pollution from
time to time [2, 7].
NATURAL RESOURCES
The ocean floor is rich in oil and natural
gases - not only for benthic organisms. The
ocean floor and continental shelf contains
numerous minerals. However, 50% of nations
cannot discover the wealth of resources
stored in their continental shelves and ocean
floors [2, 8, 11].
WEATHER AND CLIMATE
The oceans interact in tandem with the
atmosphere and influence worldwide climate
and weather. Whilst the air circulates over the
warm ocean, it escalates because of warming.
When it cools, the condensation induces
precipitation. For instance, the Gulf Stream,
synchronized withwarm air flowing toward
northern Europe, makes winters tolerable [5,
12, 16].
BIODIVERSITY
A wide number of discrete species of
organisms have an extraordinary biodiversity
due to the existence of salt marshes, coral
reefs, estuaries, seagrass beds, and mangrove
[15]. The brackish water of estuaries is key
for fish and others marine organisms.
Furthermore, coral reefs sustain, along with
estuaries, approximately 75% of living
marine organisms and fish. With this regard,
reefs and estuaries represent shelter for fish
because of the accumulation of food and
nutrients both required for feeding and
nursing [14]. Moreover, birds reside along the
sandy shores which represent a source of
food – e.g., burrowing worms and fiddler
crabs [4, 5, 8, 11, 13].
ECONOMY
The significance of the ocean cannot be
deliberated easily. Economic income is a
function of shipping, marine biomedical
products, fish industries, and oil and gas
mining. Furthermore, beautiful beaches and
islands are a corner stone for income as they
attract a large number of tourists. In general
coastal studies are important to policy
makers, allowing them to minimize the
effects of marine pollution to ecologically
sensitive zones along the shorelines. Hence,
pollution-free zones will attract more tourists
and boost national economies [8].
COASTAL ENGINEERING
Coastal engineers also required information
about ocean and coastal dynamics before
handing out offshore construction contracts.
Furthermore, coastal studies can sustain
shoreline changes and assist decision-makers
in understanding the mechanisms of sediment
transport in order to avoid erosion and
sedimentation problems. In addition,
information about salinity and temperature
can be used to avoid the problem of corrosion
to ships, pipelines, and coastal structures
containing iron [3, 8].
Outline of this book
This book examines the impact of physical
oceanography parameters on several
applications which range from mercury
circulation, corrosion due to salinity, and
coastal sedimentation to monitoring the
coastal environment using geographical
information systems (GIS) and remote
sensing. Furthermore, the marine ecology
study in this book covers a broad spectrum of
clues about the physico-chemical properties
of coastal waters. The significance of this
study is the integration between different
aspects of oceanography with wind monsoon
pattern changes. Consequently, salinity and
phytoplankton are the main factors that
impact zooplankton growth and proliferation
[10,11]. Most of the work represented in this
book is based on accurate in-situ
observationIndeed, the British National
Antarctic Expedition which is known as the
Discovery Expedition spent three years
cruising across the world’s oceans
documenting significant ground information
regarding biology, zoology, geology,
meteorology, and magnetism. Furthermore,
the expedition discovered the existence of the
only snow-free Antarctic valleys. This book
contains 16 chapters, as follows:

[Geological Evolution of Coastal and

Marine Environments off the Campania
Continental Shelf Through Marine
Geological Mapping - The Example of the
Cilento Promontory]. This chapter presents
the geological evolution of coastal and
marine environments offshore the Cilento
Promontory, Italy, through marine geological
mapping.

[Engineering Tools for the Estimation of

Dredging- Induced Sediment Resuspension
and Coastal Environmental Management].
This chapter introduces predictive techniques
used to estimate the suspended solid
concentration arising from dredges with
different mechanisms of sediment release and
assesses the spatial and temporal variability
of the resulting plume in estuarine and coastal
areas.

[Neo-tectonic Movement in the Pearl

River Delta (PRD) Region of China and Its
Effects on the Coastal Sedimentary
Environment]. This chapter presents the
Late Quaternary neo-tectonic movement in
the Pearl River Delta (PRD) region of China
and its effects on the coastal sedimentary
environment. Furthermore, it discusses the
evolution of the PRD formation and its
controlling factors on the coastal sedimentary
environment.

[Review of Mercury Circulation Changes

in the Coastal Zone of Southern Baltic
Sea].This chapter reviews how a surge in
mercury concentration in marine organisms is
not always linked to an increased inflow of
anthropogenic mercury, directly influenced
by humans, but may also be related to climate
change occurring in a given area, the type of
catchment, as well as to the predominance of
either marine or terrestrial air masses.

[Computatonal Analysis of System and

Design Parameters of Electrodeposition for
Marine Applications]. This chapter
investigates marine corrosion in coastal
water. In addition, it also addresses factors
which induce marine corrosion.

[Fabrication and Properties of Zinc

Composite Coatingsfor Mitigation of
Corrosion in Coastal and Marine Zone.]
This chapter shows how electrodeposited zinc
composite coatings have high potential to
serve as protective films against corrosion for
components and pieces that are made of mild
steel in coastal and marine environments.
 [Dynamic Characterization of Open-
ended Pipe Piles in Marine Environment].
This chapter introduces experimental
investigations used to study dynamically
characterized open-ended pipe piles in the
marine environment.
This chapter investigates the abundance,
distribution, and bioavailability of major and
trace elements in the surface sediments of the
Cai River estuary, Russia.

[Stable Isotope Techniques to Address

Coastal Marine Pollution]. This chapter
explores stable isotopes of carbon (δ13C),
sulfur (δ34S), oxygen (δ18O), hydrogen (δ2H),
nitrogen (δ15N), and a radioactive isotope of
hydrogen (tritium) in order to study coastal
pollution. This is new approach is compared
to classic methods, such as heavy metals.

[Investigation of Po-210 and Heavy Metal

Concentration in Seafood Due to Coal
Burning – Case Study in Malaysia]. This
chapter investigates the level of Po-210 and
heavy metals in marine organisms from the
coastal area of Kapar and makes comparisons
with other places around the world.

[Atmospheric Pollution Causes

Deterioration of Sweeteners of Treats and
Decreases Competitiveness in the Food
Industry of Coastal Baja California,
Mexico]. This chapter presents the impact of
atmospheric pollution on the food industry
along the coastal zone of Mexico.

[Depositional Environment of
Phosphorites of the Sonrai Basin, Lalitpur
District, Uttar Pradesh, India]. This
chapters evaluates the governing factors
involved during the process of phosphorite
formation, and deposition. In addition, it
investigates the marine mineralogy and
chemistry of the various rocks.
[Management of Marine Protected Zones –
Case Study of Bahrain, Arabian Gulf].This
chapter explores the ecological and legal
contexts of marine protected areas (MPAs) in
Bahrain, and evaluates their effectiveness.

[Monitoring the Coastal Environment

Using Remote Sensing and GIS
Techniques].This is only the chapter in this
book which involves remote sensing and GIS
techniques in order to monitor the coastal
environment.

[Human History of Maritime Exploitation

and Adaptation Process to Coastal and
Marine Environments – A View from the
Case of Wallacea and the Pacific]. This
chapter investigates the historical maritime
exploitation and adaption of the
environmental coastal zone.

Troubleshooting
Marine Freshwater
Generators
A freshwater generator is a vital machinery system used on
board. It should only be operated by an experienced and
trained technician. The technician should carefully study the
instruction manual provided by the manufacturer to fully
understand the working of the fresh water generator before
carrying out maintenance, repair or trying to troubleshoot the
equipment.

The maintenance schedule should be followed and checked

regularly to avoid any unfortunate circumstances and ensure
the smooth operation of the fresh water generator.

Precautions to be taken while operating

Fresh Water Generators
1. While operating the freshwater distillate pump for the first
time, the distillate present should be discharged overboard
the ship for a minimum of 30 minutes.

2. Fresh Water Generators should be stopped

before the ship comes close to land, port or a
river mouth. This is because the seawater in
such locations may be contaminated with
bacteria which can get mixed in the distillate
generated by the machinery. There is hence a
high chance that the Fresh Water Generator
malfunctions when the ship is in the dirty sea.
3. The bottom blow valve should not be opened to restore
atmospheric pressure in the evaporator. If this is done,
seawater being used in the heater may be blown up and
damage the deflector plates and other parts of the Fresh
Water Generator.

4. For testing leakage in the evaporator, the vacuum gauge

should be removed, or the main valve should be fully closed.

5. Before carrying out cleaning operations, the technician

should carefully read and follow instructions as stated in the
manuals provided by the manufacturer.

6. During cleaning and rinsing of the Fresh Water Generator,

steam should not be used as the inside surface of the
evaporator is covered with a coating material which can get
ruined under the action of steam.

7. This coating material should be handled with a lot of care

and should be washed off immediately if it comes in contact
with skin.

8. To avoid leakages, the bolts securing the tube plates

should not be removed or loosened.

9. The Fresh Water Generator should not be heated, and

welding by an open flame has to be avoided to protect the
coating present on the inside surfaces of the Fresh Water
Generator.

10. To move the Fresh Water Generator from one place to

another, the lifting holes present on the top cover should be
used with wires of sufficient weight carrying capacity as
specified in the assembly outline drawings present onboard.

11. The Fresh Water Generator can be damaged if it is run

with a valve or cock in closed position installed on the steam
drain outlet line. Hence these should not be incorporated on
the outlet steam drain line.

The inlet of the ejector pump should always

be filled with sea water.

Common Problems Faced in Fresh Water

Generators with Possible Causes and
Solutions
Low Rate of Distillate Generation

· The heating tubes or the condenser

piping are fouled from the inside, and
they need to be cleaned.
· Hot water temperature and or flow
rate is low and needs to be increased
by the operator.
· The cooling water flow rate may be
low and needs to be increased
according to the given specifications.
Dropping of Evaporation Temperature

· The temperature of hot water is

 low and needs to be increased to the
specified level.
· Hot water flow rate is low and
needs to be increased to the
specified level.
The vacuum obtained in the evaporator
has dropped

· There is an air leak present in the

system which should be repaired
and then tested at 0.05 MPa to
make sure regular operation has
been restored.

Malfunctioning of Water Ejector

 · The nozzle of the ejector has
closed partially or fully and needs
to be cleaned
· The diffuser has worn out, or
corrosion has taken place. It has to
be replaced by a new one
· The nozzle has been worn out and
needs to be replaced by a spare.
· The pressure at the outlet of the
ejector is at 0.08 MPa or higher.
· The ejector outlet piping may be
clogged and needs to be checked
and corrected. The valve opening of
the overboard discharge valve needs
to be checked and repaired.
· The pressure at the outlet of the
ejector is negative; the overboard
discharge valve should be closed up
to a certain degree.
The distillate is present in the Sight Glass

· This may indicate failure of the

Distillate pump. It should be
repaired.
 · The outlet valve of the Distillate
pump is in the closed position and
hence needs to be opened.
· The outlet piping is clogged and
needs to be cleaned
· The pump is drawing in air, and
the mechanical seal needs to be
replaced.
High Salinity of the Distillate

· The rate of generation of the

distillate is too high and needs to be
decreased by lowering the hot water
flow rate.
· The temperature of evaporation is
low (50 degrees or such). The
vacuum adjusts valve needs to be
closed to an extent such that the
evaporating temperature increases.
· The Fresh Water Generator has
been used in an area where the feed
water is dirty and needs to be
stopped.
· The reading of the salinity
indicator is faulty and has to be
 checked using the indicator test
switch; the electrode needs to be
cleaned.
· The piping of the condenser has
been damaged and needs to be
plugged in appropriately.
Low Feed Water Rate

· The opening of the feed water

adjusts valve is not sufficient and
needs to be adjusted accordingly to
increase the rate of feed water
entering the system.
· The feed water orifice may be
clogged, and its surface needs to be
cleaned. There is insufficient
internal pressure in the condenser
piping and the condenser cooling
water outlet valve needs to be
closed to an extent.
High Feed Water Rate

· The feed water adjusts valve has a

very large opening and needs to be
closed sufficiently.
 · The feed water orifice has been
worn and needs to be replaced.

Problems Specific to Pumping Systems of

FWG
Pump fails to start
· The electrical system or the motor
has failed and needs to repair after
proper inspection.
· The impeller has seized with the
casing ring causing problems in
starting the pump. In this case, the
impeller and/or casing ring need to
be repaired or replaced after
carrying out inspections. After
doing so, the centring of the pump
and motor needs to be checked. The
eccentricity of the shafts should be
checked. Inspection of the bearings,
balancing on the impeller and shaft
coupling should be carried out.
The pump does not operate at the required
head or capacity
· The pump is drawing in air
through the suction system and this
needs to be checked and tightened.
· The strainer at the suction pipe is
clogged and has to be cleaned.
· The passage at the impeller is
clogged and has to be cleaned.
After carrying out the cleaning
operations, the pumping system,
including the casing, impeller, etc.
should be inspected for any
damage. The piping systems,
including the suction and discharge,
should be cleaned and if required,
the strainer has to be replaced.
· The motor has been run in the
reversed direction, and the wires
need to be correctly connected.
· The motor speed has dropped, and
the electrical system needs to be
checked for faults.
· The clearing ring clearance has
increased and needs to be replaced.
The impeller should be inspected
for damage and replaced if required.
 After doing so, the centring, shaft
couplings, eccentricity and the ball
bearing should be inspected for
proper operation.
Water Flows after starting the pump but
stops abruptly
· Air may be trapped in the system,
and the piping needs to be
corrected. The air outlet valve
should hence be checked, and the
suction pipe should be inspected.
· The stuffing box is drawing in air,
and the mechanical seal needs to be
inspected and repaired or replaced.
Overloaded Motor
· There is damage to the bearing
and it needs to be replaced. After
doing so, the centring of the motor
and pump, the lubrication, shaft
couplings, eccentricity and the ball
bearing should be inspected for
proper operation.
· The pump and motor are
 misaligned; hence the centring
needs to be adjusted, followed by a
proper inspection.
· The shaft has been deformed and
needs to be replaced followed by
proper inspection of the machinery.
· The motor or electric system us at
fault and needs to be repaired and
checked after inspection.
· The discharge volume is high and
needs to be checked and altered
according to the pump
specifications.
The Pump begins to vibrate during
operation
· The impeller is not balanced
correctly and needs to be repaired
or replaced.
· The Bearing has been damaged
and needs to be replaced
· The motor is misaligned with the
pump, and the centring has to be
adjusted.
· The Shaft has been deformed and
 needs to be replaced.
· The pump has been incorrectly
installed, and this needs to be
corrected by the onboard
technicians after carrying out
investigations.
· If any of the above actions are
performed, the centring of the
motor and pump, the lubrication,
shaft couplings, eccentricity and the
ball bearing should be inspected for
proper operation.
Overloaded Bearing
· The bearing may be assembled
incorrectly or poorly; this needs to
be checked and adjusted after which
inspections need to be carried out.
Fresh lubrication should be given to
the system.
· The thrust experienced by the
bearing is more than its
specifications, and the impeller may
need to be repaired or replaced.
After doing so, the casing ring
 needs to be inspected. The balance
hole of the impeller needs to be
checked for blockage.
· The Bearing has been damaged
and needs to be replaced
· The motor is misaligned with the
pump and the centring has to be
adjusted.
· The Shaft has been deformed and
needs to be replaced.
How To Prevent
Fresh Water
Contamination On
Ships?
Fresh water is one of the most essential
aspects of routine operations for ships and its
crew when at the sea. Fresh water is taken
from port facilities and also generated on
board ships.

Dedicated tanks are provided on ships to

store this fresh water. However, fresh water
can easily get contaminated in several ways
and proper steps should be taken to prevent
the same .
In this article, we will take a look at various steps that should
be taken to prevent contamination of freshwater on board
ships.

When fresh water is taken from barges or ports, it should be

noted that dedicated hoses are used for the transfer purpose.
Having said that every possible step should be taken to
ensure that the fresh water is not contaminated during the
transfer process or in the fresh water tanks.

Fresh water in the tanks should be treated with chlorine at

regular intervals of time; however, it should be noted that the
fresh water taken from the shore has residual chlorine
content of 0.2 PPM.

Fresh water generated using desalination plants (fresh water

generator) or reverse osmosis process on ships should be
transferred to the fresh water tanks only when the ship is 25
miles away from the shore or 50 miles from an estuary.

Several methods are used to sterilize water on ships. If ultra

violet sterilizer and automatic chlorinator system are used,
they should be in proper working condition. Moreover, a full
flow silver ion system can also be used for the same.

Fresh water storage tanks should be

prevented from getting contaminated by
taking every step possible. The following
steps must be taken without fail.

· If possible, drinking and washing

water should be kept in a separate tank,
which is isolated from the system
supplying fresh water to jacket water,
oil purifiers etc. In case such
arrangement is not possible, a non
return valve or an air break in the pipe
work should be fitted to prevent any
back contamination.
· Fresh water storage tanks should be
inspected at regular intervals of time
and proper maintenance should also be
carried out. They must be inspected
every 12 months and refilled with
sterilized water following cleaning with
 a 50 PPM chlorine solution.
· Fresh water tanks should not be
located near any of the oil tanks
· Fore peak tanks which are susceptible
to damage, or aft peak tanks which are
too difficult to clean should not be used
for fresh water storage
● The storage tanks should be designed in
such a way that easy drainage and
cleaning is possible.
● Tanks should be pressure tested every 10
years to ensure that there is no seepage of
any kind.
● Manholes should be made of adequate
size and must be raised above the deck
level
● Pipes which have the same quality of
water should be allowed to pass through
the tanks
● Goose necks should be properly designed
to prevent ingress of sea water
● Proper coatings as suggested by the
manufacturers should be applied inside the
tanks
● Contamination of fresh water mainly
 occurs in the distribution system and
therefore suitable filtration system (filters
and strainers) is a must.
● Water treatment equipment, neutralizers,
softeners etc. should also be used to
improve the quality of water.
● Hot water line in the fresh water
generator should be properly insulated
especially when it runs adjacent to the
cold water line. Moreover, special care
should be taken while choosing material
used for the joints.
● The fresh water distribution system
should be a part of the planned
maintenance system on ships.
● Chlorinators should be raised to 70oC
before opening for inspection to kill any
type of bacteria colonies. Moreover,
opportunity should be taken at refits to
flush the system with 50 PPM chlorine
solution. Shower heads and taps should be
cleaned in a similar solution every 3
months.
● Chemicals approved and suggested by
the manufactures must only be used to
prevent any kind of toxicity entering the
 fresh water.
● Antifouling equipment of the approved
type should be used if required.
General Overview of
Central Cooling
System on Ships
The machinery systems installed on ships are
designed to operate at maximum efficiency
and for lengthy periods of time. Heat energy
is the most prevalent and highest kind of
energy loss from machines. To avoid the
machinery failing or breaking down, this heat
energy must be decreased or taken away by a
cooling medium, such as a central cooling
water system.

There are two cooling systems used on board

for the cooling purpose:

1. Sea Water cooling system: Sea water

is directly used in the machinery systems
as a cooling media for heat exchangers.
2. Freshwater or central cooling
system: Fresh water is used in a
 closed circuit to cool down the engine
room machinery. The fresh water
returning from the heat exchanger
after cooling the machinery is further
cooled by sea water in a sea-water
cooler.

Understanding Central Cooling System

As discussed above, in the central cooling system, all the
working machinery on ships are cooled down using
circulating fresh water. This system comprises of three
different circuits:

Sea water circuit

The sea water is used as a cooling media in large seawater
cooled heat exchangers to cool the fresh water of the closed
circuit. They are the central coolers of the system and are
normally installed in a duplex.
Low-temperature circuit
The low-temperature circuit is used for low-
temperature zone machinery and this circuit
is directly connected to the main sea water
central cooler; hence its temperature is lower
than that of high temperature (H.T circuit).
The L.T circuit comprises of all auxiliary
systems.
The total quantity of low-temperature or L.T
fresh water in the system is maintained in
balance with the H.T. fresh water cooling
system by an expansion tank which is
common to both systems.
The expansion tank used for these circuits is filled and
makeup from the hydrophore system or from the distilled
water tank using the F.W. refilling pump.
High-temperature circuit (H.T)
The H.T circuit in the central cooling system mainly
comprises of jacket water system of the main engine where
the temperature is quite high. The H.T water temperature is
maintained by low-temperature fresh water and the system
normally comprises of jacket water system of the main
engine, FW generator, DG during standby condition, Lube
oil filter for stuffing box drain tank.

The HT cooling water system is circulated by electrical

cooling water pumps, one in service and one standby.

During standby, the DG is kept warm by the circulating

system from the DG in service.
When ME is stopped, it is kept warm by HT cooling water
from DG. If this is insufficient, the water may be heated by
steam heated FW heater.

Expansion tank
The loss in the closed circuit of the central cooling fresh
water system is continuously compensated by the expansion
tank which also absorbs the increase in pressure due to
thermal expansion.

Temperature Control Valves

The heat absorbed by the H.T circuit is transferred to L.T
circuit at temperature control valve junction.

The outlet temperature of the main engine cooling water is

kept constant at 85-95 by means of temperature control
valves by mixing water from the two central cooling system
i.e. LT system into the HT system.

Things to remember
· The cooling water in the system to be
treated with chemicals
· The makeup of central cooling system
normally takes place from FW
expansion tank, which is filled with
drinking and wash water system, or,
from the distilled water tank using the
FW refilling pump
· If it is necessary to refill the system
with a larger amount of water, this shall
be supplied from the distilled water tank
by the FW refilling pump via the LT
system connection
· During overhaul/repair of the main
engine, which requires FW cooling
water inlet and outlet valves to be
closed, the FW cooling pump and high-
temperature circulation must be stopped
and air to control valve must be closed
· In standby condition, the transfer of
 surplus heat from diesel generators can
be used for FW generator service. In the
feed water inlet to the FW generator
evaporating section the high load orifice
is to be replaced with the low load
orifice, see maker’s instruction.
· The circulating rate will depend on
sea water temperature, engine load, the
pressure drop across pumps and
required heat removal from the system.
The circulating rate can be adjusted by
operating one or more pumps
· Generally, two fresh water pumps are
installed and one complete spare pump
is stored close to the working pumps
area for quick installation in case one of
the working pumps should fail
· The central coolers in the fresh water
system are generally of plate type with
plates of titanium material
· In the case of manual cleaning, the
F.W. inlet and outlet valves shall be
closed. In the case of chemical cleaning
of S.W. side the F.W. side may be kept
open.
Advantages of central cooling System
· Low maintenance cost: As the
system runs with fresh water, the
cleaning, maintenance and component
replacement reduces.
· Less corrosion: Since the sea water
system is only in the central part, the
corrosion of pipes and valves decreases.
· The Higher speed of fluid hence
better heat exchange: Higher speed is
possible in the fresh water system which
results in reduced piping and low
installation cost.
· Use of cheaper materials: Since the
corrosion factor decreases, expensive
materials are not required for valves and
pipelines.
· Constant temperature level
maintained: Since the temperature
controlled is irrespective of sea water
temperature, stable temperature is
maintained which helps in reducing
machinery wear down.
· Less wear of engine parts: Less wear
 of cylinder liner as the jacket is
maintained warm avoiding cold
corrosion.
· Ideal for unmanned engine room:
The greater reliability and temperature
controlling of the system offered by the
central cooling system makes it an ideal
choice for unmanned engine room
Disadvantages of the central cooling
system
· High installation cost
· Limitation of low temperature
Important Points
Seafarers Must
Consider For Clean
Drinking Water
System On Ships
Fresh Water Generation systems are provided
on all ships sailing at seas. Adequate
generation and storage arrangements of fresh
water are provided onboard which help
vessels to cope up with fresh water
requirements during passage and long stays in
port or anchorage.

The generation of drinking water while the

Main engine is running (utilising the waste
heat generated from the circulating cooling
water for the diesel engine) has been the most
effective and economical method for
generating potable fresh water at sea
Several routines are followed while carrying
out the maintenance and cleaning of fresh
water generation system on board ships.
Some of the important points that should be
considered during maintenance of drinking
water systems on ships are:

Check Salinity Alarm: The salinity alarm or

salinity indicator needs regular checks as it
allows only pure fresh water to flow into the
fresh water tank. The electrodes of salinity
alarm must be cleaned on monthly basis to
remove dust or scale deposits. Alarm settings
must be verified before putting the Fresh
Water Generation system into operation after
cleaning.

Stop Fresh Water Generator At Right

Time: Whenever a vessel approaches any
port, land or estuary, the Fresh Water
Generator must be stopped as at such places
the sea water is heavily infected with bacteria
,which may be transferred to the fresh water
stored onboard. As per recommended in
Safety Management System Manual or Flag
State Requirements, the Fresh Water Tanks
are generally cleaned once in six months or
on yearly basis.

Use High Pressure Spray While Cleaning

Tanks: While cleaning the fresh water tanks
it is advisable to use high pressure spray of
fresh water. The spray machine is electrically
operated on some ships. Care should be taken
for proper insulation of them during use and
any risks of electrical shock should be
eliminated.
Be Careful While Using Chemicals and
Scrubbing: Chemicals, if any, are to be used
should be biodegradable. Mostly fresh water
tanks do not get rusted and have a special
coating inside. It should be kept in mind not
to scrub the tank surface too hard so that it
results in removal of coating from the tank
walls.

Take Proper Steps While Applying Paint:

Paint if applied on the tank surface must be of
approved type, immiscible in water and
suitable to the surface. Allow the paint to be
completely dry before filling the tank again
with water in order to prevent amalgamation
of any smell of paint with the drinking water.

Follow Proper Enclosed Space Entry

Procedures: If ship’s staff is involved in
cleaning fresh water tanks, enclosed space
entry checklist and procedures must be
complied with. Care should be taken for
adequate illumination and means of
ventilation inside the tank. All filling or
equalising lines to the tank should be isolated
or disconnected if required.

Wear Proper PPEs: Protective clothing and

safety shoes or boots used by the ship’s crew
must be clean and free of any grease, dirt,
paint or chemicals.

Open Separator Shell When Required: The

separator shell and heat exchanger covers can
be opened up and inspected during scheduled
inspections for scale formation or if cooling
tubes are fouled with any sludge formation.

Cleaning of Heating Tubes Should Be

Done On Regular Intervals of Time:
Cleaning or descaling of the inside of heating
tubes should be made twice or three times in
a year physically or dissolved by chemical
methods. Scaling can be prolonged by not
operating the plant at contaminated water
areas such as in harbours or ports.

Use Scale Inhibitors: Scale inhibitors are

used to prevent scale formation by dispersing
scale deposits and delaying reaction. This
also prevents scale deposits from adhering to
heat transfer surfaces, also called as the
“Threshold effect “. Scale formation inside
heat exchanger requires cleaning if specific
temperatures cannot be obtained for inlet and
outlet of fresh water.

Remove Damaged Coating: In case coating

inside fresh water generator is damaged, the
damaged covering is to be scraped off and the
surface should be then thoroughly dried.
After putting the undercoat on the steel
surface, epoxy-resin or food coating (as
prescribed by FWG manufacturer) is to be
applied.

Inspect Impeller Periodically: The impeller

of ejector pump wears out in due course of
time and its surface also gets damaged due to
high speed revolution. This is inevitable due
to continuous operation of the pump. The
condition of the impeller should thus be
inspected periodically, keeping in mind the
running hours.

Check Cooling Pipe: The cooling pipe

should be checked for loosening in expansion
area during inspection.

Clean Drinking Water Fountains: Various

drinking water fountains inside
accommodation require scheduled cleaning
and replacement of filters as well.

Cleaning of Fresh Water Tank: The fresh

water tank must be inspected and cleaned at
regular intervals of time (normally 6 months).
Ensure that the person entering the tank for
cleaning does not have any skin disease and
he/she must wear new clean pair of shoes
before making an entry in the tank. Every
alternate tank cleaning (yearly) must include
disinfection with a solution of 50pm chlorine.

Fresh water on board ships is used for a

variety of important purposes and more than
often its scarcity is felt. Along with routine
maintenance of fresh water systems, it is
important that the ship’s crew take all
necessary steps to reduce freshwater
consumption and prevent fresh water
contamination on board.
Reverse Osmosis:
Modern Alternative
for Shipboard Water
Production
Every ship is installed with fresh water
production unit which produces fresh water
from sea water. The efficient water
production unit of the ship helps the vessel
owner to save on additional fresh water
expenses that are incurred by purchasing
water from port suppliers.

Two popular methods for production of fresh

water on ships include[PT1] :

· Fresh water generator

· Reverse osmosis process.
Reverse osmosis is one of the modern
methods used by the shipping industry to
produce fresh water from sea water. This
method of water production does not use
waste heat source, unlike fresh water
generator, to desalinate the sea water to
convert it into fresh water with low salt ppm.

Principle of Reverse Osmosis

As the name suggest, this methods works on

reversing the osmosis principle.

When a chemical solution is separated from

pure water by a semi permeable membrane
(allowing passage of water not salt) then the
pure water flows through the membrane until
all the pure water has passed through or until
the hydrostatic pressure head of the salt
solution is sufficiently big enough to arrest or
stop the process.

Reverse osmosis is the use of this

phenomenon in reverse direction. This results
in water being forced through the membrane
from the concentrated solution toward the
more dilute one. This is achieved by applying
pressure of the osmotic pressure of the
concentrated solution.
Working

The osmotic pressure of sea water is 28 bars

but to overcome system losses and the fact
that the sea water concentration increases as
it passes through the length of the membrane,
much higher pressure around 40-70 bar,
depending upon the plant size, is required.

A triplex plunger pump is popularly used to

produce high pressure across the membrane.
The membrane used has a very fine barrier of
dense holes which only allows water and
gases to pass through, while preventing the
passage of solutes such as salt and other
impurities.

The fresh water produced after this stage is

treated with chemicals and ultraviolet
treatment to make it drinkable and useful for
other purpose.
10 Ways To Reduce
Freshwater
Consumption On
Ships
Freshwater on board ships is used for a
variety of purposes. From domestic uses such
as drinking and washing to ship operation
purposes such as machinery cooling and
cleaning, fresh water is of utmost importance
on board ships.

Though freshwater generators are installed on

ships to convert sea water to salt water, they
are usually of smaller capacities, supplying
less quantity than demanded. Moreover, it’s
not feasible to take freshwater and store in
tanks on every port (Shipping companies
have to pay for it). Thus, crew members are
advised to reduce fresh water consumption on
board ships as much as possible.

Another issue that arises out of over-

consumption of freshwater is rapid filling of
sewage water tank and continuous running of
sewage treatment plant. Nowadays, due to
stringent waste water discharge regulations,
ships are not allowed to discharge grey water
in several areas around the world. Several
countries allow discharge of grey water only
after it is passed through the sewage
treatment plant. This makes fresh water
consumption even more important.

Mentioned below are 10 ways in which fresh

water consumption can be practiced on board
ships.

1. Advice Crew Not To Waste Water: The

ship’s master must advice the crew to avoid
unnecessary wastage of freshwater during
domestic use. Fresh water usage can also be
reduced by creating awareness for the
importance of fresh water and adequate usage
of the same on board ships.
2. Repair Accommodation Leakages
Immediately : Leakages of freshwater in the
accommodation not only leads to wastage but
also unnecessary filling of waste water tank.
Leakages in freshwater pipelines must be
attended at the earliest.

3. Reduce the Flow of Shower Head: One

useful way to reduce freshwater consumption
in the accommodation area is by reducing the
flow of shower head in all officer and crew
cabins. The same can also be done with toilet
flushes.

4. Check the Pressure of Hydrophore: To

reduce the flow of freshwater coming out of
the taps and also to prevent leakages, avoid
raising the pressure of the hydrophore above
80% of the design pressure of the pipes.

5. Vacuum Toiler System : Though this is

more of a design related solution, it is found
that ships with vacuum toiler system tend to
save a lot of water than those having water
flush system. According to some reports, the
vacuum toilet system reduces water
consumption from 8 liters to 1 liters per flush.

6. Use Washing Machine Judiciously:

Washing machine is one equipment which
tends to consume massive quantity of
freshwater on board ships. In order to save
freshwater consumption in washing
machines, use them to their full capacities
and avoid washing with less number of
clothes.

7. Keep a Track of Fresh Water

Quantity:Keep a proper track of freshwater
consumption in the ship’s engine room and
accommodation. Search for faults and rectify
them at the earliest in systems/areas which
are consuming more freshwater than normal.

8. Thoroughly Check Main Engine and

Auxiliary Engine Jacket Water Systems:
Keep a close watch on the main engine and
auxiliary engine jacket water systems as they
are the largest consumers of freshwater.
Failing to rectify leakages in these systems
can lead to loss of huge quantity of
freshwater.
9. Frequently Check the Salinometer: It is
extremely important to frequently check the
salinometer of the FWG. There have been
several cases in the past where the
salinometer has stopped functioning, leading
to total contamination of freshwater in the
freshwater tank as a result of mixing with sea
water.

10. Check Boiler Frequently: Boiler is yet

another machinery in the ship’s engine room
which consumes a lot of water. Check boiler
for water and steam leakages to prevent loss
of large quantity of fresh water.
Single Phasing in
Electrical Motors:
Causes, Effects, and
Protection Methods
For proper working of any 3 phase induction
motor, it must be connected to a 3 phase
alternating current (ac) power supply of rated
voltage and load. Once these three-phase
motors are started, they will continue to run
even if one of the three-phase supply lines
gets disconnected. The loss of current
through one of these phase supplies is
described as single phasing.

The ship is fitted with hundreds of motor,s

which are responsible for running different
pumps, machinery, and systems. The critical
machinery such as steering gear, main engine,
generator, boiler etc. have 3 phase motors
attached to them which run one or the other
main or auxiliary system for them.

A 3 phase motor of 440V is, in general, the

standard frame, squirrel cage induction type
designed for AC 440v 3 phase of 60 Hz. Only
small capacity motors of 0.4 KW or less,
mainly used for lighting and other low power
systems, are single phase motor of 220V 60
Hz operation.

Causes of Single Phasing

Single phasing is a power supply-related
electrical fault in case of an induction motor.
It occurs when one of the 3 phase circuits in a
three-phase motor is opened; hence the
remaining circuits carry excess current. This
condition of Single Phasing is usually caused
when:-

– One or more out of the three back up

fuse blows (or fuse wire melts if the fuse is of
wire type)

– The motor circuit has contactors which

supply the current. One of the contactors is
open circuited.

– A wrong or improper setting of any of

the protection devices provided on the motor
can also lead to single phasing

– If contactor routines are not performed

regularly, they might get covered or get
coated with oxidation layer leading to single
phasing.

– The relay contacts for the motor is

damaged or broken

– One of the wire for the motor circuit is

broken

– Due to equipment failure of the supply

system

– Due to the short circuit in one phase of

the star-connected or delta-connected motor

– Feeder or transformer fuse blow-up

Effect of Single Phasing

As mentioned earlier, a three-phase motor is

an AC motor which is built to operate on a
three-phase power source. The construction
of both types of a motor is similar as they
both have a stator and rotator. The single
phase motor does not have a rotating field,
but one that reverses 180 degrees. Usually,
single phase motors are not self-starting. For
that, they use additional provisions like
switching out the start winding or a capacitor.

Single phasing problem on a 3 phase

induction motor will have the following
effects:

– If the motor is in a stopped condition, it

cannot be started as a single phase motor
cannot be a self-starter (as explained above)
and also due to the safety system provided in
3 phase motor to protect it from overheating
– If the single phasing faults occur while
the motor is operating, it will continue to run
(unless provided by additional safety cut-out
system) because of the torque produced by
the remaining two phases which is produced
as per the demand by the load

– As the remaining two phase are doing

additional work of the one default phase, they
will be overheated which might result in
critical damage to the windings

– The single phasing will lead to increase

in the current flow by 2.4 times the average
current value in the remaining two phases

– Single Phasing reduces the speed of the

motor, and its rpm will fluctuate

– The noise and vibration from the motor

will be abnormal. This is the result of uneven
torque produced by the remaining two phases

– Almost all the motor system in the ship

has a standby arrangement. If the motor is
selected for standby, with single phasing
problem – It will not start leading to failure of
the related system

– If the problem is not addressed and

motor operation is continued, windings will
melt due to overheating and can lead to short-
circuiting or earthing

– In such condition, if the crew of a ship

comes in contact with the motor, he will get
an electrical shockwhich can even be fatal.
Overheating of winding is primarily due to
the flow of negative sequence current.

– It may cause overloading of the power

generation machine, i.e. auxiliary engine, and
its alternator
How to Protect Motor from Damage Due
to Single Phasing?
Such a condition requires that the motor is
provided with protection that will disconnect
it from the system before the motor is
permanently damaged.

All motors above 500 KW are to be provided

with protection devices or equipment to
prevent any damage due to single phasing.

The rule stated above does not apply to

motors of the steering gear system installed
on the ship. Only on the detection of the
single phasing, an alarm will be sounded;
however, the motor will not stop as the
continued operation of the steering motor is
essential for safety or propulsion of the ship,
especially when the vessel is in congested
waters or under manoeuvring.

The most commonly used protection devices

for single phasing are:-
1) Electromagnetic Overload Device

In this device, all the three phases of the

motor are fitted with an overload relay. If
there is an increase in the value of the current,
then this relay activates automatically and the
motor trips.

This device works on the principle of the

electromagnetic effect produced due to the
current.

As the current value increases, the

electromagnet in the coil also increases which
pulls the relay and activates the trip relay, and
the motor is stopped.

The time delay is provided in this system

because while starting the motor draws a lot
of currents which can trip the motor.

2) Thermistors
Thermistors are small thermal devices which
are used together with an electromagnetic
overload relay. The thermistors are inserted
in the three windings of the motor. Any
increase in the current will cause heating in
the windings, which is detected by the
thermistors that send signals to the amplifier.

The amplifier is connected to the

electromagnetic relay. As soon as a signal is
received from thermistor about overheating,
this amplifier increases the current value in
the coil of an electromagnetic relay which
activates the trip and the motor stops or trips.

3) Bi-metal strip
In this method, the bimetallic strip is placed
in such a way that it detects the overheating
in the circuit. As soon as overheating is
detected, this bimetallic strip tries to expand
due to two different metal used and because
they have a different coefficient of expansion.
The strip attempts to bend towards the metal
having a high coefficient of expansion and
finally completes the trip circuit and the
motor trips.

4) Standard motor starter overload

protection

It is provided in 3 phase motor to takes care

of the single phasing condition. Overload
heaters are provided in all the phases which
detect any overload in the phase, and if the
load goes far above spec for the motor, the
heaters trip the starter off before the motor
winding is damaged.
8 Common Problems
Found In Steering
Gear System Of
Ships
A vessel, under pilotage, departed a port in
ballast and was down bound in a restricted
waterway. The engine control was set to
bridge control and a helmsman was using
manual full follow-up (FFU) steering.

At one point a port alteration was requested;

however, the rudder angle indicator showed
10 degrees to starboard. Several port and
starboard helm inputs were attempted with
the FFU but no rudder movement could be
observed on the rudder angle indicator. The
pilot then ordered the engine to be stopped
and that the anchor be readied.

The Master arrived on the bridge just as the

vessel was leaving the buoyed channel. He
went directly to the steering stand and
transferred the steering system actuator
switch from the port system to starboard
system. This action restored control to the
steering but it was too late. The vessel ran
aground at an estimated speed of 8 knots over
the ground.

Accidents because of steering gear failure are

common in the maritime industry. Such
incidents have lead to some serious accidents
in the part, causing heavy damage to ship, its
crew and the environment.

Periodic maintenance and checks are

extremely important for smooth functioning
of ship’s steering gear. However, there are a
few common issues which tend to occur in
spite of taking all necessary precautions.

Mentioned below are eight such common

issues of steering gear system:

1. Oil Leakages: Port state controls have

very strict policy of zero leakage from ship’s
steering gear. Many ships have been fined
and detained due to such faults pointed out
during port state control inspection. Still, oil
leakage from the steering gear is one of the
most common problems on ships – a result of
machinery systems having several moving
parts operated by hydraulic oil. Some of the
main areas of leakages are cylinder-ram seal
in hydraulic ram type steering gear and seal
in the chambers of a rotary vane pump.
Needless to say, any kind of leakage from
steering gear system must be rectified
immediately.

2. Difference in the Actual Rudder Angle

and Ordered Helm Angle: Another
common problem observed in steering gear
system is the difference in the angle given at
the helm and the actual rudder angle. This
occurs due to wrong or insufficient
adjustment of control and repeat back lever.
To rectify this problem, the turn buckle
attached to the rod of control and repeat back
lever are to be precisely adjusted.

3. Unsatisfactory Steering : The fuel

consumption of the ship greatly depends on
the efficiency of steering gear operation. If
the steering gear is operating unsatisfactory,
it will lead to delay in the ETA of the ship
and increase main engine fuel consumption.
Common reason for this problem is
malfunctioning of safety valves or by pass
valves in the system. Any problem in the
control and repeat back lever will also lead to
unsatisfactory steering.

To solve this issue, safety and by pass valve

operation are to be checked at regular
intervals. If any problem is noted, same to be
recited at the earliest.

For control and repeat back lever, the turn

buckle attached to the rod of control and
repeat back lever are to be precisely adjusted.
4. Excessive Noise from Steering Gear:
Excessive noise and vibrations from the
steering gear indicates entrapment of air in
the system. Due to air bubbles in the oil,
pumps and pipings are subjected to air
hammer leading to vibration and heavy noise.
Air must be removed from the system using
vent valve provided in the cylinder and pump
specially after the system is replenished with
new oil. If the valve located in the oil supply
tank of the steering gear is throttled or closed,
it will again develop air bubbles in the
system. Ensure that this valve is always open
when the system is in operation.

5. High Oil Temperature: Oil is the

operating media in the steering gear system.
Any abnormality in the parameters of oil will
lead to other operations related problems in
the steering gear. If there is increase in the oil
temperature, it will directly reduce the
viscosity of the oil and hamper the steering
operation. The most common cause of
increase in oil temperature is low oil level in
the system. Thus, ensure that low oil level
alarm in the tank is working and replenish the
oil when required.

6. Rudder Movement is Within or Beyond

the Limit: The SOLAS requirement for
steering gear says that the system must be
capable of putting the rudder over from 35
deg on one side to 35 deg on the other side of
the ship at its deepest seagoing draught and
running at maximum ahead service speed. It
may sometimes happen that the maximum
angle reached by the rudder is less than
prescribed or the rudder is overshooting the
35 degree angle mark.

One of the main reasons for this problem is

malfunctioning of limit switch fitted on the
repeat back unit or on the auto pilot. Replace
the malfunctioned limit switch or adjust the
limit switch to maximum prescribed rudder
angle.

7. No Steering from Remote control: Their

is always a provision of local maneuvering in
the steering gear for emergency situation if
the remote control operation fails. Some
common reasons for failure of remove
controls are :

· Break down of hydraulic pumps :

Other hydraulic pump to be started in
such cases
· Malfunction of transfer valve
· Malfunctioning of hydraulic by pass
valve in the pump
· Oil leakage
 · Problem in tele control system
8. Rudder Angle Transmitter and Tiller
Link Failure: On 29 April 2011, the Panama
registered bulk carrier Dumun grounded
while departing the port of Gladstone,
Queensland. Prior to the grounding, the ship’s
steering appeared to have stop responding to
bridge commands when the linkage between
the tiller and rudder angle transmitter
detached. The steering gear continued to
operate normally, but the transmitter lost its
input signal and, as a result, the bridge
mounted rudder angle indicator stopped
working. Such cases are rare but they do
occur.

To avoid such accidents, ensure that the duty

officer must take a round before every
maneuvering or departure port to check all
the linkages in the engine room.
Maintenance of
Electrical Relay on
Ships Electrical
Circuit
A relay is an important electromechanical
safety device in ship’s electrical circuit and is
normally used to open the faulty circuit from
the main supply when any kind of electrical
fault occurs. A relay is fitted in the Main and
Emergency switch board of the ship as a
protective device.
Relay has to be kept operational and healthy
at all times, else at the time of fault if it relay
does not operate properly, the whole system
may suffer loss of power or damage. The
most common application of relays is for
overload and short circuit protection.
A ship engineer or electrical officer has to
make sure that relay is efficiently in operation
and all the maintenance is carried out on the
same as per schedule or as per continuous
monitoring.

If during inspection, the relay is found out to

be defective it must be replaced immediately
with a spare one.

A simple electromagnetic Relay is shown in

the below diagram and it will get activated
when the magnetic effect of the iron core is
sufficiently increased by the excess or high
current in the coil which will attract the iron
armature held against the spring force to trip
the circuit.
A brief maintenance for relay is given as
follows-

· Checks to be carried out on relay

contacts for damage due to arcing.
· Polish the contact with emery
paper to remove rust and deposits.
· Check the closing linkage for free
movement.
· Check the continuity of the
contacts with multimeter.
· There are arc chutes provided to
quench the arcing. Check for
burnout of the same.
· Check the tension of the spring.
· Open circuit and short circuit test
to be performed on the coil by
multimeter.
· Check the continuity of the trip
circuit by multimeter.
· Check tightness of the supply
terminals.
How to Overhaul
Motors on Ships?
Most of the motors in the ship’s engine room
are continuous running motors connected to a
pump or compressor or some other
machinery. Like any other mechanical
machinery, motors also have their own
running hours, after which, the complete
overhauling of the motor is to be done to
ensure efficient working and performance.
Also, if any other parameters such as voltage,
current or insulation resistance is abnormal or
the motor came in contact with water (due to
flooding or water leakage), the overhauling of
motor is to be performed.

Overhauling a Motor
In motor construction, the air gap between the
stator and the rotor is very less. If there is a
little deviation in the shaft rotation, the rotor
will slowly start touching the stator (In this
condition, you can feel much more vibrations
in the motor), which can lead to short circuit
and burning of windings.

The scheduled maintenance of motor should

be carried out in such a way that the motor
does not reach this stage. Thus, proper
overhauling of the motor is of great
importance.

Before overhauling the motor, rotor running

hours should be calculated, along with the
lifetime of the bearing (running hours). The
bearing must be renewed if required. In the
motor, bearings are most susceptible to
damages from friction during transmission.

How To Do Motor Overhauling?

Insulation test:

Checking the insulation of the stator winding

is very important before and after the
overhaul procedure. Multimeter is used for
this purpose, with its one probe connected to
the winding and other to the earth with switch
selected in the resistance knob.
Dismantling:
Note: Before dismantling any part of the
motor or motor connection, marking of both
motor housing and connection wires is very
important. This will ensure that the boxing
back procedure is smooth and there is no
mismatch of parts. Also check the direction
of the motor rotation before stopping the
motor for overhauling.
Before overhauling the motor, pre-planning
of removing and fixing back the motor safely
in place must be discussed and implemented
(depends on place where it’s fixed and also
on the size of the motor) otherwise the load
side (for e.g. Pump connected to motor) will
be damaged by the motor shaft. The motor
can be connected to the load as vertically
coupled load and horizontally coupled load.

Horizontally coupled having two types:

1. Hinge mounted (Must be done very

carefully)
2. Base mounted
Dismantling can be done in two ways:

a. In place (On board ship, it is mostly

applicable for very big vertically coupled
motor to load)
 · Removing the motor from the
place by chain block
· Remove the coupling and key
· Keep the motor in place and fix
the nuts
· Open the motor from top (cooling
fan side)
· Take out the rotor by chain block,
take out the stator winding
separately
b. Out place

· Take out the motor from the place

and keep it in a horizontal position
· Open the motor from any one side
· If it’s a small motor take out the
rotor
· If it’s a huge motor keep the rotor
inside and open the bearings using a
good bearing puller
After any one of the above two processes are
completed, perform the following procedure:

1. Removal of Bearing Housing Cover:

While removing the bearing housing cover,
note that some motors will be having inner
bearing cover tightened with nut bolts.
Remove it carefully.

In other constructions the bearing housing

cover is locked with bearing by a circle clip.
Whenever removing the housing cover on
both sides (Driving End & Non Driving End)
make sure proper care is taken while
handling.

2. Removal of Bearing or Coupling:

Use a suitable puller (depends on the size of
the bearing or coupling); mostly use the 3
arm puller as it has a good pulling strength.

– First use the puller by barely applying any

pressure and try to take out the bearing or
coupling,
· If it’s not coming out even after
 enough load, use a pipe and extend
the tightening spanner and try to
remove the bearing
· If the bearing is still stuck at the
original position, heat the bearing or
coupling up to 100 deg. C while it’s
locked with the puller and apply
little pressure
· If the bearing or coupling is not
coming out with the above tricks,
the last method is to apply the load
on puller through hydraulic jack
along with heating
· After opening the stator cover,
thoroughly inspect the inside
condition of the stator. If there is
little damage in rotor, repair it
· If the insulation of the motor is
less, clean the windings by an
evaporative type cleaner and give
sometime to let it dry. Apply
insulation coating and heat the
winding around 40 deg. C to 50
deg. C by means of powerful
halogen lamps
 · Clean both side bearing housing
covers, cooling fan, body of the
motor and protection cover of the
motor with electro clean or suitable
chemical
3. Insertion of bearings:
Clean the shaft on both ends and heat the new
bearing up to 70 deg. C to avoid tight
insertion of the bearing in the shaft. Do this
for both sides.

Wait for 20 minutes, let the bearing cool

down, and after that insert the bearing
housing cover from one side.

4. Box back the motor:

Before boxing up the motor, do the insulation
test again to compare with previous values. If
the values are on higher side, start boxing
back, otherwise heat up the winding for some
more time with Halogen light.

· Box up to be done as per the

markings
· Take up the rotor with one side
 cover (If bearing locking nut were
there in one of the sides, prefer that
to be the first to assemble) and push
it inside the stator
· Lock with one side nut bolts,
slowly insert the other side cover,
do the hammering slowly by
wooden hammer, insert and lock
with nut and bolts, and the rotor
will now apply load on the bearing
· Gently tighten the bolts using
opposite tightening method. Insert
the cooling fan and protection
cover, and once again verify the
tightness of the bolts
Fix in place the motor as per the marking and
give the connections accordingly.

Try out and check the Amperage. Compare

with rated amperage and before overhaul
amperage.
Damage Stability
Analysis Of Ships
Centuries ago when the aboriginal
adventurists ventured into the sea in their
primitive rafts to experience the thrill of
moving across the waters, it didn’t take them
much time to understand the hazards bounded
with the feat.

Disasters happened, their boats crumbled,

capsized, sank, losing lives. Using trial and
error as their implements those craftsmen
gradually developed expertise. Since the
advent of 18th century mathematical and
scientific approach has been taken in order to
estimate and anticipate the hazards
beforehand.

It is necessary to ensure that if any mishaps

happen such as fire, flooding, explosion,
structural damage, the ship can sustain a
substantial level of damage and enough time
is there to prevent any immediate catastrophe
and steps can be taken to mitigate the
consequences and render counter-actions
available.

Damage Stability: The Term

The term damage stability deals with the
ability of a ship to float in water and regain
its upright equilibrium position when some
sort of structural damage has occurred.
Generally, following an accident, the damage
is hull fracture leading to flooding of ship
compartments.

If so many compartments are flooded that

there is not enough buoyancy available to
keep the vessel afloat, the ship may sink.
Another critical scenario due to hull breach is
ship capsizing due to loss of transverse
stability as it can happen very quickly. The
disasters of the Herald of free enterprise and
Estonia are few such instances.
How do ships get damaged?

Surface ship damages were havoc to the

economy of the nation due to their high cost.
This made the naval architects study the
factors that contribute to shipping damage in
the sea. Some are enlisted below

a. Collision

b. Grounding

c. Poor design or structural failure

d. Natural Calamities

After the naval architects studied the reason

for ship damage, the tried to quantify the
damage and tried to design the ship keeping
in mind the survivability of the ship in case of
damage. The tried to incorporate the damage
stability analysis of a ship in its design phase
such that no or fewer failures are experienced
at the time of operation. This made the job of
the naval architects pretty difficult and
damage stability analysis came into the
picture. The damage stability analysis
included

• Quantification of the behaviour of the ship

when damaged in case of a failure or
accident.

• Design aspects to prevent or restrict the

havoc caused by the failure.

The two approaches to Damage Stability

Analysis
To assess the behaviour of a ship after some
damage two methods are considered:
• Deterministic damage stability

• Probabilistic damage stability

Deterministic Damage Stability

This is a traditional method of assessment of

the stability of a ship when it is flooded. In
this process, the ship is divided into several
subdivisions along its length with the help of
transverse watertight bulkheads. Now the
stability of the ship is calculated when one or
more compartments get flooded due to a
breach of hull.

The changes in draft and stability when a

compartment becomes flooded due to damage
can be investigated by either of two methods:

• Lost Buoyancy method

• Added weight method

1. Lost Buoyancy method:

The damaged compartment(s) is considered
open to the sea and therefore, does not
contribute to the buoyancy of the ship. So, the
lost buoyancy must be compensated by
sinkage of the vessel and the moment due to
change in LCB of the vessel is manifested
through the heel or trim of the vessel. The
assumptions considered in this method are
that the flooded compartment does not
provide buoyancy anymore and hence, there
is no change in displacement or KG of the
vessel and no free surface effect is observed.

2. Added Weight method:

This method considers that water ingresses in
the damaged compartments up to the new
water level and the weight of the ingressed
water augments the displacement of the
vessel that is compensated by the sinkage of
the vessel. Consequently, the KG of the
vessel changes due to the weight of ingressed
water and Free Surface Effects has to be
taken into account, if the compartment is
partially filled with water. The weight added
shifts the CG of the vessel that might lead to
list or trim of the vessel.

Thus the two methods act as a twofold

assessment of the damaged condition of a
vessel. It is actually a good practice to verify
the result of the assessment of the damaged
condition of the vessel by the complementary
method.

Both methods will give identical answers for

final draughts, trim and righting moments,
despite different values for GM. However,
IMO/SOLAS recommends the use of Lost
buoyancy method for all calculations.

Deterministic damage stability- An insight

to floodable length concept

As we discussed, in deterministic approach

the hull is internally subdivided to increase
the factor of safety of the vessel in case of
hull damage. Now, this subdivision is not
arbitrary. It takes a lot of study and analysis
balancing both economic and safety needs of
the vessel before the designer fixes the
subdivision of the vessel. In this approach,
the length of this compartment is to be
calculated such that if this compartment is
flooded, the ship will sink to a point where
margin line is just submerged. This is the
floodable length at a point along the length of
the ship. The subdivisions accordingly resist
flooding in damaged conditions to the safest
limits. Floodable Length is an important
parameter that is taken into account here. It is
defined as the maximum length of the
compartment that can be flooded such that
the draft of the ship remains below the
margin line. Thus, the maximum division of
bulkheads is the best solution. But, other
factors such as minimum required size of
hold, improper cargo stowage, and the
number of required outfitting or increased
steel weight hinders the possibility to some
extent. Thus, optimizing the safe limits of
floodable length to the minimum required
length of the watertight compartment is done
in most cases.
Floodable length Curve:

A ship should not sink if anyone

compartment is breached and flooded is the
idea behind developing the floodable length
curve of the vessel. The floodable length
closer to the midship area is larger compared
to the ends of the vessel since the flooding of
the midship compartments are accompanied
with parallel sinkage whereas the flooding of
the end compartments are accompanied with
sinkage and trim that augments the chances
of the waterline touching the margin line of
the vessel. Therefore, the floodable length
varies along the length of the ship and its
variation is obtained by vertically plotting the
floodable length along the ship’s length.
Also, the floodable length along the length of
the ship is a function of the permeabilities of
each compartment. More is the permeability
of the compartments, more will be the water
ingress in case of a hull breach and as a
result, lower will be the floodable length at
that point along the length of the ship.
Case Study:
Capsizing Of Costa
Concordia
It’s said that history often repeats itself. After
100 years from 1912 when the Titanic met its
unfortunate fate a similar incident happened
with a famous cruise ship making it second in
the line of the most infamous shipwrecks.

The ship Costa Concordia was operated by

the notable Italian cruise line Costa Conciere
which was established in 1854. Since the year
1947 when the company commenced
passenger services, it has established a good
reputation over the years and ultimately
became one of the largest cruise operators in
the world.

However the capsizing of one of its star

cruise ships barely 7 years in service not only
left a dent on the company’s reputation but
also raised serious concerns over
international .

The following article sheds light on the

reasons behind the capsizing as well as lists
out the circumstances that led to the disaster.

The Accident

On the night of January 13, 2012, Costa

Concordia struck her port side on an
underwater reef near the Italian island of
Isola del Giglio. The ship immediately lost all
propulsive power and soon after there was a
complete blackout as water reached the
electrical panels. The breach resulted in a 60-
meter long gash in the ship’s hull. This led to
the rapid flooding of the watertight
compartments and ultimately led to its
capsize.
It’s difficult to comprehend the fact that such
an incident can happen given the availability
of advanced technology and instrumentation
giving precise and detailed information of
every possible circumstance a ship may face.
From rough seas to mapping of the ocean
floor to high-speed winds; all relevant data is
available with a ship at regular intervals. The
topography of any area in which the ship sails
forth is already available on board a ship.

Despite all this, the ship Costa Concordia

struck an underwater reef off the coast of the
Italian Island Isola del Giglio and grounded,
finally resting on the rocks near the coast.

What went wrong that night?

A big question arises as to why was the ship

sailing so near the coast in the first place
which ultimately led to one of the most
horrifying disasters in international cruising.

Most cruise ships perform what is called a

Sail – By Maneuver. The ship takes a slight
deviation from its official course to sail near
an island just to give the passengers a unique
glimpse of it and give a nod to the fellow
sailors on land. This is a routine manoeuvre
in cruise lining and has been practised
successfully across the world for years. The
ship’s deviation course is plotted in such a
way so that it is at a minimum safe distance
from the island to prevent any situation of
grounding in shallow waters or due to the
presence of rocks and reefs near the coast.
Concordia had earlier also performed it for
the same island in its past voyages.

So what possibly went wrong this time

endangering the lives of around 4000 people
on board which would ultimately change the
cruising industry forever.
Concordia’s deviation course required it to
stay at least 1500 ft away from the island. But
as it turned out the ship landed up around 659
meters closer to the coast. This egregious
error due to a series of miscommunications
between the captain, first officers and the
officer at the helm is reflected later in the
investigative report.

Because of the incorrect heading angles, the

turning radius of the ship was much wider
than it was supposed to be as per the
chartered deviation; ultimately bringing the
ship in close proximity to the shore.

By the time the captain realised the situation

and started giving a series of orders for
rudder turns, it was too late as the ship was
already in too close proximity and moving at
a speed of 16 knots. The erroneous
executions of an order by the helmsman and
delay in correcting them ultimately left
Concordia no chance to pass safely.
Different
Technologies For
Ballast Water
Treatment
The most common and economic means of
transporting goods are indeed the mighty
ships sailing all across the vast seas spread
across the world.

Ships are designed to carry a multitude of

cargo like oil, grains, machinery, fruits, etc.
and of course people. They move from port to
port, loading and unloading at every halt.

By the Archimedes principle, we expect that,

with every alteration in the weight of the
contents of the ship, the effective weight
changes, and that brings about a change in the
draught.
Fluctuating draught lines may adversely
affect the stability and manoeuvrability of the
ship structures. And most importantly, we can
never let the propeller, rudder and bulbous
bow to rise above the surface.

Here comes the importance of ballast. Ballast

by definition is any solid or liquid that is
brought on board a vessel to increase the
draught, change the trim, and regulate the
stability or to maintain the stress load within
acceptable limits.

With the introduction of steel-hulled vessels

and pumping technology, the water became
the perfect choice to be used as ballast, as it is
easily pumped in and out of ballast tanks,
possesses nearly no stability problems and is
available all over.
The process of ballasting is basically loading
water from one port and discharging it in the
other as per the requirement. Even though the
planet is blue all around, the water is not the
same everywhere and so is the ecosystem.

So while ballasting a ship, the water is being

taken from one ecosystem and mixed with
some other. This intermixing of untreated
ballast water has a lasting impact on the
environment of the native area. Along with
water, there are a plethora of aquatic species
present, including all sorts of bacteria,
microalgae, and various life stages of aquatic
and plant and animal species. Species are
considered alien if they are not native to a
particular ecosystem.

Under optimum conditions, the alien species

can survive and populate. Once they become
dominant, the native species find it difficult
to survive and may get extinct.

This breaks down the existing biodiversity of

the place; impacts coastal industries,
fisheries, and the local lives, be it economy or
health. The treatment of ballast water is hence
a necessary requirement in the efficient
design of a ship, especially in the current era
of green shipping.

Ballast water treatment

IMO’s “International Convention for the

Control and Management of Ship’s Ballast
Water and Sediments”, has made the
implementation of ballast water treatment
systems a priority.

A practical method to minimize the

introduction of alien species from the ballast
water discharge is Ballast Water Exchange.

The coastal water which can be fresh water or

salt water is flushed out of the tanks with
open ocean water, generally 200 Nautical
miles away from the nearest land, at least
having a depth of 200m.
It is expected that the temperature and the
salinity differences would result in fewer
chances of the survival of the added
organisms. However, it has been determined
that this method does not provide adequate
measures to prevent damage taking place in
the ballast vessel from the species.

Ballast water treatment technologies

The technology for treating ballast water can

be either port-based or ship-based, the latter
being the more viable option.

Port-Based treatment:

This treatment requires that the ballast water

be transferred to an offshore facility and then
the necessary treatment is carried out. Valdez
Marine Terminal, Alaska has one kind of
ballast water treatment facility for decades to
remove residual hydrocarbons from dirty
ballast water.
Onboard treatment:

Currently, the on-board technologies

available for ballast water treatment can be
categorized based on their primary
mechanism for inactivating the organisms;
namely, Mechanical, Physical and Chemical.

Mechanical Systems
• Filtration:

Filtration is an effective method against

sediments and various types of organisms.
The physical separation can be done either
during loading ballast or during the voyage.
In this method, the particles are removed with
disk and screen filters during ballast loading.
These filtration systems can create pressure
depressions and a decreased flow rate due to
a resistance in the filter elements.

• Cyclonic Separation:

Cyclonic Separation is used for those

particles with a specific gravity greater than
that of water. The particles get separated from
the water due to centrifugal forces. It is
normally done using hydro-cyclones.

• Electro-Mechanical Separation:

A flocculent is added that attaches to

organisms and sediments. They are
magnetically separated and then filtered.

Physical Disinfection
• Ultraviolet Light:

UV systems are the most popular option at

present. The UV radiation is used to attack
the organisms outright or to destroy their
ability to reproduce. The efficiency depends
on the turbidity of the ballast water as this
can limit the transmission of the UV
radiation. The UV systems are suitable for
any vessel but preferably for those who do
not take in much ballast water and have flow
rates of up to 1000 cubic metres per hour like
RO-RO vessel, container ships, offshore
supply vessels and ferries.
Port Of Baltimore
Welcomes Largest
Container Ship Ever
To Visit Maryland
The Evergreen Triton landed in the Helen Delich Bentley
Port of Baltimore with a capacity of 14,424 Twenty-foot
Equivalent (TEU) containers, making it the largest container
ship to ever visit Maryland. The supersized ship was able to
dock in Baltimore thanks to the port's infrastructure, which
allows it to handle some of the world's largest ships.

“Every year, we see larger and larger container ships

choosing the Port of Baltimore thanks to Maryland's
investment in a 50-foot berth,” said Governor Larry Hogan.
“Maryland is a business-friendly state. The Port of Baltimore
is a vital part of the state's economy, supporting thousands of
jobs in the freight industry.”

The 11,000-TEU container ship Gunde Maersk, which

arrived at the Port of Baltimore in October, was previously
the largest container ship to visit the port. The Port of
Baltimore is one of the few ports on the East Coast with a
50-foot deep channel and a 50-foot deep berth required to
accommodate the mega-ships travelling through the recently
expanded Panama Canal, thanks to a public-private
partnership between the Maryland Department of
Transportation Maryland Port Administration (MDOT MPA)
and Ports America Chesapeake. Seagirt Marine Terminal, the
Port's container terminal, is operated by Ports America
Chesapeake.

“We are very happy to welcome our largest ever container

ship, the Evergreen Triton, to the Port of Baltimore,” said
MDOT Maryland Port Administration Executive Director
James J. White. “Under Governor Hogan’s leadership, we
are well positioned to continue to welcome ships of this size
and make the necessary infrastructure improvements to grow
our port and support Maryland being open for business.”

In December, MDOT MPA and Ports America Chesapeake

announced a $32.7 million project to develop a second 50-
foot-deep container berth at Seagirt Marine Terminal. When
completed, this second berth will allow the Port of Baltimore
to handle two supersized container ships simultaneously.
Construction on the new berth is expected to commence by
the end of 2019.
The berth is expected to become operational by early 2021.
“We’re thrilled to see the TRITON here in Baltimore after
coming through the expanded Panama Canal,” said Bayard
Hogans, Vice President, Ports America Chesapeake. “The
partnership between the Port of Baltimore, Ports America
Chesapeake and Evergreen will continue to allow the world’s
largest container ships to deliver the goods and commodities
that power America’s economy through Maryland. Ports
America Chesapeake is committed, with continued
investment and expansion, to utilizing advanced technologies
and enhanced infrastructure to deliver world-class service.”

The Port of Baltimore is one of Maryland’s top economic

generators. The 2017 Economic Impact of the Port of
Baltimore in Maryland report determined business at the Port
of Baltimore generated about 15,330 direct jobs and more
than 139,180 jobs linked to Port activities.
The Port is responsible for nearly $3.3 billion in personal
wages and salaries, $2.6 billion in business revenues, and
$395 million in state and local tax revenues. The report also
determined that the Port continues to deliver good-paying
jobs with the Port’s average annual salary for the direct job
holder being 9.5% higher than the average annual wage for
the state of Maryland.

The Port of Baltimore is coming off a record-breaking year

in 2018. A record 43 million tons of international cargo was
handled last year by the combined state-owned public and
the privately owned marine terminals. That surpassed the
previous high mark of 40.9 million tons in 1974. The value
of the cargo passing through the Port in 2018 was also a new
benchmark: $59.7 billion, surpassing the previous $53.9
billion set in 2017.
The Port’s state-owned public terminals handled a record
10.9 million tons of general cargo last year marking the third
consecutive year exceeding the 10-million-ton plateau. In
2018, the Port handled 1,023,152 TEU containers marking
the first year ever it had exceeded one million. The Port also
handled a record 850,147 cars and light trucks in 2018, the
most in the U.S. for the eighth consecutive year.

The 43 million tons in 2018 was enough to move the Port of

Baltimore up one slot in cargo handled to 11th among major
U.S. ports, and the $59.7 billion total cargo value ranked
ninth nationally. Among the nation’s ports, the Port of
Baltimore ranks first for autos and light trucks, roll on/roll
off heavy farm and construction machinery, imported sugar
and imported gypsum. The Port ranks second in exported
coal.
BIMCO: Only
International Action
Will Stop Increase In
Piracy
A fresh annual report from the International
Maritime Bureau shows that attacks in West
Africa helped push piracy numbers up in
2018. In terms of military and law
enforcement, an international operation is not
complicated, so what is needed above all is
the will to act.

According to the bureau’s report, there were

201 incidents in total* reported to the bureau
last year. That is a rise from 180 incidents in
2017 and from 191 in 2016. Of this, 48
incidents took place in Nigeria, up from 33 in
2017 and 36 incidents in 2016.

The report also showed that the region saw a

considerable spike in violence in the last
quarter of the year, with 40 kidnappings in
the waters off Nigeria alone. In West Africa,
there appears to be challenges with
underreporting, which is estimated at as much
as 40%, the report says.

Where there is a will…

Turning the tide of piracy and attacks is not a

difficult operation in terms of military and
law enforcement, according to Jakob P.
Larsen, BIMCO Head of Maritime Security.
The will to act and get both local and
international involvement and cooperation on
the other hand, may be.

“To be honest, unless we see international

naval support and close cooperation between
international navies and local law
enforcement, I doubt that we will see the
numbers go down in any significant way,”
Larsen says.

“Significant capacity building is going on in

the region and naval forces are being trained,
but these initiatives are all aimed at the longer
term and do not solve the problem right now.
Therefore, we need to step up the effort. Only
then can we really turn the tide on piracy in
the region,” he says.

Larsen believes that what is needed is to

combine the capacity building with more
assets at sea and in the air in order to achieve
a more robust local law enforcement.

Not a complicated operation from a

military point of view

He has noticed a tendency to believe that

because of other marine activity in the area
such as supply vessels, fishing vessels and
other small boats, an anti-piracy operation
would be very difficult, complicated and
involve a big risk of firing at the wrong
people.

“I don’t agree. I don’t think it is very

difficult, nor too risky, and I believe that the
challenges are sometimes exaggerated,”
Larsen says.

“From a strictly military and law enforcement

point of view, this is not a complicated
operation, and it has been done before in
other parts of the World with success. It may
however be complicated from a political
point of view. It all comes down to will. If
local politicians and the international
community are willing to support this, then it
can be done relatively easily,” he says.

Today, the local navies are doing a

tremendous job with the resources they have
available. Battling both insurgencies, terror
organisations and other criminal activities
however, there is simply not enough law
enforcement resources to fully tackle the
piracy threat. The result is that pirates
continue to strike in the Gulf of Guinea and
continue to constitute a big threat to
commercial shipping.

“In the light of the new report, showing that

piracy rose in 2018, we are once again calling
for international navies to deploy to the
region of West Africa primarily, and to
cooperate closely with law enforcement from
the region,” Larsen says and continues:

“This is in the interest of everybody. It is

obviously in the interest of the seafarers, but
each and every one of the naval powers in the
world have a strategic interest in this region,
since there is a lot of strategic commodities
that comes out of the Gulf of Guinea region.
It really is in the interest of the international
society to make this trade smoother, and to
protect the seafarers on whom we so deeply
depend to keep the trade flowing,” Larsen
says.
15 Types of
Navigation
Equipment and
Resources Used
Onboard Modern
Ships
Gone are the days when a ship navigation
officer had to take help of unconventional
ways to plan and navigate a voyage at sea.
Today, a ship officer has myriad of marine
navigation equipment which makes his life a
lot simpler, thanks to the advancement in
technology. Moreover, present-day seafarers
are trained so as to know the functioning and
operation of all modern day navigational
equipment that has made the journey at sea
smoother and safer.
With modern day facilities and automation, a
ship today has several advanced navigation
equipment systems which give accurate data
for the voyage.

Herein, we have enlisted 30 types of

navigational equipment, both old and new,
which are present on all merchant ships.

1. Gyro Compass
It is used for finding the right direction.
Unlike magnetic compass, gyro compass is
not hampered by an external magnetic field.
It is used to find the correct North Position,
which is also the earth’s rotational axis to
provide a stable directional source. Its
repeater system must be present in the
steering platform for emergency steering.

2. Radar

The seagoing vessels depend on S-band and

X-band frequency radar system for
navigation as it can detect targets and display
the information on the screen such as the
distance of the ship from land, any floating
objects (an island, rocks, iceberg etc.), other
vessels, and obstacles to avoid a collision. It
is a rotating antenna which discovers the
surrounding area of the ship.

3. Magnetic Compass
The magnetic compass work in conjunction
with the magnetic field of the earth and is the
essential means of the direction indicating
device. It is used to get a planned course for
the voyage. This ship navigation equipment is
usually fitted at the centre line of the ship on
the monkey island. A transmitting magnetic
type compass is fitted so that the output can
be displayed in the bridge panel.

4. Auto Pilot

The ship bridge layout is filled with

equipment and tools used for navigation. The
autopilot is considered to be one of the most
effective bridge navigational equipment as it
assists the human operator in controlling the
ship by keeping the steering in autopilot,
which allows them to concentrate on broad
aspects of the operation.

It is a combination of hydraulic, mechanical,

and electrical system and is used to control
the ship’s steering system from a remote
location (Navigation bridge).

5. ARPA
Automatic Radar Plotting Aid displays the
position of a ship and other vessels nearby.
The radar displays the position of the ships in
the vicinity and selects the course for the
vessel by avoiding any kind of collision.

This bridge navigational equipment

constantly monitors the ship’s surrounding
and automatically acquires the number of
targets, in this case; ships, boats, stationary or
floating objects etc., and plot their speeds and
courses respectively. It also presents them as
vectors on the display screen and constantly
update the parameters with each turn of the
antenna by calculating their nearest points of
approach to own ship and also the time before
this will occur.

6. Automatic Tracking Aid

Just like ARPA, automatic tracking aid
displays the information on tracked targets in
graphic and numeric to generate a planned
layout for a safer and collision-free course.

Usually, A large size target measuring 800 m

or more in the circumference is considered as
a landmass and not tracked. Echoes less than
800 m are deemed as targets to be tracked.

7. Speed & Distance Log Device

This bridge equipment on a ship is used to
measure the speed and the distance travelled
by a ship from a set point. By calculating the
same, ETA of the ship is adjusted or given to
the port authority and agent.

8. Echo Sounder
There are many modern ship navigation tools
present on ship and echo sounder is one of
the instruments which has been in the play
from almost 100 years now. It is used to
measure the depth of the water below the
ship’s bottom using sound waves which work
on the principle of transmission of sound
waves and an audio pulse which will bounce
off a reflecting layer, returning as an echo to
the source.

9. Electronic Chart Display Information

System
ECDIS is a development in the navigational
chart system used in naval vessels and ships.
With the use of the electronic navigation
equipment, it has become easier for a ship’s
navigating crew to pinpoint locations, and
attaining directions are easier than before.

10. Automatic Identification system

AIS is also among the types of a navigation
system which helps to pinpoint the location
and other navigational statistics of ships. AIS
uses VHF radio channels as transmitters and
receivers to send and receive messages
between ships which endeavours to fulfil a lot
of responsibilities.

As per the regulation enforced by The

International Maritime Organisation (IMO),
all passengers’ vessels and commercial ships
over 299 Gross Tonnage (GT) sailing in the
international to carry a Class A AIS
transponder.

11. Long Range Tracking and Identification

(LRIT) System
LRIT is an international tracking and
identification system incorporated by the
IMO under its SOLAS convention to ensure a
thorough tracking system for ships of 300
gross tons and above which are on
international voyages across the world. This
maritime equipment is fitted to improve the
maritime domain awareness.

12. Rudder Angle Indicator

Rudder angle indicator, as the name indicates,
provides the angle of the rudder. The display
is provided on the navigation bridge
equipment console so that the ship navigation
officer can control the rate of turn and rudder
angle of the ship. The indication is also
provided in the bridge wing and engine
control room.

13. Voyage Data Recorder

A VDR or voyage data recorder is a crucial

instrument among the ship navigation
equipment list which is installed on a ship to
continuously record vital information related
to the operation of a vessel. It contains a
voice recording system for a period of at least
the last 12 hours. This recording is recovered
and made use of for investigation in events of
accidents. The importance of VDR is similar
to a “black box” installed on an airplane.
14. Rate of turn indicator

This navigational tool indicates how fast the

ship is turning at a steady rate (useful during
pilotage and manoeuvring), normally shown
as a number of degrees turned.The rate a ship
is turning is measured in degrees per minute.
This essential tool assists a coxswain in
steering a course safely.

15. GPS Receiver

A Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver
is a display system used to show the ship’s
location with the help of Global positioning
satellite in the earth’s orbit.

With the record of the ship’s positions, the

speed, course, and the time is taken to cover
the distance between “two marked positions”
can be calculated.
Top 3 Free Marine
Compass Apps for
Android Smart
Phones
A marine compass is a necessary and
important gadget to possess on board ships.
While in the past, marine compasses had to
be carried as a separate gadget, considering
the technological advancements of today,
having a compass has become quite easier.
Smart phones have really revolutionized the
digital world.

Smart phone apps have become an integral

part of our lives. We use them for the
simplest job and also for the most complex
one. These apps have really brought the
whole world at everyone’s finger tips.

Coming back to marine compass, every

mariner knows its importance, especially
those on the deck side. If you are a smart
phone user with Android system (who is not
these days?) and want marine compass apps
that you can use not only on ships but also in
your normal life, then that is what we have
got here for you.

These compass apps are a must have for

every mariner. All the below mentioned apps
are FREE.

Compass PRO

A free app, Compass PRO integrates the best

of compassing with software application.
Understanding its usability is easy and hassle-
free as the user just needs to place his mobile
phone with the app running on the palm of
his hand or on any other flat surface.

Along with the conventional directional

signs, Compass PRO makes use of a unique
lubber pointer – lubber in marine lingo is
used to describe an inexperienced seafarer –
to enable further ease in deciphering the
directions.

Along the rim of the compass, numbers are

specified boldly which also adds to the user’s
ease. So if a user wants to confirm whether he
is headed in the right way or not, then he can
confirm with the help of the lubber pointer
which coincides with the numerals. In case of
any discrepancy, the user can retrace his steps
and change directions again.

AR Compass- 3D : Specifically built for the

newer versions of the Android smart phones,
the AR Compass provides a complete three-
dimensional experience for the user. The user
gets information about location and time of a
particular destination along with the
feasibility of sharing it with similar smart
phone users. The marine compass also comes
with a dual feature of being rotated
automatically and manually by the user. This
provides better viewing for the user whenever
required.

However, even as so many features are

equipped in the AR Compass, the fact that it
has been developed for Android editions of
2.2 and even newer, is its biggest
disadvantage. Users of older editions of the
smart phone are thus left without a viable and
dependable marine compass app.

Marine Compass by PierroX: Of the three

marine compasses specified here, PierroX is
the simplest and cleanest of all compass apps.
It provides features such as location display,
translucence, level of details and even full
screen mode.
15 Things To
Consider While
Using Radar On
Ships
The radar is one of the most used equipment
systems onboard ships. It is designed for
detecting and tracking targets a considerable
distance. Needless to say, it’s of great
practical value to the navigators.

Proper use of radar and radar plotting aids in

both restricted visibility and clear weather
can help prevent collisions and ensure the
safety of the ship. Accidents can occur if the
watch keeping officer is not fully conversant
with the operation of the equipment. For
reliable interpretation, it is essential that the
radar operating controls be adjusted properly.

In this article, we would like to discuss how

to interpret and understand a radar screen
display. Below attached is a picture of a radar
screen and the keyboard. This article will
help to understand the basic approach to the
use of radar.

1. CHOICE OF RANGE SCALE:

Appropriate range scales should be used
depending on the prevailing circumstances
and conditions of the environment the ship is
in. Where two radars are used, one radar can
be kept on a longer range scale to obtain
advance warning of the approach of other
vessels, changes in traffic density, or
proximity to the coastline. The other radar
can use a short range scale, which helps to
detect smaller targets easily. Use the RANGE
key in the keyboard to select the range
desired. The ‘+’ key increases the range
whereas the ‘-’ key decreases the range.

The range scale shown in the picture below is

6 miles and each fixed range ring is pre-
determined at an interval of 1 mile.

2. RANGE MEASUREMENT:
Measurement of range to a target can be
achieved either by the fixed range rings or the
Variable Range Marker (VRM). The fixed
range rings appear on the screen with a pre-
determined interval depending upon the range
scale in use and provide a rough estimate of
the range to a target. The current interval is
shown in the upper left position on the
screen. Count the number of rings between
the center of the display and the target to
measure the range to a target. The Variable
Range Marker’s diameter can be increased or
decreased so that the marker touches the
inner edge of the echo of the target thus
giving more accurate range measurements.
There are two sets of VRMs available and
they appear as dashed rings. Press the VRM
ON key to display either of the VRMs.

3. BEARING MEASUREMENT:
Electronic Bearing Lines is used to take the
bearing of targets. The EBL extends from the
own ship position to the circumference of the
radar screen. If bearing remains constant with
decreasing range, the risk of collision exists.

4. GAIN: The gain control on the keyboard is

used to adjust the sensitivity of the radar. It
should be so adjusted that the background
noise is just visible on the screen. In simple
words, if the gain is set too low, weak echoes
may be missed while excessive sensitivity
yields too much background noise. Echoes
from two targets on the same bearing can
appear as a single pip on the PPI or the radar
screen. A reduction in the gain setting is
therefore required in this situation.

5. REDUCING SEA CLUTTER / RAIN: If

rain or sea clutter is set too low, targets will
be hidden in the clutter whereas if set too
high can cause targets to disappear from the
radar screen. The radar can also detect rain,
snow or hail clutter in the same manner as
normal targets. The A/C RAIN and A/C SEA
control is used to adjust the rain and sea
clutter respectively. The scroll wheel is rolled
clockwise or anticlockwise to increase or
decrease the clutter.

6. OF CENTRE DISPLAY: Own ship

position can be displaced to expand the view
field without switching to a large range scale.
However while doing so care should be taken
that at least one mile of viewing range is kept
on the aft of the ship to view targets on the
ship’s aft or ships trying to overtake own
vessel. The cursor can be put to the position
where you wish to move the ship’s position
and then press the OFF CENTRE key on the
keyboard.
7. TARGET TRAILS: Target trails can be
of great assistance to the radar observer in
making an early assessment of the situation.
The trail can either be relative or true.
Relative trail shows relative movement
between own ship and target. True trail
presents true target movements depending on
their over the ground speed and course.
Relative trails give an early indication if a
close quarter situation is developing or risk of
collision exists. Relative trails when
combined with true vectors gives an
indication of the relative movement of other
vessels and the risk they present. The trail
time can be adjusted as per requirement.

8. PI (PARALLEL INDEX) LINES: This is

a useful method of monitoring cross track
tendency. It helps us to assess the distance at
which the ship will pass a fixed object on a
particular course. The index line is drawn
parallel to the planned ground track and
should touch the edge of a radar echo of a
fixed object, at a range equal to the desired
passing distance. Any cross track tendency
(such as caused by a tidal stream, drift or
current) becomes apparent as the target
moves off the parallel line. This technique
can be used in both relative and true motion.
Use the trackball to select the PI line number
box. Select a PI line number and push left
button to turn it off or on. Roll the scroll
wheel to adjust the PI line orientation
(between 000°T to 359.9°T).

9. HEADING/SPEED/COURSE: The top

right corner of the radar screen display shows
the heading, speed, course, and speed over
the ground, own ship position, and the source.
Speed can be entered from a log(STW) or
GPS(SOG) or manually.

Speed over the ground (SOG) IS the speed of

the vessel referenced to the surface of the
earth. Speed through the water (STW) is the
speed of the vessel referenced to the water in
which it is navigating. In general, STW is
used for radar collision avoidance to provide
a more accurate indication of the target’s
aspect and SOG is used for navigation.

10. BRILLIANCE: The overall brilliance of

the screen can be adjusted according to
lighting conditions using the BRILL KEY by
turning clockwise or anti-clockwise. The
brilliance box at the bottom left corner of the
screen provides various palettes and other
options as shown below. Select the item
needed and roll the scroll wheel to adjust the
brilliance. The brilliance menu can be seen by
right-clicking on the brilliance box.

11. WATCH ALARM: the function of the

watch alarm is quite similar to that of
BNWAS. The watch alarm sounds the audio
alarm at selected time intervals to help keep
regular watch of the radar picture. The
countdown starts from the value set. Officers
often need to spend time inside chart table
thus sometimes forgetting to keep a radar
watch. Watch alarm can, therefore, be used to
avoid being occupied for a long time inside
radio room or chart room. The ALARM 1
and 2 in the picture below is used to set up
the alarm. The ALARM ACK key should be
pressed to silence the alarm.

12. VECTOR MODE: target vectors CAN

BE SET relative to own ship’s heading
(RELATIVE) or North (TRUE). When
determining close quarter situation or risk of
collision exist use of relative vectors is
preferred. It is a good practice to switch
between true and relative vectors to gain a
better appreciation of the navigational
situation. When using a true vector, own ship
and other ship moves at their true speed and
course. True vectors can distinguish between
moving and stationary targets. The relative
vector helps to find ships on a collision
course. A ship whose vector passes through
own ship’s position is on a collision course.
The Vector Length can be adjusted to the
required time frame. It is useful to have both
relative and true information visible
simultaneously; this can be achieved by
selecting relative vectors with true trails.
Combining true vectors with true trails will
give no indication of the relative movement
of other vessels and the risk they present.
Shift the cursor to vector mode box and left
click to select the vector required. The vector
time can also be selected using the left
button.
In the picture above, the vector mode is
relative and trail used is true.

12. PAST POSITION: The past position Is a

useful indicator. These history dots are placed
at a fixed preset interval. Dots in a straight
line at even spacing indicate a steady course
and speed by the targets. Any changes can be
noted as the spacing becomes uneven.
Change of course will not be shown in a
straight line. A curve in the trail indicates an
alteration of course whereas the change in the
spacing of the plots indicates a change in the
speed of the target. The past data can also
help the observer to check whether a
particular target has maneuvered in the recent
past, possibly while the observer was away
from the display on other bridge duties.
However past position, if used can clutter the
screen and should be avoided in heavy traffic
as the plots of different targets start crossing
and overlapping each other and should be
used with caution.

13. MARK: The MARK menu enables the

officer to mark any prominent target or a
point of particular interest. For example, you
can use the trackball to select the desired
mark from the mark box at the left side of the
screen. Also, you can drop anchor mark by
entering the Anchor coordinates provided by
VTS in port areas in the Mark menu. Right-
click to open the mark menu and use L/L to
enter the coordinates.

14. TARGET TRACKING/ AIS DATA

BOX: appears on the right side of the radar
screen. It provides information of
automatically or manually acquired targets
including display of range, bearing, course,
speed, CPA and TCPA, BCR and BCT. The
target list provides a comprehensive data
display of all targets being tracked. To
acquire a target on the radar screen, simply
move the cursor to the target and left click.
The TARGET ACQUIRE key on the
keyboard can also be used to acquire the
target. The CPA limit box can be used to set
the range and time for CPA as required. If a
target is predicted to breach the CPA limits,
the alarm will sound and/or displayed.

15. PRESENTATION MODES: Radar

users must clearly understand what they are
seeing. North up relative motion is the normal
default radar display format. Within that
relative and true vector and trails can be
selected. The North Up mode shows the
targets in their true (compass) directions from
own ship, North being maintained up on the
screen. The heading marker changes its
direction according to the ship’s heading. If
the TRUE motion is used, own ship and other
moving targets move according to their
course and speed. Fixed targets such as
landmasses appear as stationary echoes. In
the pictures above, the presentation mode
used is North Up Relative Motion.

The radar display provides the operator a

bird’s eye view where other targets are
portrayed relative to own ship. It is an
invaluable aid to navigation. Proper use and
close monitoring of the radar especially in
reduced and restricted visibility can help
avoid the close quarter situation and/or
collision. It is therefore important that all
radar users understand its use and have a
thorough knowledge of the equipment.
10 Things to
Consider While
Using Auto-Pilot
System on Ships
Back in the old days of merchant shipping, the ‘Quarter
Master’ was a vital member of the Bridge team. ‘Quarter
Master’ was the title given to the able bodied seamen whose
primary responsibility was to steer the ship according to the
Master’s and Officer’s helm orders. Quarter Masters kept
watches and took turns on the helm all day when at sea. This
practise continued until automation took over in the field of
navigation. The significance of Quarter Master almost
vanished off when the revolutionary equipment ‘Auto-Pilot’
was invented. It was during the early 1920’s when an
automated steering and helm control system was introduced
onboard merchant ships.

Auto-Pilot system is considered as one of the most advanced

and technically sophisticated navigational equipment tools
on ships. Auto-Pilot is synchronised with the Gyro Compass
to steer manually input courses, with reference to the gyro
heading. Auto Pilot steers the manually input course by
controlling the steering gear to turn the rudder in the required
manner. Furthermore, modern auto-pilot systems are capable
of being synchronised with the Electronic Chart system
(ECDIS) enabling to follow the courses laid out in the
Voyage plan. This feature cuts out the need of manual course
changes and alterations as the system will follow the courses
and alterations as per the voyage plan.

Auto-pilot system is surely an undeniable boon in modern

navigation. However over-reliance on the equipment and
poor comprehension of its efficiency and limitations has
resulted in several accidents at sea. This was also because of
the inability of the operators to study the equipment beyond
its basic features.

The below notes are a brief outline of 10 important points to

be considered while operating Auto-pilot system onboard for
safe and smooth navigation.

1. Rate of Turn and Rudder Limits

The method of turn is the most important control of the

Auto-Pilot system. The system will use the selected turn
method for course alterations. The user can input the limit of
such turn methods, which are as follows

a. Rate of Turn

This is the most commonly used turn method. In this method,

the user can set a value of turn rate between 1-300 degrees
(varies on different models). When turning, the rudder will
move as much as it takes to attain the required turn rate
without exceeding the set value. The officer must consider
the vessel’s manoeuvring characteristics and set a value safe
for the vessel.
b. Rudder Limits

Rudder limit method allows the user to set a value from 1

degree to the max rudder angle. In this method, while
altering course the rudder will not exceed more than the set
limit. Again, the vessel’s manoeuvring characteristics should
be considered while choosing the rudder value.

Modern systems allow turning by radius as well. In such

method the user can input turn radius in nautical miles.

2. Steering Gear Pumps

Steering gear pumps are used to pump hydraulic oil to

actuate the steering gear unit (RAM) which in turn moves the
rudder in the required direction. That means, when more
pumps are running, the rudder will move more swiftly. The
number of pumps available varies as per the steering gear
unit.

The officer of watch should be aware of the pumps and use it

wisely.

If operating the auto-pilot in areas with traffic density where

sudden and swift alterations are required, maximum steering
gear pumps shall be running.

In ocean cruising and open sea navigation with less traffic,

the pumps running shall be reduced to its minimum.

3. Off Course Alarm

An off-course alarm serves for the purpose of notifying the

operator if there is any difference in the set course and the
actual heading of the vessel. The user can manually set the
required amount of degrees, after which an alarm will sound
to notify the user that the set degree of difference has
exceeded.

However, the user has to keep a check on the course changes

as in some cases when the gyro compass wanders its course,
the auto-pilot will follow the wandering compass and fail to
sound the alarm.

4. Manual Mode

The steering controls of the system can be categorised as

Automatic and Manual mode. It allows the ship to be
navigated either in Manual mode or Automatic mode by
switching the controls.

In Manual Mode, the vessel can be hand steered by using the

Follow-Up Helm or a Non-Follow up emergency tiller.

Hand steering is used when the ship is manoeuvring, and

navigating in restricted waters, channels and areas with
traffic density traffic density.

NFU tiller when used will move the rudder in a desired

direction but not to a specific angle. This is used in case of
emergencies.

The user must be familiar with the procedure of inter-

switching from Auto and Manual modes.

5. Traffic Density

The use of Auto-Pilot is not recommended when navigating

in areas with high traffic density, narrow channels and traffic
separation schemes and other restricted waters. The auto
pilot may not be efficient enough to turn the vessel
spontaneously while navigating in such areas demanding
swift alterations and manoeuvres to avoid a collision or close
quarter situation. If the auto-pilot is used in such cases, all
the steering gear pumps shall be switched on for better
rudder response.

6. Speed

The system works inefficiently on reduced speeds. The use

of the auto-pilot is not recommended when the ship is
manoeuvring or steaming in very less speed.

The system allows the users to synchronise with the Speed

Log to receive feeds on the ship’s speed. The users should
keep a check on the speed log as any error in the log speed
will reflect in the auto-pilot system.

The system also allows the users to manually input the

speed, when doing so it is important to set a value as close as
possible to the actual speed of the vessel.

7. Weather Conditions

Rough weather and hostile sea conditions have adverse

effects on the performance of the auto-pilot. Uncontrolled
yawing of the ship can result in excessive rudder movement.
Modern auto-pilot system has Weather control option in
which the system automatically adjusts the setting to adapt to
the changing weather and sea conditions. It also provides an
option for the user to manual set a specific value.
8. Gyro Compass

The Auto-Pilot system is functionally dependant on the Gyro

Compass. If there is any error or fluctuation in the gyro
heading, there will be an equivalent change in the course
steered. In worse cases, when gyro fails, the system will lose
track on its heading and will be unable to steer the required
course.

In any case of emergency, power blackout or gyro failure the

system should be immediately changed over to Manual mode
and use the helm to steer the course using Magnetic
compass.

9. Important Alarms and signals

Apart from off course alarm, an auto pilot must be

integrated with:

a. Failure or reduction in power alarm, which will sound in

the event of auto pilot failure or in case when there is
reduction in the power supply to heading control or
monitoring system

b. Sensor status monitoring: If any of the sensors in the auto

pilot system fails to respond, it should be indicated by an
audible alarm in the monitoring system

c. Heading monitor: If the ship is required to carry two

independent compasses, a heading monitor to track the
current heading information by independent heading sources
must be provided. An audio-visual alarm both to be provided
if the heading information in use diverts from the second
heading source beyond a set limit. It should also be provided
with clear indication of actual heading source.

10. Important Limitations: The auto pilot system must be

such that the preset heading cannot be altered by intentional
intervention of onboard personal and the heading control
system should change the course to preset heading without
overshooting its position .
10 Important Things
To Do During Ship
Collision Accident
Even with the latest developments in navigational equipment
and communication systems, collision accidents between
ships continue to occur around the world. Some of the main
reasons for such accidents are negligence, incompetence and
miscommunication.

Ship Collision just do not leave the ships damaged; they can
also lead to major pollutions and claim several innocent
lives. Not to forget the ill fated ferry MV Dona PAZ, a
Philippine registered passenger ferry, that collided with MT
Vector an oil tanker on 20th December 1987 and killed 4386
lives including 11 crew members from MT vector.

Considering the vulnerability of such situation mentioned

below are important points to consider when a vessel meets
with such unfortunate emergency .
Note: It should be understood that the following points are
just for the purpose of guidance, and during a real situation,
one’s knowledge, seamanship and personal competence
come in to play in handling the situation and saving lives.

1. Inform the Master and Engine room: This is obvious,

but make sure you inform the Master, if he is not on bridge.
Inform the engine room and stop the engine. The officer on
watch should not hesitate to call the master even if he has the
slightest doubt about any given situation. (The decision to
stop the engine would depend on the severity of the accident
and immediate action to be taken.)

Master’s experience, knowledge and his overriding authority

helps in making quick and bold decisions to save lives. Once
the master takes over the command of the situation, act on
his orders. Mark the position of collision on chart or by
pressing the mob button on GPS for future reference. Exhibit
NOT UNDER COMMAND (NUC) signal if the ship has lost
its headway completely.

2. Immediately Send Distress Signal: Send designated or

undesignated distress messagesthrough VHF ,MF/HF, SAT
C or any other available means, depending on the sea area
you are in and time limit you have. If you have enough time
inform the company and the nearest coast radio station about
the incident.

3. Record Important Data: Record the time of ship

collision, name and IMO number of the vessel(s) you
collided with. Waste no time in arguing with other vessel.
Leave VHF channel 16 unoccupied, through which, you can
get necessary information regarding assistance and help if
the situation demands. Use any other VHF channel for
inter/intra ship communication. If possible, take a
photograph of the collision from a secure location.
4. Sound the Alarms: Sound the general emergency alarm;
general alarm signal is sounded as precaution. It should not
be mistaken as a signal for abandoning the ship. Take
attendance, if anybody is missing report the same to the
master. Inform the officer responsible on muster station
about the situation. Make arrangements, to search and find
the missing person. The responsible officers and crew should
lower the life boats up to embarkation deck and make all
arrangements to abandon the vessel at quick notice. It should
be noted that engine room should not be left unattended if
the impact of collision is minimal, which do not need an
immediate evacuation of the compartment. Also, the engine
room in-charge should ensure all officers and crew working
in the engine room are ready with their life jackets and TPA
if immediate evacuation is required in the later stages.

5. Assess the Damage: Send an officer responsible to the

area where the vessels have taken the impact. Inquire about
the percentage of damage occurred. If the damaged area is an
enclosed space, ensure to take all necessary precautions, for
enclosed space entry. Make an assessment of the damage and
report the same to master. Any decision should be taken by
the master or if the master is incapable of making decision or
carry out his duties, the person next to his command should
do so.

6. Take the Soundings: Send crew to take sounding of all

ballast tanks, fresh water tanks, and wing tanks. Give
instruction to engine room to take sounding of all tanks in
engine room. All tanks soundings are to be taken and
recorded, because the tanks far away from the impact can
experience damage or crack due the shock created by the
collision. Record the sounding of all tanks and compare it
with the previous sounding data. If there is any change in the
sounding, there can be a crack or a hole in the tank. The
sounding of the particular tank or tanks should be monitored
carefully and the rate of increase or decrease in water should
be calculated.

7. Take Immediate Action In Case of Damage: If any tank

or tanks appeared to have suffered damage and ingress of
water is confirmed, make necessary arrangements to pump
out the water. If the pumps are not effective and cannot
contain the ingress of water the whole compartment can be
sealed preventing other compartments from being flooded. If
a self- closing water tight door is provided, it should be
operated from the bridge itself.

8. Check For Oil Spill: If any of the fuel tanks or oil tank is
damaged and if there is imminent danger of oil spill. The
procedures mentioned in SOPEP plan should be followed to
contain the oil spill.

9. Reach The Nearest Port, If Possible: If the master

attempts to correct adverse list or trim, he should consider
the effects of shear force, bending movements, free surface
effect when transferring liquids and blasting and de-blasting
on the hull. If the own ship to be afloat without danger and
engines are ready to maneuver, set course for the nearest port
for repair. All the above mentioned duties have to be carried
out in a very quick sequence and with utmost precision as
collision can lead to other emergencies simultaneously.

10. Abandon The Ship Only if Everything Else Fails: If

the own vessel appears to be sinking and leaving no other
choice except to abandon the vessel, it should be a verbal
order from the master. It should be always kept in mind that
a ship is the best lifeboat. The master and crew should
always try and carry out all necessary means to keep it afloat.
But once the decision is made to abandon the vessel, no time
should be wasted. All crew should carry out their duties
effectively and escape from the sinking ship as quickly and
as far away as possible.

Even with strict regulations for training and qualification of

seafarers, many a time the crew gets panicked and forgets the
duties during such emergency. Though it is easier said than
done, the crew should be trained well on board by regular
drills. They should be well informed about the use of life
saving equipment and their operating procedures. If a new
person joins the vessel, he should be well familiarized with
vessels, emergency procedures, escape routes, location of life
saving equipment etc. before the vessel leaves the port. Any
emergency requires quick and prompt response from the
crew and this can be only achieved by regular training and
practice of such emergencies as mock drills.

The above mentioned is not an exhaustive list but a general

overview of things that need to be done in case of collision
accident. The points must be taken only as reference and one
must always be guided by practices of good seamanship.
Pros and Cons of
ECDIS Or Paperless
Navigation Of Ships
A mere 15 years back, navigators would have
scoffed at the idea of Paperless Navigation on
big ocean going ships. After all, since
centuries, navigational paper charts had been
the heart and soul of ship navigation.
Imagining that a day would come where we’d
no longer have them onboard was nothing
short of blasphemy.

Every single navigating officer who’s been

out at sea “long enough” still fondly
recollects joining vessels with his own
treasured Chart Correction Pen. However, the
unthinkable did happen. The transition started
slowly with smaller vessels like pleasure
crafts, tug boats and yachts. But now, armed
with the IMO mandate for compulsory
ECDIS carriage, the big vessels such as the
super tankers and giant container vessels are
also running smoothly without paper charts.
Who’s responsible for this change? Well it is
none other than the Electronic Chart Display
and Information System aka ECDIS.

Although, a bit biased towards the old school

paper chart navigation, I cannot deny the fact
that ECDIS does have an edge over paper
charts. Let’s discuss some of the pros and
cons of paperless navigation.

The Pros:

1. Availability: One of the great advantages

of ECDIS over paper charts is the availability
of electronic charts – especially when voyage
orders are received at the last minute. Gone
are the days when Second Mates huddled
over the good old NP 131 (chart catalogue) to
determine what charts they require for the
voyage. This was followed by the arduous
task of ordering these charts and hoping that
they arrive in time. More often than not, this
proved a major challenge especially on
tramper trades which tend to get last minute
voyage orders. With vessels going chartless,
all that the Second Mate needs to do now is
plot a rough course in the voyage planner and
a list of all the required paper charts is
populated. The Master then emails this list to
the chart supplier, who will then send the
activation codes for those charts. A task that
with skill and practice required hours now
takes a few minutes.

2. Speed and Accuracy: With ECDIS as the

primary source of navigation, the Navigating
Officer can plan and summarise the passage
much faster than on Paper Charts. Most
ECDIS units have a facility where the
waypoints can be imported into an excel
format which reduces the effort to manually
input the waypoints when compiling the
Voyage Plan. Daily reporting data such as
Distance to Go, Distance Covered, Average
Speed, etc. can be done quickly with hardly
any effort.

3. Corrections: Before the advent of

paperless navigation, the largest chunk of the
Navigating Officer’s work time was
consumed in Correcting Charts. Correcting
charts with speed and accuracy was a skill
that took a long time to master. Even then
there was a possibility of the occasional
erroneous correction. The Temporary and
Preliminary (T&P) Notices were especially
tedious since these came without tracings and
required a thick file to be maintained.
Keeping the world folio updated was a matter
of pride which came with a lot of bragging
rights. All that has changed with paperless
navigation. The Navigating Officer now
receives weekly updates to the Electronic
Charts via Email which he has to download
onto a zip drive and upload them to the
ECDIS. Even the dreaded T&P notices are
now shown electronically on the ECDIS.

4. Continuous Monitoring of Vessel’s

Position: One of the single biggest
advantages of the ECDIS over paper charts is
its ability to enable the user to see the
vessel’s position in real time without user
action. The ECDIS is interfaced with both the
vessel’s independent GPS transceivers,
thereby making the system work even if one
fails. However, we all know that GPS signals
can be unreliable and are prone to errors
occasionally. This problem can be overcome
by using the Radar Overlay and Echo
Referencing facility in the ECDIS and Radar.
The Radars need to be interfaced with the
ECDIS for this. Once this is done, the user
will have to activate the overlay tab of the
ECDIS which will super impose the Radar
Screen on the ECDIS. By checking that the
Radar Echo is matching with the ECDIS
display, one can be assured that the positions
can be relied upon.

Another feature enabling continuous position

monitoring, especially during coastal
navigation is ARPA Echo Referencing. This
is done by acquiring a fixed / stationary target
such as a small island, lighthouse, rock etc.
on the Radar (ARPA) and then activating the
ARPA tab on the ECDIS. Next step is to
deselect the Secondary Position Source on the
ECDIS as GPS and select Echo Reference in
its place. Once enabled, this gives the user
visual indication of the past tracks of both the
Primary (GPS) and Secondary (Echo
Reference) position fixing modes.

Finally, one can also use the Radar Range

and Bearings to plot positions on the ECDIS
display, just like on paper charts. All types of
ECDIS these days come with an option of
manually plotting the position using the
Range / Bearing method. One simply has to
take the range and bearing from a suitable
radar object and plot this on the ECDIS by
using the Range / Bearing function of the
ECDIS itself. In ECDIS terminology, this is
referred to as a Line of Position (LOP). A
time stamp is printed on the ECDIS screen
(see figure below) with both the GPS
positions and the LOP. This serves as a ready
indication of any offset present between the
GPS and Radar fixes.

5. Anti-Grounding Alarms and Settings:

Though ECDIS has now evolved into a full-
fledged primary source of navigation, it was
born as an Anti-Grounding aid to Navigation.
Even to this day, the ability of the ECDIS to
warn the user of approaching shallow waters
make it one of the most useful equipment on
the bridge. The user has complete flexibility
to determine these safety settings on the
ECDIS. Most companies’ will have strict
guidelines on the minimum safety parameter
settings. As a minimum, the following serves
as a general guideline.
Safety Frame (Look Ahead): This is the
setting which will sound an alarm if the
vessel is within the limit specified. It should
generally be set at not lower than 10 minutes
in Open waters depending on the Speed of the
Vessel. This may be lowered in coastal
waters based on the situation.

Shallow Contour: This setting indicates the

non-navigable area and marks the boundary
outside of which the vessel may safely
navigate. Crossing this boundary will result
in the vessel running aground. Is usually
indicated by a Deep Blue Colour which
marks the non-navigable area. Usually set to
a value of the present deepest draught of the
vessel (without any squat or ukc factored in).

Safety Depth: This marks and highlights the

minimum depth required for the vessel to
remain safely afloat. As a thumb rule, Safety
Depth = Deepest Static Draught +
Anticipated Squat + Company’s Min UKC.
Safety Contour: In general, the Safety
Contour may be set equal to but not lower
than the Safety Depth setting. Waters with
depths lower than the Safety Contour should
be construed as No-Go Area. The Master may
set the Safety Contour to a value higher than
the Safety Depth if he determines that an
additional safety buffer would be required
depending on the prevailing circumstances
and conditions. Indicated by a Grey Coloured
area on the ECDIS.

Deep Contour: This setting is very handy for

vessels engaged in operations such as Tank
Cleaning or Ballast Water Exchange where it
is mandatory to carry out the operation in
waters exceeding a certain depth. Vessel’s
not engaged in such operations may set this
value as deemed appropriate but in any event
this should not be lower than the Safety
Contour. Indicated by a white coloured area
on the ECDIS screen.
6. User Determined Alarm Settings: While
there are certain safety critical alarms that are
ON by defaults and cannot be changed, there
are a host of other alarms and warnings which
may be switched on or off by the User
depending on the situation. Prudence should
be exercised when activating / deactivating
alarms and warnings. Too many alarms could
result in Alarm Deafness (more on this later)
and too few alarms might result in a false
sense of Safety. It is of utmost importance
that the Navigational Watchkeeping Officer
is fully familiar with all the Alarms and
Warnings which have been activated. A
handover checklist of the alarms and
warnings should be completed before taking
over the watch. Prior taking over the watch, it
is essential to note down what warnings /
alarms are already in place.

7. Enhances Search and Rescue Capability

onboard: Modern ECDIS units have the
option of interfacing NAVTEX and EGC
with the ECDIS display. Warnings and Alerts
are automatically displayed on the ECDIS
screen, whilst at the same time giving an
audible and visual indication on the unit
itself. Quick Range and Bearings are obtained
by the Electronic Range and Bearing Line
(ERBL) function. This enables the user to
quickly determine if the vessel is in a position
of providing assistance to the distressed craft.

The ECDIS unit also has a Man Overboard

(MOB) function which can be activated in the
event of a person falling overboard. This
marks the position / datum which is used as a
reference for Recover and Rescue.
Eg. Of NavWarning on ECDIS

Eg. Of Navtex SAR Message on Ecdis

8. Cost Efficient: Although, Electronic

charts are by no means cheap, they still have
an edge over paper charts dollar for dollar.
Electronic Chart Permits are obtained
electronically with minimum data usage.
Paper charts though, have to be delivered
physically which involved handling fees by
the agents, especially if ordered at the last
minute. On rare occasions vessel’s had to
divert only to pick up charts if the voyage
was changed at the last minute. This involved
massive costs such as Agency fees, Boat
costs etc. All this can be avoided by using
Electronic Charts.

9. Environmentally Friendly: Remember

having to dispose of all those old charts many
of which were never used? Now imagine
hundreds and thousands of vessels doing the
same. Not to mention the phenomenal
amount of paper that is used to print out
blocks, tracings and T&P notices. This
doesn’t happen with the ECDIS. The ECDIS
does pack in a strong punch in reducing the
carbon footprint of every vessel which goes
paperless.

Now everything can’t be hunky dory, can it?

Here are some of the things that go on to

prove that nothing in this world is perfect.
No, not even the ECDIS!

Cons:
1. Over-Reliance: With an equipment which
is seemingly fool-proof, there is a tendency
for navigators to over rely on it. The
consequences can be disastrous. Every once
in a while you see an erring Third Mate
tunnel visioned on the ECDIS. The ability
and need to keep a proper visual look out
cannot be over emphasised here. No matter
how good the ECDIS is, its performance still
largely depends upon the inputs. A vessel
could have switched off its AIS and hence
might not be displayed on the ECDIS. If the
Radar Overlay is not turned on, the vessel
will just not be seen on the ECDIS display.
Hence, it is very critical that Navigators
continue to maintain an efficient lookout and
a good radar watch. The purpose of the
ECDIS is to facilitate efficient navigation, not
to substitute it. It is still vitally important to
practice essential skills such as Radar
Plotting, Sights, Compass Errors etc which
will come in handy in the event of an ECDIS
breakdown. Also, it is very important to go
through the company’s procedures in the
event of ECDIS failure.

2. Garbage In Garbage Out (GIGO):

ECDIS at the end of the day, is a machine
and depends solely on the type of inputs that
it receives. Erroneous position inputs from
the GPS or loss of GPS signal can have grave
consequences with the ECDIS going in DR
mode. If the alarm is missed out, the result
can be disastrous. Hence, it is vitally
important to check the performance of
sensors and to carry out frequent comparisons
between the primary and secondary means of
position fixing. Other inputs such as the
GYRO, Anemometer, Echo Sounder, Navtex,
etc should be frequently verified
independently to ensure smooth operation.

3. Wrong Settings: Feeding in wrong

parameters for safety critical settings such as
the Safety Depths, Safety Contours etc can
give a false sense of safety. It is extremely
important that the Master himself checks
these settings each time they are changed.
These settings should be password protected
and every Navigator should verify them each
time prior taking over the watch. Alarms
should not be deactivated without strong
reason and never just for the sake of avoiding
frequent alarms. All the alarms in use should
be properly documented and their switching
on and off should be controlled by a defined
procedure.

4. Alarm Deafness: If alarms start going off

too frequently, the navigator could end up in
a dangerous situation called Alarm Deafness.
This leads to the watch keeper
acknowledging the alarm even without
checking what it was. He will eventually run
out of luck and there could be an occasion
where he might miss out on a critical warning
such as approaching shallow contour. Hence,
alarms should be carefully chosen which are
appropriate to the prevailing conditions.
Every single alarm should be checked and
investigated prior acknowledging.

5. System Lag: Modern ECDIS software can

have a lot of data to display. And with
various equipment interfaced with the
ECDIS, the system can slow down very
easily leading to system lag. The hardware
needs to keep up with the software and
frequent upgrades are necessary. A higher
RAM and a higher graphics card is a must.

6. Different Types: Navigation on paper

charts was a skill which had to be mastered
just once. It was then just routine practice
which kept one in tune with things. However,
this does not happen with ECDIS. Different
vessels will have different types of ECDIS
equipment. Even if the essential features are
the same, it still takes a lot of fiddling around
until one gets comfortable with the machine.
With today’s busy schedule, it is not
uncommon for navigators to take over duties
at the gangway itself. It is then left to
colleagues onboard to familiarise him with
various equipment. To overcome this
problem, many flag states have made it
mandatory for every seafarer to undergo type
specific ECDIS training prior joining the
vessel. Type Specific training has to be
imparted by the equipment manufacturer and
cannot be substituted by onboard training by
the Master. Logistically, it is extremely
difficult for every navigator to undergo this
type specific training especially when there is
a need to embark on a short notice. A work
around is that some companies have decided
to select a single Equipment manufacturer to
supply the company’s fleet with ECDIS
equipment. (Eg. Maersk Tankers has chosen
TRANSAS as their supplier). This eases the
training bottleneck considerably.

7. Anomalies: Every navigator needs to be

aware of the anomalies present in that
particular equipment. It could be a simple use
of the SCAMIN (Scale Minimum) function or
something serious where certain depths or
symbols might not be visible at a particular
scale or appear differently. Complete
familiarisation with the ECDIS equipment is
a must.

8. Information Overload: It is very easy to

over feed information on the ECDIS. A lot of
data which was earlier marked on charts such
as position for calling Master, notices to
Engine Room, Echo Sounder Switch on
points, Port Control VHF channels etc now
have to be fed on the ECDIS. The user needs
to be aware that some of this information can
be missed out in the clutter of information
already present on the ECDIS. Larger ECDIS
screens and better use of the Passage Plan
Hard Copy should be used as a workaround.

9. Resistance to Change: Although this

sounds like a trivial issue, it can be quite
problematic. Most of the present day
navigators have grown up in an era where
paper charts was the only means of
navigation. Not having these onboard could
for them mean not having an aid on which
they have relied all their lives. The transition
cannot be easy and this could create a mental
block for many. Hence it is vital, that senior
navigators embrace this new technology with
open arms and do their bit to improve the
process of change. Shipping companies, flag
states and Training Institutes need to identity
this issue and encourage senior seafarers to
undergo frequent refresher courses.
Types of Main
Bearings of Marine
Engines and their
Properties
The rotational power of a ship’s propeller is
determined by the power produced by the
marine engine to rotate the crankshaft. The
crankshaft of the main engine is supported
and connected to the connecting rod via main
Bearings whose main function is to transmit
the load without any metal to metal contact.

This is achieved by choosing special

materials for manufacturing main bearings
which floats the journal pin of the rotating
crankshaft when lube oil is supplied to it.

Properties of main bearing materials

 · It must be anti-friction resistant
· It must be of anti-corrosive type
· Good running in and grinding in
ability
· Good load carrying capacity
· Good embeddability property
· Must support the oil film
· Good tensile and compressive strength
· Must not react with the lube oil
· It must have thermal resistant property
to avoid any damage in case it’s running
hot

Types of Main Bearing

In maritime industry, there are three famous
types of Main bearings used for both
propulsion engines which are normally 2
stroke engines and power generation engines
which are 4 stroke engines, they are as
follows:
1. Lead Bronze Bearing: This bearings
consist of the following layers
· Flash layer: It is the top most layer
with thickness of 0.035mm made up of tin
and lead. It is used to protect the bearing
from corrosion and dust when not in use.
This layer flashes off when bearing is
running.
· Nickle Barrier: It is the second layer
made up of nickel with thickness of
0.02mm. Its main function is to prevent
corrosion and avoid diffusion of tin into
bearing metal.
· Lead Bronze: The third layer
composed of lead bronze which has an
excellent anti seizing property and is the
 principle component which acts as a
bearing out of all layers.
· Steel back: Steel back is the last and
backing part of the bearing used for shape
and support over which all the layers are
bonded together.
Gudgeon Pin bearing in a 4 stroke engine is
usually made of lead bronze bearing and also
used for main bearing for smaller engines.

2. Bi-metal Bearing: This bearing consists

of following layers

· Aluminium Tin: The first layer of bi

metal consists of Al and Sn with thickness
of 0.5 to 1.3mm and this is the main
element of this type of bearing.
· Bonding Layer: The bonding layer
consists of aluminium and it is 0.1mm
thick. The main function of the bonding
layer is to obtain a good bond between the
shell and the top layer.
· Steel Back: The backing part used for
shape and support.
This type of bearings are used in 4 stroke
engine main bearings

3. Tri Metal Bearing: These bearings are

called tri metal bearing because they consist
of three main layers (excluding

flash layer as it flashes off) and a steel back.

It consists of-

· Flash Layer: It is the top most layer

with thickness of 1 micron made up of tin
and lead and used to protect the bearing
from corrosion and dust when not in use.
This layer flashes off when bearing is in
Running in period.
· Overlay: The second layer made up
of white metal (Tin Antimony Copper)
 which is the main component in this type
of bearing. Its thickness is 20 microns.
· Interlay: It is the third layer used as
anti corrosive layer for overlay. It is of 5
microns thickness.
· Lining: It is the lining layer between
interlay and steel back with thickness of 1
mm made up of lead and bronze.
· Steel Back: The backing part used for
shape and support.

Used in 2 stroke Main bearing shell

Procedure for Cross
Head Bearing
Removal of Marine
Engine – MAN B&W
S50MC-C
It is very important in a large two stroke
slow speed engine to transfer the power
generated in the combustion chamber to the
crankshaft without transmitting transverse
forces to the piston and large thrust directly
to the crankshaft. Hence an arrangement is
provided to compensate this which is
known as Crosshead.

The reciprocating action of piston is

converted into rotary motion for crankshaft
by means of the cross head where the piston
rod and connecting rod are attached on both
sides.

A routine maintenance has to be performed

on crosshead bearing as per maker’s
instruction. Following procedure is to be
followed when carrying out crosshead
bearing removal of a MAN MC-C engine:

1. Inform company and take

permission.

2. Take immobilization certificate

from port.

3. Read the manual and have a toll

box meeting with everyone involved
in the job. Discuss the procedure.

4. Prepare important tools and

spares to be used in this operation

5. A risk assessment of all

personnel doing the operation to be
prepared and documented
6. Shut main engine starting air

7. Engage turning gear to the main

engine crankshaft

8. Open indicator cocks of all

cylinders

9. Stop main engine lube oil pump

after cooling down of engine

10. Open crank case doors of fore

and aft unit

11. Open crank case doors of that

unit in which maintenance is to be
carried out.

12. Put blower and ventilate the

crankcase thoroughly as it is an
enclosed space.

13. Prepare enclosed space entry

checklist.
 14. After sufficient ventilation
wearing proper PPE you can enter
the C/C.

15. Turn the crank throw to 90°

before BDC.

16. Check the bearing clearance by

inserting feeler gauge b/w bearing
cap and crosshead journal exactly
next to the landing surface of the
piston rod foot.

17) The wear limit for a cross head

bearing shell is limited to 50% reduction of
the oil wedge length (L).[ L=10mm]
18) Turn the crankshaft down enough
to give access to nuts and screws on piston
rod.

19) Mount two chain blocks on the top

of the crankcase for suspending the piston
rod.

20) Loosen and remove the locking

wire and screws on the piston rod foot.

21) Mount the lifting eye bolt on each

side of the piston rod foot.

22) Turn the crosshead to TDC.

23) Hook the chain blocks to the eye

bolt on the piston rod foot. And turn the
crosshead down so that piston is now
suspended on the chain blocks.

24) Turn to BDC.

25) Mount the hydraulic jack on the

crosshead bearing cap nut and loosen them.
[pressure : 1500-1650 bars]

26) Mount the lifting attachment on the

head of the connecting rod.

27) Suspend the two chain blocks from

the lifting brackets in the athwart ship
direction.
28) Mount the 2 eye bolts on the top of
the cross head bearing cap.

29) With the help of the two chain

blocks lift the bearing cap. Take it out of the
engine and place it on a wooden base.

30) To check the upper bearing shell,

remove the locking screws and push the
shell out.

31) Mount the chain blocks to the

lifting brackets on the frame box wall.

32) Turn the crosshead up until the

piston rod lands on the crosshead. Ensure
that the guide ring in the crosshead fits
correctly in the centre hole of the piston
rod.

33) Do not remove the chain blocks or

the lifting eye bolts.

34) Turn the crosshead to TDC and

attach the chain blocks to the lifting
arrangement and haul it tight.

35) Mount the four supports for the

guide shoes on the crosshead guide.

36) Carefully and slowly turn the

crankshaft towards to exhaust side and
make sure the crosshead guide sits on the
supports.

37) Turn the crank throw towards BDC

slowly while following with the chain
blocks, thus continuously supporting the
connecting rod.
38) In case it is necessary to remove
the lower bearing shell, tilt the connecting
rod towards the door on the cam shaft side
with means of chain blocks.

39) Dismount the locking screws and

turn the bearing shell so far up that an eye
bolt can be mounted. Lift the bearing shell
out.
What is a Brace or
Strut for Marine
Engines?
2 stroke marine engines are considered to be
the world most powerful engines used on
ships, some of them capable of producing
power of 108, 920 horses. However, while
running lots of engine vibration is produced.
Engine vibrations can be extremely harmful
to the engine and thus must be encountered
immediately to avoid damage to the
machinery, ship’s hull, and strengthening
members.

In order to reduce such vibrations, different

methods and systems are used, which
includes de-tuners, thrust pads, chokes etc.
Another method to transfer engine vibration
to ship’s hull is to use struts or bracings.
Effects of Vibration
Vibration is naturally present in every
mechanical machine because of the internal
moving parts of the machine. In ship’s main
engine, the internal parts are producing
tremendous power by fuel combustion which
produces vibration.

If the vibration level or amplitude increases

more than normal, then following will result:

· Cracks in attached piping.

· Effect in turbo charger as it’s a high
speed machinery.
 · Fretting in the engine structure joints
(between A frame and entablature).
· Loosen of engine chocks and holding
down bolts.
· Damage in the intermediate shaft, its
bearing or bearing support structure.
· Damage to the thrust bearing.
· Damage to the main bearings.
Engine Struts and Bracing

Engine strut or brace are stud like structure

usually incorporated with hydraulic or
mechanical systems to transmit engine
vibration to ship’s hull.

One end is fitted at the upper part of the main

engine and other end is attached at very stiff
location in the ship’s hull. This strut or brace
acts as a de-tuner which increases the natural
frequency of the system, so that resonance
occurs above the engine rotational speed.

Frictional type Bracing or Strut

Friction type strut is one of the common types

used for 2 stroke slow speed marine engines.

The working of these type of struts depends

upon the friction between the pads that brace
the engine at the top so that the resonances
with critical orders are above the speed range
of the engine.

There is a frictional grip which is responsible

for the main functioning of the struts, which
are hydraulically tightened.
Last but not the least, the tension on the
hydraulic bolts must be regularly checked
along with the inspection of the structure for
any cracking especially around the welds.
Jack Bolts for
Marine Engine and
the Procedure for
Tensioning
One of the most common causes of failure or
cracks in the ship's Main engine support
girders of the bed plate, which are located
right below the main bearing, is bending
stress. SULZER uses Jack bolts instead of
holding bolts for the main bearing to reduce
this problem.

What are Jack Bolts?

Jack bolts are hydraulically tightened long

studs with incorporated hydraulic connection
which holds the upper keep of the main
bearing intact. They do not pass through the
main bearing keep housing but do hold the
keep by using hydraulic tension applied and
maintained externally.

The Jack Bolts are at an angle of 15 ̊ with the

vertical plane and tightened at hydraulic
pressure of around 600 bars.

Advantage of Jack bolts

The jack bolts are mounted on the top of the

upper keep, unlike conventional holding bolt
which are placed at side of the keep as they
are passed through the hole provided on the
housing for their stud.
This allows the tie rod to be placed nearer to
the crank shaft center line, which ultimately
reduces the bending stresses on the cross
girder of the engine.

Opening procedure for Jack Bolts

1. Remove the locking wire ‘11’.

2. Unscrew threaded plugs for oil input
to cylinder ‘7’ and in their place screw in
connectors 94933 firmly. Connect them to
HP oil p/p 94931.
3. Tension jack bolts with about 620 bars
and keep this pressure constant until both
nuts ‘8’ have been unscrewed by about 1
to 2 turns. Release pressure to zero by
opening release valve ‘V’. And remove the
connector 94933.
4. Unscrew both nuts ‘8’ until the jack
bolts can be removed. Close oil input holes
again with threaded plugs to prevent entry
of dirt.
Tools:
to illustration:

1 special feeler gauge

-94123 1. Thrust
bolt 8. Nut

1 Depth
gauge -94126 2.
Column centre part 9. Milled face for
spanner
1 HP oil
-94931 3.
Bearing cover 10. piston seal ring

3 Pressure Gauges 1000 bar -94932 4.

Vent v/v 11. Locking wire

2 connectors
-94933 5. Lock
wire D- pressure space

HP hoses
-94935 6. Set
screw S- round bar

Open end spanner to item 9 7.

Cylinder V- Release valve

Tensioning of Jack Bolts

1. Compare the three pressure gauges

94932 with a calibrated pressure gauge to
correct pressure.
2. Clean the seating surface of the jack
bolts on the main bearing keep.
3. Fit the thrust bolts turning their
cylinder ‘7’ to such a position that the
connectors with pressure gauge can be
fitted, tighten nut ‘8’ with a round bar ‘S’
(without any extension).
4. Screw in both connectors and then
connect them to HP hydraulic p/p.
5. Establish distance ‘a1’ and ‘a2’ with
depth gauge 94126. The difference
between them should not increase by
0.1mm.
6. Remove locking wire ‘5’ and slightly
loosen vent valve ‘4’ while actuating the
oil pump till all the air is removed from
pressure space ‘D’. Then tighten vent v/v
‘4’ and lick it with locking wire ‘5’.
7. Now give a pressure of 600 bars and
make sure all the 3 pressure gauges show
same pressure. Hold this pressure.
8. Tighten both nuts ‘8’ with a round bar
‘S’ till fully seated on cylinder ‘7’(check
seating with feeler gauge)
9. Release the pressure and check
distance ‘a1’ and ‘a2’, difference should
not be more than 0.1mm.
10. Finally lock the jack bolt with a
locking wire ‘11’.
Procedure for
Removing Main
Bearing of MAN
B&W MC-C Engine
Efficient maintenance of main engine of the
ship ensures smooth running, higher
efficiency, and minimum breakdown. Main
bearing of the main engine is one such part
which can withhold the working of the whole
engine if confronted with a fault. In this
article we will have a look at the procedure
for removal of main bearing of MAN B&W
MC-C Engine.

Moreover, the main bearing of a ship’s main

engine must be overhauled when its running
hours as stated by the engine maker have
been completed. Apart from this, if there is
any sign of bearing worn out or if the bearing
temperature is going high, it is imperative to
open the main bearing for inspection.

The procedure for opening of the main

bearing is as follows:

1) Inform company and take permission.

2) Take immobilization certificate from

port state Authority stating that the main
engine will not be available for a particular
period of time.

3) Read the manual and have a toll box

meeting with everyone involved in the job.
Discuss the procedure.

4) Prepare important tools and spares to

be used in operation.

5) Prepare risk assessment with the

personnel involved in operation.

6) Shut starting air valve for main engine.

7) Open indicator cocks of all the units.

8) Engage turning gear and put it in

remote control. The remote control switch to
be operated by in charge of the operation.

9) Stop main lube oil pump.

10) Open crank case doors.

11) Put blower and ventilate it thoroughly.

12) Prepare enclosed space entry checklist.

13) After sufficient ventilation, wearing

proper PPE enter the C/C.

14) Make sure that the main bearing

measuring tool (depth gauge) is calibrate and
set to ‘0’.

15) Open the screws of lube oil pipe

connection and insert the depth gauge and
measure the clearance between upper bearing
keep and journal.
16) Compare this reading with the earlier
reading in the record or the new bearing
reading.

17) Now disconnect the lube oil pipe line.

18) Turn the crank throw so that it is

towards the exhaust side.

19) Now mount the hydraulic jacks and

loosen the main bearing stud nuts.

20) Mount the lifting tool for main bearing

keep and lift the keep using a pulley and a
wire rope.

21) Note the marking on the main bearing

keep before lifting for correct direction of the
keep.

22) Guide the keep safely outside with a

help of another chain block and place it on a
wooden base once it is out.

23) Mount the tool for lifting the upper

bearing shell and place it safely outside.

24) Place the strong back (cross piece)

support on the bed plate so that its ends rest
on the cross girders.

25) Mount the hydraulic jack on the cross

piece placing it such that it lies beneath the
crank webs.
26) Mount a dial gauge on the adjacent
main bearing so that the lift of the crank shaft
can be recorded.

27) Now with hydraulic pressure (1500-

1650 bar) lift the crankshaft corresponding to
the main bearing clearance to the adjacent
main bearing, and check the lift with the help
of a dial gauge.

28) Remove the lock screws from the lower

shell.

29) Place the dismantling tool on the lower

bearing shell such that the flap enters the oil
groove.
30) Pull the bearing shell round and up so
that it lies on the journal and take it out
safely.
Why 2-stroke
Engines are Used
More commonly than
4-stroke on Ships?
When a ship is being constructed in a
shipyard, the most important machinery that
is to be selected is the main propulsion
machinery. Both 2 stroke and 4 stroke
engines are widely available in the market but
for large ocean going merchant vessel, a 2
stroke engine is more commonly used as
main engine and has much better market.

Even with wide variety of advantages that 4

stroke engine offers like compact size of
plant, much more RPM or speed etc, a 2
stroke engine outshines with few but vital
advantages.
Some of the important reasons why 2 stroke
engines are more popular than 4 stroke
engines as main propulsion engine on ships

● Fuel Selection: The fuel prices have gone

sky high and better grade fuel is adding
higher costs to vessel operation. A two
stroke engine can burn low grade fuel oil
and hence reduce running cost of the ship.
● Efficiency: The thermal and engine
efficiency of 2 stroke engine is much
better than that of a 4 stroke engine.
● Power: Most of the 2 stroke engines are
now large stroke engines that produce
more power. Hence they have high power
to weight ration as compare to 4 stroke
engine.
● More Cargo: Ship can carry more weight
and hence more cargo with 2 stroke
engines because of high power to weight
ratio.
● Reliability: Two stroke engines are more
reliable in operation as compare to 4
stroke engine.
● Less Maintenance: The maintenance
 requirement of two stroke engine is much
lesser than 4 stroke engine.
● Direction control: Direct starting and
reversing is easier with two stroke engine.
● No reduction attachments: As two stroke
engines are low speed engine, there are no
requirement of reduction gear or speed
reduction arrangement as required for high
speed four stroke engine.
However, the ease-of-manoeuvring a two
stroke engine is less than that of a four stroke
engine and the initial cost of installation of a
two stroke propulsion plant is also much
higher than running and maintenance cost of
a 4 stroke engine. In 2 stroke engine, the
amount saved on high grade fuel can
compensate all other disadvantages and also
reduce the whole operating cost of a ship.
The Most Popular
Marine Propulsion
Engines in the
Shipping Industry
Marine engines are one of the biggest and
expensive engines in the world. It requires
great engineering skills and resources to
manufacture such massive machinery, which
is responsible for propulsion of the ship. The
criteria for purchasing a marine engine are to
get higher speed along with economical fuel
consumption and long machinery life.

As more and more stringent environmental

regulations are introduced, engine
manufacturers are also working on their
research and development to comply with
stringent emission norms keeping in mind the
economical factors for the ship owners or
buyers.

There are many engine manufacturer designs

that you will see on a vessel, but the most
prominent players in the engine
manufacturing industry are SULZER, MAN
and B&W.

The famous marine engines which were

widely used as a ship propulsion plant are as
follows:

SULZER
RD series

It is the oldest engine series from SULZER

and very rarely seen in shipping industry
today.It is equipped with rotary exhaust
valves and fuel valve with short spindle. The
cylinder liner quills were of wet type and
placed only at the upper part. It has pulse
turbo charging system with no auxiliary
blower fitted for supporting the scavenge
pressure.

RND series

One of the most famous design of SULZER

with a slogan of “Our Exhaust valves never
burns” as this engine doesn’t have any. It has
loop scavenging i.e. exhaust and inlet ports
are provided in the liner. It was fitted with
more liner quills at the bottom of exhaust port
and is of dry type. Auxiliary blowers are
provided and constant turbo charging system
is adopted. It produces more power than the
engines of RD series.

RTA series

It is the modern day engine design with

exhaust valves fitted. It has become very
famous in modern shipping as it is a balanced
blend of automation and mechanical
engineering. It consumes less fuel and
produces more power with three fuel valves
in one cylinder.

RT Flex series

It is the latest and the toughest engine from

Wartsila Sulzer with maximum automation
installed. It consists of a common rail fuel
injection method and uses fully integrated
electronic system based on a high
performance computer eliminating parts like
fuel pump, fuel cam, chain drive etc. resulting
in reduced maintenance.

MAN B&W
MAN B&W is another leading diesel engine
manufacturer with the head office situated in
Germany. It has different categories of
engines for different users with latest ME-B
series complying with the latest norms and
taking care of ship owner’s economical
criterion of selection.

KEF series
It was introduced about 20 years ago and is
incorporated with exhaust valves which are
push rod operated and installed with pulse
type turbo charging system. No servomotor
was fitted in this engine and reversing is done
with mechanical means.

KGF Series

The KGF series was similar to KEF series

and consists of exhaust valve rotator with
roller bearing installed for that. In this engine
the reversing cam is held in a hub which is
keyed in to the shaft. Cam shaft is turned in
the same direction for reversing and the
pressure required for reversing is about 40
bars. There is no direct link between chain
drive and engine cam shaft.

MC series

The MC series engines are the most popular

engines now and are fitted with electronic
control unit for better and safe operation of
the engine. This engine is installed with VIT
for an economical fuel consumption and
power production. Air is used for reversing of
the engine which moves the fuel pump cam
follower from ahead to astern position.

ME series

It is the upgraded version of MC engine with

electronic automation installed for safety and
economy of the plant. They provide optimal
combustion at all operations and speed with
smokeless operation. This series also comes
with liquid gas injection system for LPG fuel.
What are Breaking-
In and Running-In in
Marine Diesel
Engines?
One cannot imagine a ship unequipped with
marine engines as they are responsible for
propulsion and power generation for the
vessel. Two or Four stroke engines are used
for propelling a ship, depending upon the size
of the ship. Four stroke engines are used as a
prime mover for power generation because of
their high speed characteristics.

A two stroke or a four stroke marine engines

require time-to-time maintenance for efficient
and break free operation. Whenever there is a
change or renewal in the major combustion
parts of the engine i.e. piston or liner and if
the engine has gone under complete d’carb,
then it is put back in operation under step
running programmes known as “Breaking in”
and “Running in”.

Why Breaking in and Running in?

The newly fitted liner, piston, or piston rings

are machined prepared in the workshop
ashore. They have surface asperities and there
is no bedding between the moving surface i.e.
liner and rings.

Under such situations, if proper step running

is not followed then it may lead to heavy
blow past of combustion gases. The blow past
can be dangerous as it can lead to scavenge
fire. Hence initially a step running program is
required for newly fitted piston, piston rings
and liner.

For a complete d’carb engine, it is important

to keep an eye on various parameters of the
engine under increasing load which can be
achieved by breaking in and running in.

Breaking In and Running In

Breaking in

It is a short period of running of the marine

engines under no load so that the piston rings
are allowed to seat and lubricated properly.
The breaking in time may differ from engine
to engine and is provided in the engine
manual by the makers An average breaking-
in time for a four stroke engine is 48 hours.

Breaking in is carried out to achieve

maximum wear rate, so that asperities break
faster. For this reason HFO and low TBN oil
is used. If low sulphur fuel or marine diesel
oil is used, the breaking in period will
increase. A low jacket water temperature is
maintained to increase the rate of wear.

Running in

It is a program followed after breaking in and

it is a long run program with step by step
increase in the load and speed of the engine.

Just like breaking in, the running in schedules

are also provided in the engine manuals and
differ for parts to parts.

In two stroke engine, the cylinder lubrication

is kept in higher side in terms of oil quantity
for proper lubrication of piston rings and
liner.

For four stroke engines with common sump

lubrication, low TBN lube oil is used initially
and after 30 % of load, the new
recommended oil is used.

Conclusion
If the proper Breaking In and Running In
period is not followed after the maintenance,
it may lead to blow past of the combustion
gases, leading to scavenge fire. It can lead to
heavy scuffing resulting in increase in liner
wear.
How is Marine
Engine Repair Done
On board a Ship?
Marine Engine Repair is one of the most
important tasks carried on board a ship. It
involves repairing and carrying out of routine
maintenance tasks on the marine engine of
the ship. The repairs are generally carried out
by marine engine mechanics, famously
known as marine engineers.

Need of Marine Engine Repair

Marine engine parts need to be checked on
regular basis to avoid breakdown or heavy
loss caused by ship going off charter. Marine
engine repairs are carried out by the marine
engineer as per his basic understanding of the
machine, sound troubleshooting knowledge
and correct techniques used for testing and
overhauling.
Moreover, there are several agencies around
the world that provide services for marine
engine repairs, which cannot be done by
marine engineers on board the ship due lack
of special equipments and manpower. Some
examples of heavy maintenance of marine
engine repairs are metal stitching or metal
locking, recondition of piston, honing of
liners etc.

Understanding Marine Engine

Repair
When we talk about marine engine repairs,
they not just include maintenance and repair
work on the mechanical parts of the engines
but also include repairs on various electrical
equipments as well. Thus, marine engine
repair is categorized in two parts – electrical
and mechanical.

For an effective performance of the marine

engine and in order to prevent breakdown of
the same proper procedures are to be
followed as described in the manuals. Marine
engine repairs have to be done at specific
running hours as described in the planned
maintenance system of the ship.

On board ship there is a team of marine

engineers or marine mechanics, along with
crew ratings such as motorman, oiler, fitter,
etc. to carry out the work of marine engine
repairs.

The team of engineers includes chief

engineer, second engineer, third engineer and
fourth engineer. Chief and second engineer
are management level officers, whereas third
and fourth engineers are operational level
engineers.

The chief engineer looks after different

surveys that are to be carried out on the
marine engine and also plans out when they
are to be carried out. The second engineer
plans the marine engine repair work that is
pending or scheduled to be due soon.

The second engineer also looks after main

engine and different pumps in the engine
room. The fourth engineer looks after the
repairs of compressors and purifiers whereas
third engineer looks after theboiler and
auxiliary engines along with the help of crew
ratings.

For electrical equipments the repairs are

carried out by a separate dedicated electrical
engineer, who looks after various motors,
batteries, print card electronics etc.

Important Points for Marine Engine

Repair
For marine engine repair, the most important
thing is to make available several sets of
spare parts on board the ship. If there is a
shortage of any of these parts, then they need
to be ordered by the respective engineer, who
is looking after the particular machinery.
Some special considerations also need to be
given to emergency, safety and life saving
equipments.

Marine engineer also have to make sure that

all the equipments are working fine without
any problem. External agencies such as port
state control and flag state will detain the ship
if equipments like emergency generator, life
boat engine, and fire fighting system are not
working properly. The agencies may fine the
ship heavily for these abnormalities.

For this reason, proper checks and routine

schedule have to be maintained to avoid
unwanted circumstances related to marine
engines on board a ship.
Reasons for Cylinder
Liner Wear and
Ways to Measure it
All types of ship machines and parts get worn
out due to continuous usage and working.
Proper maintenance and routine checks are
necessary to ensure that the machines work
for a longer time. In this article, we will have
a look at various reasons that lead to cylinder
liner wear and how it can be minimised.

Reasons for Cylinder Liner Wear

The wear in the cylinder liner is mainly
because of following reasons:-

1) Due to friction.

2) Due to corrosion.

3) Abrasion
4) Scuffing or Adhesion

Frictional Wear:
Whenever two surfaces slide over each other,
friction is produced which leads to wearing
down of both the surfaces. In liner wear, the
surfaces are piston rings sliding over the
cylinder liner. The frictional wear depends
upon various factors like speed of movement
between the surfaces, material involved,
temperature, the load on engine, pressure,
maintenance, lubrication, and combustion
efficiency.

Corrosion:
The cylinder liner wear due to corrosion is
caused due to these reasons:

– Burning of heavy fuel oil in the

combustion space:

This happens because heavy fuel oil contains

high sulfur content. During combustion, acids
are formed inside the space which should be
neutralised by cylinder oil which is alkaline
in nature. The production of acids will be
more if sulfur content is more, leading to the
formation of sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid is
formed due to absorption of the condensate or
moisture present inside the combustion space.

– Lower combustion chamber temperature

because of reduced service load:

As the low load operation of the marine

engine is gaining popularity, it also leads to
low temperature in the combustion chamber.
If the cylinder oil quantity is not matched
properly with the load, it may lead to
corrosion of liner.

Sulphuric acid corrosion is found more in the

lower part of the liner as the temperature of
jacket water is very low. Corrosion due to
sulfur will be high due to the presence of
water in fuel and condensate in the air. This
wear is generally seen between the quills. The
wear near the quills enlarges and gives a
characteristic of the clover leaf shape to the
wear pattern. This phenomenon is called
clover leafing.

Abrasion
This type of cylinder liner wear is due to the
hard particles present and formed during
combustion. Catalytic fines in the fuel, the
ash formed during the combustion, metal
swarf, dust and accumulated wear particles in
the lube oil cause abrasive wear.

The abrasion wear rate is higher at TDC and

BDC of the liner. Once the abrasive wear hits
the surface, due to exposure of metal without
protection, it is highly susceptible to
corrosion wear too.

Adhesion or Scuffing
This is a form of local welding between the
particles of piston rings and the liner surface.
As the piston is moving inside the liner, the
welding which has occurred breaks and leads
to the formation of abrasive material. The
abrasive material will increase the rate of
wear of the liner. This is generally caused by
insufficient lubrication due to which a large
amount of heat is produced and microscopic
welding of rings and liner surface takes place.
Due to this type of wear the liner loses its
properties to adhere cylinder oil to the
surface. One more reason or this phenomenon
is polishing of the surface caused by scuffing,
giving liners a mirror finish.

How Can Cylinder Liner Wear be

Minimised?
Cylinder wear can be minimised by carrying
out the following steps:

1) By avoiding any ingress of water inside the

liner by properly treating the fuel oil.

2) By maintaining the correct grade of

cylinder oil.

3) By supplying correct feed rate with load

change dependent lubrication system

4) By avoiding ingress of moisture from the

charge air.

5) By maintaining proper jacket water

temperature.

6) By supplying good quality purified fuel oil

inside the combustion chamber

7) By properly maintaining the fuel injector

and fuel system for correct atomization and
injection of fuel inside the chamber
8) By doing regular scavenge port inspection
for early detection of piston ring wear and
liner surface wear

9) By doing proper running in of new liner as

prescribed by the engine maker

10) By honing the wear liner surface to retain

oil in the small pocket avoiding scuffing and
other problems
How to Measure
Cylinder Liner Bore
Wear?
Cylinder liner ovality has to be gauged at regular intervals as
specified in the maintenance manual. The records of gauging
are kept for each cylinder and wear rate is calculated.

Procedure:
1. After engine is shut down and cooled, open the cylinder
head and remove the piston

2. Cover the stuffing box hole to avoid debris falling inside

crankcase

3. Remove the liner ring and clean the carbon deposits from
top surface of the liner

4. Insert a ladder and carefully inspect the liner surface

before gauging

5. The cylinder liner wear is measured by a standard

template, which consists of strategically positioned holes,
wherein the micrometer is placed and the readings are taken

6. The readings are taken for both port starboard and forward
aft positions. This is done because the wear is not same in
both direction and the cylinder liner ovality is checked.

A liner diameter measuring instrument ( a type of

micrometer) along with a standard template rod is used to
measure liner dimensions. Generally while taking the
measurement the temperature of the liner and micrometer
should be kept at the same temperature.

If the temperature exceeds than that of the liner or vice versa

then the readings have to be corrected by multiplying the
value with the correction factor and deducting the value
obtained from the reading taken. The reading obtained at the
end will be the correct reading.

The wear rate will be different inside the liner. The wear will
be more in the top one-third part as combustion takes place
there and temperatures and pressure are also very high at the
top.

How to Calculate Cylinder Liner Wear

Rate and Ovality?
For calculating the cylinder liner wear rate, the current
reading is compared with the last taken reading. Suppose, for
a liner of 800 mm bore, the position 1 latest reading (for P-S)
comes out to be 841.81. The last recorded reading for
position 1 (P-S) is 841.45. Hence the wear for this position in
P-S direction is 0.36.

Now the position 1 latest reading (for F-A) comes out to be

841.78. The last recorded reading for position 1 (F-A) is
841.45. Hence the wear for this position in F-A direction is
0.33.

To calculate the ovality, the F-A wear rate is deducted from

P-S wear rate, which will be 0.03.

Similarly, cylinder liner wear rate and cylinder liner ovality

for all positions are calculated in a similar manner.

An approximate normal cylinder liner wear rate is about 0.1

mm per 1000 running hours. The wear rate increases if the
engine is overloaded. Generally, the liner has to be replaced
when the cylinder liner wear rate is about 0.6-0.8% of the
bore diameter or as per the manufacturer’s recommendation.
Intelligent Engines –
The New Generation
Machines
Today the world needs engines that can cope
up with the stringent emission norms and
higher demands for robust, reliable and smart
engines with low operational cost. To achieve
the above possibilities, a whole new
generation of engine is being developed with
a comprehensive use of electronics, hardware
and software in large 2 stroke low speed cross
head engines known as “Intelligent Engines”.

The intelligent engine concept widens the

reliability of traditional engines to facilitate
new applications and concepts. The initial
cost of such engine is quite high but the
operational cost is lower than other engine
used with proper operating procedure and
trained crew.

The first intelligent engine in the maritime

world was delivered in October-1998 and was
introduced in a chemical carrier M/T Bow
Cecil.

Basic Concept of Intelligent Engine

– A central electronic control system is

incorporated which is the brain of the system
and which monitors and evaluate the general
condition to keep the operating parameter
within limits and maintain the performance of
the engine at the higher side.
– Central control system operates Engine
control unit (ECU) and cylinder control unit
(CCU).

– ECU controls the overall protection and

efficient performance of the whole engine.
CCU controls the each cylinder of the engine
for safe and efficient working.

– This control system saves the engine

from damage due to overloading,
malfunctioning, maladjustment and lack of
maintenance.
– The intelligent engine provides
flexibility in operation by replacing
mechanical cam shaft for fuel pump and
exhaust valve with common rail system and
computer controlled system.

– To comply with the emission norms,

system is incorporated with catalytic clean up
system and fuel economy modes which can
be selected from bridge.

A reversing and crash mode option is

provided in the bridge, controlled through the
main central electronic control which sends
signal to the engine when in operational
mode.

– The central system consists of a

program in which the protection system can
be override in case of emergency.

Main goals

The basic aim for developing intelligent

engine is to reduce the operational cost of the
propulsion plant, to have high fluctuation in
operation and to cope up with the stringent
emission norms imposed by regulating
authorities under IMO . Apart from this, the
following points to be considered for
intelligent engines:

1) Reliability of engine increases

– The central monitoring system keeps an

eye on the fluctuation of load and distribute
equally to all the cylinders.

– It consists of overload protection

system which will give alarm and trip’s the
engine, ruling out the possibilities of overload
and thermal stresses.

– Any other abnormality is displayed

with an early warning and alarm system so
that the problem can be tackled before it
hampers the operational aspects of the
engine.

– This system increases the emission

control flexibility.

2) Fuel and lube oil consumption cost

reduces

– The load operating efficiency

increases as compared to normal engines
which increases the life of the engine and
maintenance schedule can be delayed which
cut shorts the operational cost.
– The performance is fuel optimized.
Fuel oil, lube oil and other lubricants
consumption drastically decreases which
reduces the operational cost.

– The engine and its performance is

maintained “as new” for its lifetime.

– The cylinder lubrication is one of the

most expensive lubrication oil used in marine
operation. The consumption is controlled
with the help of mechatronic (incorporated
with mechanical and electronic controlled
enhanced system) cylinder lubrication with
advanced dosage of oil.

3) Follow up of stringent air pollution

emission norms.

– Now almost all the countries are

following the stringent norms for emission
from the ship’s propulsion plant. The
intelligent engine gives the flexibility to cope
up with different norms for different
controlled bodies by enhancing the emission
performance characteristics.

– To reduce the emission of harmful

substance like Nox and Sox, catalytic
controller and fuel control and consumption
modes are incorporated in the control system.
An Overview of
Common Rail
System of Marine
Engines
The common rail system, as the name
suggest, is a system which is common for
every cylinder or unit of the marine engine.
Marine engines of the early times had a fuel
system, wherein each unit had its own jerk
pump and the oil pressure was supplied
through the jerk pumps.

However, in common rail system all the

cylinders or units are connected to the rail
and the fuel pressure is accumulated in the
same. The supplied fuel pressure is thus
provided through the rail. A similar type of
common rail system is also there for servo oil
system for opening of the exhaust valves.

Speaking about the fuel injection system, the

common rail system was launched even
before the jerk pumps, but was also not
successful because of few drawbacks.
However, because of some latest
advancement in technology and electronics,
the common rail system has gained
popularity.

The common rail engines are also known as

smokeless engines as fuel pressure required
for combustion is same for all loads or rpm of
the engine.

The common rail is employed in the

following system:
1) for heated fuel oil at a pressure of 1000
bars.

2) for servo oil for opening and closing of

exhaust valves at a pressure of 200 bars.

3) control oil for opening and closing of valve

blocks at a pressure of 200 bars.

4) compressed air for starting main engine.

Main Components of Common Rail

System
High pressure pump

The common rail system consists of a high

pressure pump which can be cam driven or
electrical driven or both. Pressure
requirement will be different for different
system. For fuel oil the pressure are as high
as 1000 bars, for servo and control oil the
pressure is about 200 bars. The high pressure
pumps are driven by camshaft with three lobe
cams. These pumps makes several stroke
with the help of three lobe cams and speed
increasing speed gear.

For fuel oil and servo oil the pumps are

engine driven and for control oil it is motor
driven.

Rail unit

A fuel oil rail.

B is the control oil rail.

C servo oil rail.

D Injection control unit(ICU)

E Valve control unit (VCU)

This is provided after the pumps where the

accumulated pressure from the pumps is
provided to the rail which supplies them to
each unit when required. This is located at the
engine,s top platform and just below the
cylinder cover. These rail units extends to full
length of the engine. These are enclosed in
the case and have access from the top for
maintenance and overhauls.

Valve Block and Electronic control system

This is required for the control of the flow of

the fuel oil, servo oil, control oil and starting
air from the rail to the cylinder. The valve
block is operated by the electronic control
which operates when it gets a signal
indicating that this cylinder is at top dead
centre (TDC) and fuel has to be injected and
decides when exhaust valve has to be opened.
With the help of electronics the injection can
be controlled remotely from the computer.
For e.g. if we want to cut off fuel to one of
the unit, then we need to cut off the signal
given from the control system so that the
valve will not open.

The fuel oil system this block is known as

ICU( Injection control Unit) and for exhaust
valve it is known as VCU (Valve Control
Unit). The control system for opening and
closing of ICU and VCU is done by electro
hydraulic control with which when the signal
for open is present the valve for control oil
opens and control oil pushes the valve of ICU
and VCU to open. The signal for electronic
control is given by crank angle sensor which
senses about each cylinder and sends signal
to system which decides whether to open a
valve or close the valve.

The timing of the opening of the valve can

also be controlled by the electronics, which
means that if the signal is given to open the
valve early it will open early and vice versa.

Advantages of Common Rail over

Conventional Jerk Pump System

The following are the advantages of the

common rail system:

1) Same injection pressure for the engine at

all loads or rpm which is not possible in jerk
pumps as the later is dependent on the engine
speed.

2) Injection timing can be varied during

running of the engine, whereas in
conventional system the engine has to be
stopped and setting for timing has to be
changed.

3) The design of common rail is simple as

there are no individual fuel pumps and cams
for each fuel pump are also removed.

4) The common rail gives smokeless

operation whereas in conventional system
smokeless operation is only during high rpm.

5) Reduced maintenance is required because

of less number of pumps and increased
efficient combustion time between overhauls.

6) With this system control of variable

opening of exhaust valve can also be done
which is not there in traditional system.
Piston Skirt, Piston
Rod and Trunk
Piston
Piston is an important part of the combustion
chamber of a marine engine which converts
the gas force into mechanical power by
reciprocating motion.

Piston skirt, piston rod and trunk piston are

three components of the piston arrangement
in marine diesel engines. In this article we
will learn about each one of them
Generally two types of piston arrangements
are used:

· Comprises of Piston
Crosshead Piston:
crown, Piston skirt and piston rod(used in
large two stroke engine) which is
connected to crosshead functioning to
transfer the side thrust to the engine
structure
· Trunk Piston: Comprises of piston with
elongated skirt to absorb the side thrusts
and attached to the connecting rod by
 small end rotating bearing (used in small 4
stroke marine engines).

Piston Skirts
Piston skirt is fitted in both two stroke and
four stroke engines. It has different function
for different engines. In large cross head two
stroke engines with uni-flow scavenging
these skirts are short in length and are fitted
to act as a guide and to stabilise the position
of the piston inside the liner. It is generally
made of cast iron. The diameter of the skirt is
usually kept slightly larger than that of the
piston. This is done to prevent damage to the
liner surface due to the piston movement.

Soft bronze rings are also fitted in the piston

skirts. These bronze rings help during the
running-in of the engine, when the engine is
new, and can be replaced if necessary.

In two stroke engines having loop or cross

scavenging arrangements the skirts are
slightly larger as these helps in blanking off
the scavenge and the exhaust ports in the
liner.

Material of Skirt:
It is generally made of nodular cast iron
which have the following properties:

· Self-lubricating
· Superior wear resistance
Piston wear ring: It is a ring made of soft
bronze alloy with lead, which is fitted in the
piston skirt. They have the following
functionality:

· It has a low frictional characteristics

· help during the running-in of the
engine, when the engine is new, and can
be replaced if necessary
· Prevents the high temperature wall
(upper side) of piston to directly come in
contact with liner
In four stroke or trunk piston engines the skirt
has arrangement for gudgeon pin, which
transmits power from the piston to the
gudgeon pin or top end bearing. As there are
no cross head guides in four stroke engines,
these skirts help in transferring the side thrust
produced from the connecting rod to the liner
walls.

Inspection – Following things to be checked

when inspecting the piston skirt:

· Carbon deposit
· Wear and rubbing mark
· Scuffing damage in the wear ring
· Check gudgeon pin boss for crack
or/and deformation in trunk piston skirt

Piston rods
Piston rods are generally found in large two
stroke engines. Piston rods help in
transmitting the power produced in the
combustion space to the cross head and the
running gear of the engine.
The lengths of these rods depend on the
length of the engine stroke and the
manufacturers design. The top end of the rod
is flanged or attached to the underside of the
piston and the bottom end is connected to the
cross head.

The piston rod passes through the piston

gland or stuffing box so the rod should have
smooth running surface and low coefficient
of friction.

Important Function of Piston rod:

· The gas force acting on the top of

piston crown is transmitted to the piston
rod by internal mechanism avoiding
possible distortion of the ring belt.
· For cooling of the piston the rods
consists of two through and through
concentric holes. These holes are for
supply and return line of cooling oil.
Forged steel is used Material of Piston rod:
to make piston rod which has following
property:

· High strength than cast steel

· Better surface finish
Inspection – Following things to be checked
when inspecting the piston rod:

· Wear and rubbing mark due to

stuffing box gland
· Scratch or dent mark due to improper
handling
· Ovelity of the rod at various positions
· Surface shine of the piston rod
(measure surface roughness in Rs)

Trunk Piston
Trunk piston is a term usually given to the
pistons in four stroke medium speed engines.
These pistons have composite design which
comprises of thin sectioned alloy steel piston
crown along with aluminum alloy skirt.
These pistons are light, strong and rigid in
construction and are capable of resisting high
temperatures and corrosion.

The piston is forged and the space inside is

provided for arrangement of cooling spaces,
which is done by cooling oil. The skirt
consists of space for gudgeon pin which
transmits power to the connecting rod. The
skirt also helps in transferring the side thrust
produced by the connecting rod.

The piston consists of rings grooves for

fitting piston rings. The landing of piston
rings is hardened and plated with chrome to
reduce wear. The top surface of the crown
may be recessed to provide clearance for inlet
and exhaust valves. Compression rings are
fitted in the crown and are generally plasma
coated whereas other rings are chrome plated.
The oil control ring is fitted in the top of the
piston skirt.

Since the piston rod is not used, the height of

the engine is considerably reduced when
using trunk piston but there is no separation
between liner/piston assembly and crankcase,
which may lead to contamination in case of
blow-past.

Material: The trunk piston comprises of

piston crown and elongated skirt.

· Crown is made up of heat resistant

forged steel alloy including chromium,
nickel and molybdenum for heat and
corrosion resistance without
compromising on strength
· Skirt is made up of nodular cast iron
or forged silicon aluminium alloy which
has the advantage of being light, with low
inertia, reducing bearing loading.
Types of Piston
Rings and Piston
Ring Maintenance
Piston rings are manufactured and classified
on the basis of function and usability. The
primary usage of the piston ring is to seal the
chamber (where the piston is moving), which
can be a combustion chamber of a 2 stroke or
a 4 stroke engine. Marine engines have three
or more types of rings fitted on the
circumference of the piston.

The piston ring is an essential piston part, and

its numbers and functionality differ
depending on the type and capacity of the
engine. In 2-stroke large engines,
compression type piston rings are used to seal
the combustion chamber and wiper rings are
installed below them to wipe the deposits
from the liner and distribute oil on the liner
surface.

However, in smaller marine engines, different

types of piston rings are used for dedicated
purposes. E.g. oil scraper ring is used in 4
stroke engine as it’s a trunk type engine, and
the crankcase oil has direct access to cylinder
liner and piston. In this article, we will have a
look at the different types of piston rings used
in marine engines.

Types and Functions of Piston Rings

Compression Rings or Pressure Rings

The compression rings provide sealing above

the piston and prevent the gas leakage from
the combustion side. The compression rings
are located in the first grooves of the piston.
However, this may differ according to the
design of the engine. The primary function of
these rings is to seal the combustion gases
and transfer heat from the piston to the piston
walls.

The oil is controlled by shearing the layer of

the oil left by oil ring, thus providing the top
compression rings enough lubrication.
Moreover, it also provides help to the top
compression ring in sealing and heat transfer.

Wiper ring: The wiper ring, also called as

Napier ring, or backup compression ring, are
installed below the compression ring. Their
main function is to clean the liner surface off
the excess oil and to act as support back up
ring on stopping any gas leakage further
down which escaped the top compression
ring. Most of the wiper rings have a taper
angle face which is positioned toward the
bottom to provide a wiping action as the
piston moves toward the crankshaft.

If the wiper ring incorrectly installed with the

tapered angle closest to the compression ring,
it results in excessive oil consumption. This is
caused by the wiper ring wiping excess oil
toward the combustion chamber.

Oil Control / Scrapper Rings

The oil control rings control the amount of

lubricating oil passing up or down the
cylinder walls. These rings are also used to
spread the oil evenly around the
circumference of the liner. The oil is splashed
onto the cylinder walls. These rings are also
called scraper rings as they scrap the oil off
the cylinder walls and send back to the
crankcase. These rings do not allow oil to
pass from the space between the face of the
ring and the cylinder.

In the oil ring, holes or slots are cut into the

radial center of the ring which allows the
excess oil to flow back to the reservoir. Oil
rings can be one piece or two pieces. To
increase the contact pressure between the ring
and the liner surface, the rings can have
chamfered edges on either the outer sides of
the lands or facing the combustion chamber
to reduce the oil consumption through
improved oil scraping from the bore.

Two-piece oil control rings consist of a cast

iron or profiled steel ring and a coil spring
which is made from heat-resistant spring steel
to act around the whole ring circumference
for maintaining the pressure and contact.

Piston ring material:

One of the most prominent materials used in

making piston rings is cast iron. This is
because it contains graphite in the lamellar
form which itself acts as a lubricant assisting
the sliding motion between the rings and the
liner. Alloys and coatings are done on the
piston rings, and it will vary as per the type of
the ring as the functionality of these rings are
different from each other. The most common
form of alloying cast iron is chromium,
molybdenum, vanadium, titanium, nickel, and
copper.

The piston ring material is kept harder than

the cylinder liner to provide maximum life
The Piston of Main Engine: The
combustion chamber of a 2 stroke marine
engine is a large space producing an
enormous amount of heat and stresses. The
upper rings of the piston are directly in
contact with the combustion chamber, hence
they need better protection and coating to
tackle the thermal stress and provide proper
sealing.

Many new designs were introduced specially

for the large two-stroke marine engines.
Some of the important design introduced are:

MAN engine: The uppermost piston ring is

of Controlled Pressure Relief type in which
several oblique shallow grooves (hard
chrome plated) are provided on the face
allowing some gas pressure to pass through to
the 2nd ring thereby reducing the load on the
top ring. It has ‘S’ type joint at the ring ends.

A new design was also recently introduced

which is a modified version of CPR rings
known as CPR Port on Plane rings (CPR
POP). The modification is done on the
position of the grooves which are now placed
in the lower side of the ring as it was noted
that the wear of CPR rings grooves in the
running side was faster than usual.

Second or Intermediate Rings: The other

rings have an oblique cut at the ring ends. All
the piston rings are aluminium-coated on the
outer surface for helping in running-in.
Wartsila Engine: In the Wartsila 2 stroke
engine, the piston ring grooves on piston
surface are hardened for excellent wear
resistance. The top piston ring (also known as
Gas Tight (GT) ring in Wartsila) have
overlapping ends to avoid gas leakage with
an asymmetrical barrel shape. They are
chromium- ceramic (CC) coated along with
running-in coating (RC).

The number of piston ring will vary

depending on the size of the engine. E.g. an
RTflex 35 will have a very short skirt and is
equipped with three piston rings, but an RTA
engine may have 5 piston rings.3

Four stroke engine:

The piston ring requirement in a 4 stroke

engine is different as the piston liner
assembly is open to the sump. Hence, oil
scraper rings are additionally needed in the 4
stroke piston ring-pack. It typically consisting
of 2-5 rings depending upon engine type and
specification. Usually, 2-4 compression rings
are provided to seal the gases from the
combustion chamber, and 1-3 oil-control
rings are provided to excess avoid oil ingress
in the combustion chamber.

The compressor rings are usually of barrel

type with taper face for efficient gas sealing.
The oil-control ring profiles comprise two
lands and an inserted coil spring to support
the pre-tension of the ring.

Things to be Checked During Inspection of

Piston Ring

Inspection of the piston rings is an important

task to determine the proper working of
piston rings followed by either cleaning or
replacing piston rings (if broken or worn out).

In 2-stroke cycle engines, the port containing

the top ring usually is at a higher position
than the 4- stroke engine’s top ring groove.
During Routine Inspection

During normal scavenge space inspection, the

piston rings are pressed with the help of a
screwdriver. This is done to check the spring
action or tension of the rings. This also tells
whether the ring is broken or not. If the ring
is broken there will be no spring action.
The rings are checked for their freeness in the
grooves, as they might get stuck due to
carbon deposits and might finally break
causing a lot of damage to the liner. The
clearance between the ring and the groove is
also checked and the wear is calculated. The
ring is checked for scuffing marks and
damage, and the overall condition is also
assessed.

During Major Overhaul

During major overhauls, the piston rings are

changed completely with the new set. But
following steps need to be considered for
scrapping the rings:-

1) If the piston ring is found stuck in the

groove.

2) If the axial height of the rings is reduced

and the clearance in rings and groove is large.

3) If the chrome layer is peeled off or

damaged.

During overhaul, the grooves have to be

properly cleaned off carbon deposits and
checked for damage in the ring grooves.
Before putting the piston rings, it should be
first rolled rounded in the grooves. In this
process, the ring is entirely moved inside the
grooves. With this test, we can check that the
grooves are more in-depth than the radial
width of the ring. While inserting the piston
with replaced rings in the liner, use the
adequately lubricated piston ring compressor
tool which will ensure the rings will not stick
to the liner face while going inside the
combustion chamber.

The piston rings are put inside the worn liner,

and the butt gap is also checked. For rings of
the small piston (e.g. compressor), the ends
can be treated using a piston ring filer, but for
marine engines, the rings have to be sent to
shore workshop for reconditioning if the butt
gap is unusual. While putting rings, they
should be checked for markings as to which
part is up or down and also check different
marking for different positions.

Rings should be put with the help of proper

toll, i.e. with the help of ring expander. The
clearance between the ring and the groove is
checked with the help of the feeler gauge.

The axial and radial clearance of old ring is

checked and recorded to assess the amount of
wear for a number of running hours.
What Is Renewable
Energy?
Renewable energy, often referred to as clean
energy, comes from natural sources or
processes that are constantly replenished. For
example, sunlight or wind keep shining and
blowing, even if their availability depends on
time and weather.
While renewable energy is often thought of
as a new technology, harnessing nature’s
power has long been used for heating,
transportation, lighting, and more. Wind has
powered boats to sail the seas and windmills
to grind grain. The sun has provided warmth
during the day and helped kindle fires to last
into the evening. But over the past 500 years
or so, humans increasingly turned to cheaper,
dirtier energy sources such as coal and
fracked gas.
Now that we have increasingly innovative
and less-expensive ways to capture and retain
wind and solar energy, renewables are
becoming a more important power source,
accounting for more than one-eighth of U.S.
generation. The expansion in renewables is
also happening at scales large and small, from
rooftop solar panels on homes that can sell
power back to the grid to giant offshore wind
farms. Even some entire rural communities
rely on renewable energy for heating and
lighting.
Types of Renewable
Energy Sources
Solar Energy
Humans have been harnessing solar energy
for thousands of years—to grow crops, stay
warm, and dry foods. According to the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory,
“more energy from the sun falls on the earth
in one hour than is used by everyone in the
world in one year.” Today, we use the sun’s
rays in many ways—to heat homes and
businesses, to warm water, or power devices.
Solar panels on the rooftops of East Austin,
Texas
Solar, or photovoltaic (PV), cells are made
from silicon or other materials that transform
sunlight directly into electricity. Distributed
solar systems generate electricity locally for
homes and businesses, either through rooftop
panels or community projects that power
entire neighborhoods. Solar farms can
generate power for thousands of homes, using
mirrors to concentrate sunlight across acres of
solar cells. Floating solar farms—or
“floatovoltaics”—can be an effective use of
wastewater facilities and bodies of water that
aren’t ecologically sensitive.
Solar supplies a little more than 1 percent of
U.S. electricity generation. But nearly a third
of all new generating capacity came from
solar in 2017, second only to natural gas.

Solar energy systems don’t produce air

pollutants or greenhouse gases, and as long as
they are responsibly sited, most solar panels
have few environmental impacts beyond the
manufacturing process.

Wind Energy
We’ve come a long way from old-fashioned
wind mills. Today, turbines as tall as
skyscrapers—with turbines nearly as wide in
diameter—stand at attention around the
world. Wind energy turns a turbine’s blades,
which feeds an electric generator and
produces electricity.

Wind, which accounts for a little more than 6

percent of U.S. generation, has become the
cheapest energy source in many parts of the
country. Top wind power states include
California, Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and
Iowa, though turbines can be placed
anywhere with high wind speeds—such as
hilltops and open plains—or even offshore in
open water.

Other Alternative Energy Sources

Hydroelectric Power
Hydropower is the largest renewable energy
source for electricity in the United States,
though wind energy is soon expected to take
over the lead. Hydropower relies on water—
typically fast-moving water in a large river or
rapidly descending water from a high point—
and converts the force of that water into
electricity by spinning a generator’s turbine
blades.

Nationally and internationally, large

hydroelectric plants—or mega-dams—are
often considered to be nonrenewable energy.
Mega-dams divert and reduce natural flows,
restricting access for animal and human
populations that rely on rivers. Small
hydroelectric plants (an installed capacity
below about 40 megawatts), carefully
managed, do not tend to cause as much
environmental damage, as they divert only a
fraction of flow.

Biomass Energy
Biomass is organic material that comes from
plants and animals, and includes crops, waste
wood, and trees. When biomass is burned, the
chemical energy is released as heat and can
generate electricity with a steam turbine.

Biomass is often mistakenly described as a

clean, renewable fuel and a greener
alternative to coal and other fossil fuels for
producing electricity. However, recent
science shows that many forms of biomass—
especially from forests—produce higher
carbon emissions than fossil fuels. There are
also negative consequences for biodiversity.
Still, some forms of biomass energy could
serve as a low-carbon option under the right
circumstances. For example, sawdust and
chips from sawmills that would otherwise
quickly decompose and release carbon can be
a low-carbon energy source.

Geothermal Energy

If you’ve ever relaxed in a hot spring, you’ve

used geothermal energy. The earth’s core is
about as hot as the sun’s surface, due to the
slow decay of radioactive particles in rocks at
the center of the planet. Drilling deep wells
brings very hot underground water to the
surface as a hydrothermal resource, which is
then pumped through a turbine to create
electricity. Geothermal plants typically have
low emissions if they pump the steam and
water they use back into the reservoir. There
are ways to create geothermal plants where
there are not underground reservoirs, but
there are concerns that they may increase the
risk of an earthquake in areas already
considered geological hot spots.

Ocean
Tidal and wave energy is still in a
developmental phase, but the ocean will
always be ruled by the moon’s gravity, which
makes harnessing its power an attractive
option. Some tidal energy approaches may
harm wildlife, such as tidal barrages, which
work much like dams and are located in an
ocean bay or lagoon. Like tidal power, wave
power relies on dam-like structures or ocean
floor–anchored devices on or just below the
water’s surface.
Nonrenewable
Resources
What Are Nonrenewable Resources?
A nonrenewable resource is a natural
resource that does not regenerate itself at the
same rate as it is utilised. It's a limited supply.

Nonrenewable resources include fossil fuels

like oil, natural gas, and coal. Humans
regularly deplete these compounds'
stockpiles, while new supplies take aeons to
produce.

Renewable resources, on the other hand,

replenish themselves spontaneously or may
be sustained. The sun, which is utilised in
solar electricity, and the wind, which is used
to power wind turbines, are both self-
renewing. Replanting can help to maintain
forest reserves.

Understanding Nonrenewable Resources

Nonrenewable resources come from the
Earth. Humans extract them in gas, liquid, or
solid form and then convert them for their
use, mainly related to energy. The reserves of
these substances took billions of years to
form, and it will take billions of years to
replace the supplies used.

In economic terms, nonrenewables are

resources of economic value that cannot be
readily replaced at the speed with which they
are being consumed.
Examples of nonrenewable resources include
crude oil, natural gas, coal, and uranium.
These are all resources that are processed into
products that can be used commercially.

For example, the fossil fuel industry extracts

crude oil from the ground and converts it to
gasoline. Fossil fuel liquids also are refined
into petrochemical products that are used as
ingredients in the manufacture of literally
hundreds of products from plastics and
polyurethane to solvents.

Fossil Fuels Vs. Nonrenewables

Fossil fuels are all nonrenewable. But not all
nonrenewables are fossil fuels. Crude oil,
natural gas, and coal are all considered fossil
fuels, but uranium is not. Rather, it is a heavy
metal that is extracted as a solid and then
converted by nuclear power plants into a fuel
source.

sources that are inexpensive to extract.

Storage, conversion, and shipping are easy
and cheap.
Fuels created from nonrenewable resources
are still the primary source of all the power
generated in the world due to their
affordability and high energy content.

Other Types of Nonrenewable

Resources
Most nonrenewable resources are formed
from organic carbon material which is heated
and compressed over time, changing their
form into crude oil or natural gas.

The term nonrenewable resource also refers

to minerals and metals from the earth, such as
gold, silver, and iron. These are similarly
formed by a long-term geological process.
They are often costly to mine, as they are
usually deep within the Earth's crust. But they
are much more abundant than fossil fuels.

Some types of groundwater are considered

nonrenewable resources if the aquifer is
unable to be replenished at the same rate at
which it's drained.

Renewable Growth
Following the basic rule of supply and
demand, the cost to obtain nonrenewable
resources will continue to rise as they become
scarcer. Supply for many of these fuels is in
danger of running out completely.
Eventually, their prices will hit a point that
end users cannot afford, forcing a move
toward alternative energy sources.

Meanwhile, concern over the impact of fossil

fuel use on the environment and its
contribution to global warming is growing.
The first international agreement on fighting
climate change was the Kyoto Protocol,
adopted in 1997.
One caveat is that the alternatives require
ample lead time to be put into place. That
process has begun slowly. Wind power
generated about 6.3% of American electrical
power in 2017. About 1.6% of American
electricity was supplied by solar power as of
the end of 2017. Plug-in electric vehicles had
a market share of a bit over 2% in 2018.
What Is Thermal
Energy?
Have you ever wondered what makes
something hot? The answer may be more
simple than you think. The temperature of an
object increases when the molecules that
make up that object move faster.
Thermal energy is energy possessed by an
object or system due to the movement of
particles within the object or the system.
Thermal energy is one of various types of
energy, where 'energy' can be defined as 'the
ability to do work.' Work is the movement of
an object due to an applied force. A system is
simply a collection of objects within some
boundary. Therefore, thermal energy can be
described as the ability of something to do
work due to the movement of its particles.
Because thermal energy is due to the
movement of particles, it is a type of kinetic
energy, which is the energy due to motion.
Thermal energy results in something having
an internal temperature, and that temperature
can be measured - for example, in degrees
Celsius or Fahrenheit on a thermometer. The
faster the particles move within an object or
system, the higher the temperature that is
recorded.
Application of Thermal Energy
Let's take a look at a simple example of
thermal energy. A heated element on a stove
contains thermal energy, and the more you
turn up the stove, the more internal energy
the stove contains. At the very basic level,
this thermal energy is the movement of the
molecules that make up the metal of the
stove's element. I know you can't see the
molecules moving, but they are. The faster
the molecules, the more internal thermal
energy they contain.
Now, let's place a pot of water on top of the
heated element. What happens? The stove
works, right? Well, not as we would typically
think of it. Here, 'work' is referring to 'the
movement of something when a force is
applied.' Specifically, the thermal energy of
the stove causes the particles of the pot and
eventually the water to move faster. The
internal energy of the heated element is
transferred to the pot and ultimately the water
within the pot. This transfer of thermal
energy from the stove to the pot and to the
water is referred to as heat. It is very
important to keep these terms straight. In this
context, heat is the term we use to refer
specifically to the transfer of thermal energy
from one object or a system to another,
transfer being the key. The thermal energy
is the energy possessed within the object or
within the system due to movement of
particles. They're different - heat and thermal
energy.
You can feel the heat if you hold your hand
above the stove. The heat, in turn, speeds up
the molecules within the pot and the water. If
you place a thermometer in the water, as the
water heats up, you can watch the
temperature rise. Again, an increase in
internal energy will result in an increase in
temperature.
Hydel energy
Energy from water sources
The energy in the flowing water can be used
to produce electricity. Waves result from the
interaction of the wind with the surface of the
sea and represent a transfer of energy from
the wind to the sea. Energy can be extracted
from tides by creating a reservoir or basin
behind a barrage and then passing tidal
waters through turbines in the barrage to
generate electricity.
Mini or Micro Hydro power

Hydro power is one of the best, cheapest, and

cleanest source of energy, although, with big
dams, there are many environmental and
social problems as has been seen in the case
of the Tehri and the Narmada Projects. Small
dams are, however, free from these problems.
This is in fact one of the earliest known
renewable energy sources, in the country
(since the beginning of the 20th century).

In fact, for the last few hundred years, people

living in the hills of the Himalayas have been
using water mills, or chakki, to grind wheat.
The 130 KW small hydropower plant in
Darjeeling set up in 1897, was the first in
India. Besides being free from the problem of
pollution, such plants are also free from
issues and controversies that are associated
with the bigger projects, namely affecting the
lives of thousands of people living along the
banks of the rivers, destruction of large areas
under forest, and seismological threats.
New environmental laws affected by the
danger of global warming have made energy
from small hydropower plants more relevant.
These small hydropower plants can serve the
energy needs of remote rural areas
independently. The real challenge in a remote
area lies in successful marketing of the
energy and recovering the dues. Local
industries should be encouraged to use this
electricity for sustainable development.
It is a technology with enormous potential,
which could exploit the water resources to
supply energy to remote rural areas with little
access to conventional energy sources. It also
eliminates most of the negative
environmental effects associated with large
hydro projects.
Energy from the sea - Ocean thermal, tidal
and wave energy

Large amounts of solar energy is stored in the

oceans and seas. On an average, the 60
million square kilometre of the tropical seas
absorb solar radiation equivalent to the heat
content of 245 billion barrels of oil. Scientists
feel that if this energy can be tapped a large
source of energy will be available to the
tropical countries and to other countries as
well. The process of harnessing this energy is
called OTEC (ocean thermal energy
conversion). It uses the temperature
differences between the surface of the ocean
and the depths of about 1000m to operate a
heat engine, which produces electric power.
Solar power
Solar power is the key to a clean energy
future. Every day, the sun gives off far more
energy than we need to power everything on
earth. That’s why we’re investing heavily in
solar plants and why we are now offering
solar kits to our customers in Finland,
Norway and Sweden.
Limitless solar energy
The sun provides more than enough energy to
meet the whole world’s energy needs, and
unlike fossil fuels, it won’t run out anytime
soon. As a renewable energy source, the only
limitation of solar power is our ability to turn
it into electricity in an efficient and cost-
effective way.
Solar energy - a clean source
No greenhouse gas emissions are released
into the atmosphere when you use solar
panels to create electricity. And because the
sun provides more energy than we’ll ever
need, electricity from solar power is a very
important energy source in the move to clean
energy production.
No fuel to burn
After solar panels have been installed,
operational costs are quite low compared to
other forms of power generation. Fuel isn’t
required, and this means that solar power can
create large amounts of electricity without the
uncertainty and expense of securing a fuel
supply.
Solar power and the environment
As a renewable CO2-free power source, the
environmental impact of solar power is
significantly smaller than other power
generation methods. The impact is mainly
related to the production and supply of the
special materials and metals that are required
to produce solar panels. The location and the
water used to clean the solar panels also
affect the environment. We are working hard
to find alternative ways to clean our solar
panels.
What are the advantages of solar power?
The main advantage is that it is a renewable,
clean source of electricity. Solar power is also
scalable. This means that it can be deployed
on an industrial scale, or it can be used to
power a single household. When it’s used on
a small scale, extra electricity can be stored in
a battery or fed back into the electricity grid.
Overall, the sun gives off far more energy
than we’ll ever need. The only limitation is
our ability to convert it to electricity in a cost-
effective way.
Wind energy
Wind energy is a form of solar energy. Wind
energy (or wind power) describes the process
by which wind is used to generate electricity.
Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in
the wind into mechanical power. A generator
can convert mechanical power into
electricity. Mechanical power can also be
utilized directly for specific tasks such as
pumping water. The US DOE developed a
short wind power animation that provides an
overview of how a wind turbine works and
describes the wind resources in the United
States.
Wind Energy Basics

Wind is caused by the uneven heating of the

atmosphere by the sun, variations in the
earth's surface, and rotation of the earth.
Mountains, bodies of water, and vegetation
all influence wind flow patterns. Wind
turbines convert the energy in wind to
electricity by rotating propeller-like blades
around a rotor. The rotor turns the drive shaft,
which turns an electric generator. Three key
factors affect the amount of energy a turbine
can harness from the wind: wind speed, air
density, and swept area.
Equation for Wind Power

§ Wind speed
The amount of energy in the wind varies
with the cube of the wind speed, in other
words, if the wind speed doubles, there is
eight times more energy in the wind (
). Small changes in
wind speed have a large impact on the
amount of power available in the wind .
§ Density of the air
The more dense the air, the more energy
received by the turbine. Air density varies
with elevation and temperature. Air is less
dense at higher elevations than at sea
level, and warm air is less dense than cold
air. All else being equal, turbines will
produce more power at lower elevations
and in locations with cooler average
temperatures
§ Swept area of the turbine
The larger the swept area (the size of the
area through which the rotor spins), the
more power the turbine can capture from
the wind. Since swept area is ,
where r = radius of the rotor, a small
increase in blade length results in a larger
increase in the power available to the
turbine.
DOE Wind Programs and
Information
§ DOE's Wind Energy Technologies
Office works to improve the
performance, lower the costs, and
accelerate the deployment of
innovative wind and water power
technologies. Greater use of the
nation's abundant wind and water
 resources for electric power
generation will help stabilize energy
costs, enhance energy security, and
improve our environment.
§ WINDExchange is a nationwide
initiative designed to increase the
use of wind energy across the
United States by working with
regional stakeholders. The
WINDExchange program illustrates
the Department of Energy's
commitment to dramatically
increase the use of wind energy in
the United States. The
WINDExchange website provides a
wide range of wind-related
information, including: State-by-
state breakdowns of wind resource
potential, success stories, installed
wind capacity, news, events, and
other resources, which are updated
regularly.
§ The National Wind Technology
Center (NWTC) is the nation's
premier wind energy technology
 research facility. The goal of the
research conducted at NWTC is to
help industry reduce the cost of
energy so that wind can compete
with traditional energy sources,
providing a clean, renewable
alternative for our nation's energy
needs.
Worldwide Installed Capacity
Country Total Total
Capacity, Capacity,
end of June 2010
2014 (MW)[9]
(MW)[8]
U.S. 65,900 36,300
China 114,600 33,800
Germany 40,000 26,400
Spain 23,000 19,500
India 22,500 12,100
France 9,300 5,000
U.K 12,200 4,600
Portugal 4,953 3,800
Denmark 4,883 3,700

United States Installed Capacity

In the U.S., installed wind energy
capacity has advanced significantly over
the past ten years. As of the third quarter
of 2017, the U.S. now has an installed
wind capacity of 84,944 MW with over
29,634 MW of wind currently under
construction or in advanced
development—a 27% year-over-year
increase, the highest since the American
Wind Energy Association began
tracking the categories.
Wind Farm Development
Siting a wind farm varies from one
location to another, but there are some
important matters for land owners to
consider:
1. Understand your wind resource
2. Evaluate distance from existing
 transmission lines
3. Determine benefits of and
barriers to allowing your land to
be developed
4. Establish access to capital
5. Identify reliable power
purchaser or market
6. Address siting and project
feasibility considerations
7. Understand wind energy’s
economics
8. Obtain zoning and permitting
expertise
9. Establish dialogue with turbine
manufacturers and project
developers
10. Secure agreement to meet O&M
needs
Necessary Services to Avail
Wind power project or WPP involves
development through own resources and
manpower or by availing the technical
services from consultant organisations:
[13]

1. SITE IDENTIFICATION: The

process starts with regional
overviews and precision GIS
mapping, through which the
specific opportunities are
determined at a feasible site. This
also involves mapping of project
boundaries, turbine micro-siting
and optimisation.
2. WIND RESOURCE
ASSESSMENT: Accurate Wind
Resource Assessment of a widely
variable resource is the most
critical feature for success of a
WPP. Meso-Scale and then Micro-
Scale Wind Power Density/Wind
Speed Map is produced for the site
location through input of accurate
contour/terrain data. Ideal spot is
selected to install Anemometry
System. The recorded wind data is
critically analyzed and formatted
to represent wind characteristics.
A preliminary wind resource
 assessment can be carried out by
using the freely available Global
Wind Atlas.
3. MICRO-SITING & ENERGY
ESTIMATION: This constitutes
the foundation of a Wind Power
Project. Wind Resource data is
formatted in terms of Speed and
direction. The characteristic power
of selected Wind Electric
Generator (WEG) is formatted.
Detailed Contour data at close
interval is prepared indicating
roughness and terrain features.
WEG layout is optimised and
Micro-siting Map is prepared
using software and then estimated
is energy generation.
4. DETAILED PROJECT
REPORT: Once the site, make and
rating of WEG and the selling
option are finalized, detailed
survey and field study is
conducted. Comprehensive layout
design is prepared with
 optimization of generation along
with detailed design for approach
road and grid evacuation. Detailed
costing and financial analysis is
carried out to establish overall
viability.
5. PROJECT MANAGEMENT:
Implementation and Management
of Wind power project, WPP, calls
for Multi-disciplinary activities
related to Technical, Financial and
Commercial aspects. Not only
quality of works needs to be
checked, it is equally important to
ensure close co-ordination and
monitoring for timely
commissioning.
6. MONITORING: Energy
generation with respect to wind
resource, frequency and type of
machine and system failures needs
to be critically monitored and
analyzed to optimize generation.
Income from WPP can be
optimized only if break down and
 failure of WEG and evacuation
system is avoided particularly
during the limited high wind
months.
7. PERFORMANCE
IMPROVEMENT: For the
existing Wind Power projects also
there is often need to ensure its
performance improvement, which
goes down with time. Critical
analysis of monitoring reports
along with on-site observations
and in depth study immensely help
in performance improvement
through reduction in break-down
time and interval losses. Due to
seasonal availability of wind
resource, generation increasing in
cubic proportion of wind speed
and overall low Plant Load Factor,
parameter setting and
operational/control logic needs to
be site specific.
8. LENDER'S ENGINEERS: To
meet the need of expert engineers
 to serve a project especially for a
definite term or contract, where
the task may not be managed with
the available resources, the clients
are provided Lenders Engineer’s
services as per the requirements
assessed mutually with the client.
This involves serving through
deputing or appointing suitable
personnel and thus meeting the
need of the project at a given point
of time of various technical types.
Land Requirements

The amount of land required for a wind

farm varies considerably, and is
particularly dependent on two key
factors: the desired size of the wind
farm (which can be defined either by
installed capacity or the number of
turbines) and the characteristics of the
local terrain[14]. Typically, wind turbine
spacing is determined by the rotor
diameter and local wind conditions.
Some estimates suggest spacing turbines
between 5 and 10 rotor diameters apart.
If prevailing winds are generally from
the same direction, turbines may be
installed 3 or 4 rotor diameters apart (in
the direction perpendicular to the
prevailing winds); under multi-
directional wind conditions, spacing of
between 5 and 7 rotor diameters is
recommended
TIDAL POWER
Definition
Tidal energy is one of the oldest forms of
energy generation. It is a renewable form of
energy that converts the natural rise and fall
of the tides into electricity. Tides are caused
by the combined effects of gravitational
forces exerted by the Moon, the Sun, and the
rotation of the Earth.
Tidal energy presents an evolving technology
with tremendous potential. However, it can
only be installed along coastlines. Coastlines
often experience two high tides and two low
tides on a daily basis. The difference in water
levels must be at least 5 meters high to
produce electricity.
Tidal electricity can be created from several
technologies, the main ones being tidal
barrages, tidal fences and tidal turbines.
Tidal barrages are the most efficient tidal
energy sources. A tidal barrage is a dam that
utilizes the potential energy generated by the
change in height between high and low tides.
This energy turns a turbine or compresses air,
which generates electricity.
Tidal fences are turbines that operate like
giant turnstiles, while tidal turbines are
similar to wind turbines only under water. In
both cases, electricity is generated when the
mechanical energy of tidal currents turns
turbines connected to a generator. Ocean
currents generate relatively more energy than
air currents because ocean water is 832 times
more dense than air and therefore applies
greater force on the turbines.
Geothermal power
plants

Figure 1. Geothermal power plant (flash

steam, combined cycle) in Iceland.

Geothermal power plants are used in order to

generate electricity by the use of geothermal
energy (the Earth's internal thermal energy).
They essentially work the same as a coal or
nuclear power plant, the main difference
being the heat source. With geothermal, the
Earth's heat replaces the boiler of a coal plant
or the reactor of a nuclear plant.[2] Click here
to learn how this heat is produced.
Hot water or steam is extracted from the
Earth through a series of wells and feeds the
power plant. In most geothermal plants the
water pulled up from the ground is returned
back to the subsurface. The rate of water used
is often larger than the rate of water returned,
so make-up water supplies are generally
needed.
Types
There are 3 main types of geothermal power
plants, with the flash cycle being the most
common. The choice of plant depends on
how much geothermal energy is available,
and how hot the resource is. The hotter the
resource, the less fluid needs to flow from the
ground to take advantage of it, the more
useful it is. Some details of each plant may be
seen below:
Dry steam plants

Figure 2. One of 22 dry steam plants at The

Geysers in California.
These plants use dry steam that is naturally
produced in the ground. This steam travels
from the production well to the surface and
through a turbine, and after transferring its
energy to the turbine it condenses and is
injected back into the Earth. These types are
the oldest types of geothermal power plants,
the first one was built back in 1904 in Italy.
Because this type of power plant requires the
highest temperatures they can only be used
where the temperature underground is quite
high, but this type requires the least fluid
flow.
The dry steam plants at the Geysers in
northern California, first drilled in 1924, are
the largest geothermal source of electricity.
At their peak production in the late 1980s
they produced a whopping 2 GW of
electricity - the equivalent of two large coal
or nuclear power plants. However due to
high rates of extraction, power has since
declined to 1.5 GW of capacity, with an
average output of less than 1 GW.
Flash cycle steam plants
These types are the most common due to the
lack of naturally occurring high-quality
steam. In this method, water must be over
180°C, and under its own pressure it flows
upwards through the well. This is a lower
temperature than dry steam plants have. As
its pressure decreases, some of the water
"flashes" to steam, which is passed through
the turbine section. The remaining water that
did not become steam is cycled back down
into the well, and can also be used for heating
purposes. The cost of these systems is
increased due to more complex parts,
however they can still compete with
conventional power sources.
Click here to take an interactive tour of a
flash cycle power and heating plant] from
Orkuveita Reykjavikur (a power company in
Reykjavik).
Binary cycle plants
Binary power plants are expected to be the
most commonly used type of geothermal
power plant in the future, as locations outside
of the known hot spots begin to use
geothermal energy. This is because binary
cycle plants can make use of lower
temperature water than the other two types of
plants. They use a secondary loop (hence the
name "binary") which contains a fluid with a
low boiling point, such as pentane or butane.
The water from the well flows through a heat
exchanger which transfers its heat to this
fluid, which vaporizes due to its low boiling
point. It is then passed through a turbine,
accomplishing the same task as steam.

Figure 3. Dry steam cycle.

Figure 4. Flash steam cycle.
Power plant
A power plant is an industrial facility that
generates electricity from primary energy.
Most power plants use one or more
generators that convert mechanical energy
into electrical energy in order to supply power
to the electrical grid for society's electrical
needs. The exception is solar power plants,
which use photovoltaic cells (instead of a
turbine) to generate this electricity.

The type of primary fuel or primary energy

flow that provides a power plant its primary
energy varies. The most common fuels are
coal, natural gas, and uranium (nuclear
power). A substantially used primary energy
flow for electricity generation is
hydroelectricity (water). Other flows that are
used to generate electricity include wind,
solar, geothermal and tidal.
Different countries get their electricity from
different types of power plants. For example,
in Canada, most electricity generation comes
from hydroelectric power plants which
accounts for about 60% of the total electricity
generated in Canada.[5] Please see the data
visualization below to explore how countries
around the world get their electricity.
How Gas Turbine
Power Plants Work

The combustion (gas) turbines being installed

in many of today's natural-gas-fueled power
plants are complex machines, but they
basically involve three main sections:
· The compressor, which draws air into
the engine, pressurizes it, and feeds it to
the combustion chamber at speeds of
hundreds of miles per hour.
· The combustion system, typically
made up of a ring of fuel injectors that
inject a steady stream of fuel into
combustion chambers where it mixes with
the air. The mixture is burned at
temperatures of more than 2000 degrees
 F. The combustion produces a high
temperature, high pressure gas stream that
enters and expands through the turbine
section.
· The turbine is an intricate array of
alternate stationary and rotating aerofoil-
section blades. As hot combustion gas
expands through the turbine, it spins the
rotating blades. The rotating blades
perform a dual function: they drive the
compressor to draw more pressurized air
into the combustion section, and they spin
a generator to produce electricity.
Land based gas turbines are of two types: (1)
heavy frame engines and (2) aeroderivative
engines. Heavy frame engines are
characterized by lower pressure ratios
(typically below 20) and tend to be physically
large. Pressure ratio is the ratio of the
compressor discharge pressure and the inlet
air pressure. Aeroderivative engines are
derived from jet engines, as the name implies,
and operate at very high compression ratios
(typically in excess of 30). Aeroderivative
engines tend to be very compact and are
useful where smaller power outputs are
needed. As large frame turbines have higher
power outputs, they can produce larger
amounts of emissions, and must be designed
to achieve low emissions of pollutants, such
as NOx.
One key to a turbine's fuel-to-power
efficiency is the temperature at which it
operates. Higher temperatures generally mean
higher efficiencies, which in turn, can lead to
more economical operation. Gas flowing
through a typical power plant turbine can be
as hot as 2300 degrees F, but some of the
critical metals in the turbine can withstand
temperatures only as hot as 1500 to 1700
degrees F. Therefore, air from the compressor
might be used for cooling key turbine
components, reducing ultimate thermal
efficiency.
One of the major achievements of the
Department of Energy's advanced turbine
program was to break through previous
limitations on turbine temperatures, using a
combination of innovative cooling
technologies and advanced materials. The
advanced turbines that emerged from the
Department's research program were able to
boost turbine inlet temperatures to as high as
2600 degrees F - nearly 300 degrees hotter
than in previous turbines, and achieve
efficiencies as high as 60 percent.
Another way to boost efficiency is to install a
recuperator or heat recovery steam generator
(HRSG) to recover energy from the turbine's
exhaust. A recuperator captures waste heat in
the turbine exhaust system to preheat the
compressor discharge air before it enters the
combustion chamber. A HRSG generates
steam by capturing heat from the turbine
exhaust. These boilers are also known as heat
recovery steam generators. High-pressure
steam from these boilers can be used to
generate additional electric power with steam
turbines, a configuration called a combined
cycle.
A simple cycle gas turbine can achieve
energy conversion efficiencies ranging
between 20 and 35 percent. With the higher
temperatures achieved in the Department of
Energy's turbine program, future hydrogen
and syngas fired gas turbine combined cycle
plants are likely to achieve efficiencies of 60
percent or more. When waste heat is captured
from these systems for heating or industrial
purposes, the overall energy cycle efficiency
could approach 80 percent.

Types of
Hydropower Plants
There are three types of hydropower
facilities: impoundment, diversion, and
pumped storage. Some hydropower plants use
dams and some do not. The images below
show both types of hydropower plants.
Many dams were built for other purposes and
hydropower was added later. In the United
States, there are about 80,000 dams of which
only 2,400 produce power. The other dams
are for recreation, stock/farm ponds, flood
control, water supply, and irrigation.
Hydropower plants range in size from small
systems for a home or village to large
projects producing electricity for utilities. The
sizes of hydropower plants are described
below.
IMPOUNDMENT
The most common type of hydroelectric
power plant is an impoundment facility. An
impoundment facility, typically a large
hydropower system, uses a dam to store river
water in a reservoir. Water released from the
reservoir flows through a turbine, spinning it,
which in turn activates a generator to produce
electricity. The water may be released either
to meet changing electricity needs or to
maintain a constant reservoir level.
DIVERSION
A diversion, sometimes called run-of-river,
facility channels a portion of a river through a
canal or penstock. It may not require the use
of a dam.

PUMPED STORAGE
Another type of hydropower called pumped
storage works like a battery, storing the
electricity generated by other power sources
like solar, wind, and nuclear for later use. It
stores energy by pumping water uphill to a
reservoir at higher elevation from a second
reservoir at a lower elevation. When the
demand for electricity is low, a pumped
storage facility stores energy by pumping
water from a lower reservoir to an upper
reservoir. During periods of high electrical
demand, the water is released back to the
lower reservoir and turns a turbine,
generating electricity.
SIZES OF HYDROELECTRIC
POWER PLANTS
Facilities range in size from large power
plants that supply many consumers with
electricity to small and micro plants that
individuals operate for their own energy
needs or to sell power to utilities.
Large Hydropower
Although definitions vary, DOE defines large
hydropower as facilities that have a capacity
of more than 30 megawatts (MW).
Small Hydropower
Although definitions vary, DOE defines small
hydropower as projects that generate 10 MW
or less of power.
Micro Hydropower
A micro hydropower plant has a capacity of
up to 100 kilowatts. A small or micro-
hydroelectric power system can produce
enough electricity for a home, farm, ranch, or
village.
COMBINED
CYCLE POWER
PLANT
A combined-cycle power plant uses both a
gas and a steam turbine together to produce
up to 50 percent more electricity from the
same fuel than a traditional simple-cycle
plant. The waste heat from the gas turbine is
routed to the nearby steam turbine, which
generates extra power.
HOW A COMBINED-CYCLE
POWER PLANT PRODUCES
ELECTRICITY
This is how a combined-cycle plant works to
produce electricity and captures waste heat
from the gas turbine to increase efficiency
and electrical output.
1. Gas turbine burns fuel.
· The gas turbine compresses air and
 mixes it with fuel that is heated to a very
high temperature. The hot air-fuel
mixture moves through the gas turbine
blades, making them spin.
· The fast-spinning turbine drives a
generator that converts a portion of the
spinning energy into electricity.
2. Heat recovery system captures exhaust.
· A Heat Recovery Steam Generator
(HRSG) captures exhaust heat from the
gas turbine that would otherwise escape
through the exhaust stack.
· The HRSG creates steam from the gas
turbine exhaust heat and delivers it to the
steam turbine.
3. Steam turbine delivers additional
electricity.
· The steam turbine sends its energy to
the generator drive shaft, where it is
converted into additional electricity.
Why is Energy
Storage Such an
Important
In order to maintain the efficient flow of
power, utility operators must attempt to
steady the supply and demand consistently in
order to meet peak demand. Energy storage
has become a hot topic in the industry in the
last couple of years, but what is it all about?
To understand, let's start with the utility grid.
In order to maintain the efficient flow of
power, utility operators must attempt to
steady the supply and demand consistently in
order to meet peak demand.
Typically, most utility grids do not store
energy because it would be a vastly
expensive undertaking. As a result, the
utilities call upon the use of additional fossil
fuel burning plants to ramp up or down as
needed to provide for demand. However, this
method is not at all ideal because these plants
operate more efficiently when running at full
power. Therefore, utilizing these extra plants
to smooth out the distribution of energy is
contributing more pollution than the plants
that are burning fossil fuels for the utility’s
base-load energy demands.

Within the last several years, a new and

driven discussion has begun to take shape
that would shift our energy consumption to
less polluting forms of energy. While there
have been other avenues of energy production
apart from the use of coal, such as carbon
capture, nuclear energy, and natural gas,
these have all begun to lose momentum as
popular solutions to reducing greenhouse gas
emissions have grown. Currently, solar and
wind energy have seen a significant increase
in their market share and are becoming cost
competitive in a great number of areas. Their
portion of energy generation has been
steadily expanding in various places around
the world, including Germany and parts of
the U.S.
However, wind and solar, come with their
own unique drawbacks. Each of these
resources is intermittent; we know the sun
does not shine at night and that in many
places wind resources are not ideal. These
factors add to the grid’s need for frequency
regulation. For example, when a cloud passes
beneath the sun or the wind happens to drop
off suddenly the energy being fed into the
grid is not available making the grid unstable
as it compensates to meet demand. Therefore,
as the percentage of solar and wind energy
increases, asking more from our grid, added
flexibility is needed for the entire system.
This can be remedied by demand response. In
other words, the capability to balance the
sudden supply and demand by turning power
on or off in localized bursts. This need is
where energy storage comes into play.
In the U.S. we have looked toward Germany
to understand how they have dealt with this
issue and how energy storage may offer the
solution. California is a great example of
where energy storage may help to balance the
grid through the use of energy storage
because of the target goal to have 33 percent
renewable energy by 2020. Due to the large
amount of solar that is already installed and
connected to the grid in California, voltage is
beginning to be affected. The state has zeroed
in on storage as the key component of the
smarter grid. In 2010, the California Public
Utilities Commission (CPUC) was the first to
pass an energy storage mandate, which would
require the three largest utilities in the state to
use 1,325 MW of energy storage by 2020 and
set energy storage targets. Although energy
storage would provide frequency regulation
on the grid and assist to stabilize intermittent
solar and wind energy, it can also provide
other assets as we move toward having a
smarter grid.
Since our current grid system is oversized to
serve demand peaks, like in the winter when
resistive heaters are in high use or in summer
when we all have our air-conditioning
cranked up, we look toward energy storage to
accommodate these peaks. Energy storage
can save the utilities, and their customers,
money by eliminating the need for expanding
new transmission lines and infrastructure.
By nature, energy storage is able to provide
backup power when grid power is lost, a
characteristic that is of great interest to
residential customers as well as business
owners. Energy storage is of interest to the
utility because they can store energy that is
produced by their plants and not used (such
as wind energy at night) and release the
stored energy during the day when the
demand is higher (and also the cost).
Energy storage will continue to see advances
as more manufacturers enter the market and
the industry continues to expand and mature.
We will see our grid reach the goal of
becoming more efficient, stable and
(hopefully) less costly as we venture to have
a “smart” grid.

Benefits of Energy
Storage
Investment Creates Long-term Reliability
Our investment in energy storage evolves
with our grid, creating long-term benefit and
reliability for years to come.
Energy storage is a critical hub for the entire
grid, augmenting resources from wind, solar
and hydro, to nuclear and fossil fuels, to
demand side resources and system efficiency
assets. It can act as a generation, transmission
or distribution asset – sometimes in a single
asset.
Ultimately, storage is an enabling technology.
It can save consumers money, improve
reliability and resilience, integrate generation
sources, and help reduce environmental
impacts.
All in one.

Save Money
Energy storage can save operational costs in
powering the grid, as well as save money for
electricity consumers who install energy
storage in their homes and businesses. Energy
storage can reduce the cost to provide
frequency regulation and spinning reserve
services, as well as offset the costs to
consumers by storing low-cost energy and
using it later, during peak periods at higher
electricity rates.
By using energy storage during brief outages,
businesses can avoid costly disruptions and
continue normal operations. Residents can
save themselves from lost food and
medicines, and the inconvenience of not
having electricity. And there is an option for
both businesses and residential consumers to
participate in demand response programs
when available.
Steam Generators

Many industrial processes that were once

steam heated, are now direct fired; space
heating systems in large industrial facilities
are moving away from steam. Old steam
boilers are very inefficient at low load
factors. Yet some industrial processes still
require steam. These are all reasons to
consider a steam generator.
Steam generators are like boilers in that they
are fired by gas and produce steam, but they
are unlike boilers in that they do not have
large pressure vessels and are made of light-
weight materials. The fact that they do not
have pressure vessels means that in most
locations they do NOT require a boiler
operator (always confirm with local codes).
This can be a substantial savings when there
is no other reason to have an operator other
than the local code requires it for a pressure
vessel. The fact that they are made out of
light weight materials means they perform
well at part loads and respond quickly to
changes in loads. This greatly increases part
load operating efficiency.
Types of Steam
Generators
The advent of the steam generator, or boiler, transformed
everyday life long before electronic innovations did, and
arguably had a greater overall impact than more recent
innovations such as as online commerce, social media and
wireless technology. It is hard to appreciate now just how
much of a game-changer it was to be able to get from place
to place without either personal or animal (e.g., horse-drawn
carriage) power.
On its face, the production of steam on purpose looks like a
strange choice. Looking at the world the way a young child
might, steam appears to be little more than an obligatory
watery waste product of various processes involving heat
generation, from cooking a box of pasta to warming the
corridors of a building.
The best way to relate your mind to the value of properly
harnessed steam is to picture what happens when something
that has steam billowing from it is suddenly capped or
otherwise physically prevented from emitting that steam –
for example, clamping a lid tightly down on a pot of boiling
water for even a second before releasing it.

The Basics and Origins of

Steam Power
Steam is water vapor, or more generally, the gaseous form of
the molecule. Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen atoms
and has a molecular formula of H2O. Like other matter with
a particular boiling point, water is able to enter the gaseous
phase when it reaches that temperature (for water, 100 C, or
degrees Celsius (212 F, or degrees Fahrenheit) and gets a
tiny energy push so it can overcome its heat of vaporization,
a sort of toll that matter usually has to pay to change between
states (solid, liquid or gas).
Today, steam's most vital widespread role is in the
generation of electrical power. But back in the late 1600s, it
was discovered that it was easier to remove waste water from
mines when it was condensed. In the process, it was
discovered that the process of water condensing creates a
vacuum (negative pressure in relation to whatever lies
outside the area of condensation activity). This finding was
eventually integrated into modern steam engines and
generators.

What Do Steam Power Plants

Generate?
There are various types of steam power plants, with the
organization and other specific details of each depending on
the ultimate purpose of the steam-generated power. In each
case, steam is not the goal, but a means to a power-producing
end.
Rather than simply releasing steam to the open air, with any
pressure local differences quickly being ironed out owing to
an unlimited air supply, it is trapped in some kind of space
and its pent-up strength unleashed on human-supplied
equipment.
In power plants, steam is created by the burning of fuel in a
high-pressure environment – that is, a boiler. This is seen in
chiefly coal-fired plants, although by the early 21st century
these had come under heavy fire for both their direct
polluting effects and their contribution to anthropogenic
climate change. Steam is also used in nuclear power plants as
well as in solar thermal power plants.

Steam Power Plant Components

Although the composition and construction of boilers can
vary, their core components are largely the same and include
the following:
· Firebox: This chamber is where combustion occurs,
and it houses the burners and various regulatory devices.
· Burners: These inject a mixture of air and fuel (usually
coal, fuel oil or natural gas) into the distribution system to
optimize the blend for combustion.
· Drums: These include a lower mud drum to collect
mostly solid waste and an upper steam drum to collect the
steam for placement into the distribution system.
· Economizer: This device optimizes operational
efficiency by preheat feedwater to a given temperature
before it can enter the body of the boiler system.
· Steam distribution system: This network of valves,
tubes and connections is customized for the pressure levels
of the steam being carried through the system. Steam leaves
the boiler with enough pressure to power whatever process is
downstream (e.g., electricity generation via a turbine).
· Feedwater system: This critical element of a boiler
ensures that the amount of water entering the system
balances that leaving the system. This must be calculated in
weight, not volume, since some of the water is steam and
some is liquid.

Types of Steam Generators

Firetube. These are most often used in processes that need
anywhere from from 15 to 2,200 horsepower (1 hp = 746
watts, or W). This type of boiler is cylindrical, with the flame
in the furnace cavity itself and the combustion gases
themselves kept inside a series of tubes. These come in two
basic designs: dry back and wet back.
Watertube. In this arrangement, tubes contain steam, water
or both, while the products of combustion pass around the
outside of tubes. These often have multiple sets of drums,
and because they use relatively little water, these boilers
offer unusually fast steaming capabilities.
Commercial. These usually feature combinations of
watertube, firetube and electric-resistance designs. They are
popular in large buildings requiring a mostly constant
temperature, such as schools and libraries, office and
government buildings, airports, apartment complexes,
college and other research laboratories hospitals, and so on.
Condensing. Condensing boilers can reach thermal
efficiency levels of to 98 percent, compared to 70 to 80
percent attainable using standard boiler designs. Typical
efficiency levels reach about 90 percent when the return
water temperature is at 110 F or lower, and rise with
decreasing water-return temperature thereafter.
Flexible watertube (flextube). This construction is
particularly resistant to "heat shock," making it a natural
option for heating uses. Flexible watertube boilers come in a
wide range of fuel inputs and are well-suited for low-
pressure applications using either steam or hot water. (Not all
"boilers" actually boil water!) These are also quite easy to
maintain, with easy access to their working parts from the
outside.
Electric. These boilers are famously low-impact: clean, quiet,
easy to install, and small in relation to their utility. Because
nothing is actually burned (that is, there is no flame to worry
about), electric boilers are marvelously simple. There are no
fuels or fuel handling equipment in the mix, and hence no
exhaust and no need for associated pipes and ports. In
addition, these have heating elements that are easy to
replace.
Heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). This is an
innovative energy-recovery "heat exchanger" that recovers
heat from a stream of hot gas passing by. These create steam
that can be used to drive a particular a process or used to
drive a steam turbine to power electricity generation using an
electromagnet. HRSGs are built on a foundation of three
primary components – an evaporator, a superheater and an
economizer.

Steam as Nuclear Reactor Fuel

Nuclear power plants use energy not from the combustion of
fuel but by the mechanical separation of its tiniest
components. That is a very mild way of describing nuclear
fission, in which atoms (in this case, those belonging to the
element uranium) are broken into smaller atoms, releasing
enormous amounts of energy.
The energy released by fission is captured and used to heat
and boil water, and the resulting steam is used to power a
turbine for the purpose of electricity generation.
Cochran boiler
It is a multi-tubular vertical fire tube boiler
having a number of horizontal fire tubes. It is
the modification of a simple vertical boiler
where the heating surface has been increased
by means of a number of fire tubes.
In this boiler, the fire tubes are placed
horizontally.
The efficiency of this boiler is much better
than the simple vertical boiler.
Main Parts of Cochran Boiler:
The Main parts of Cochran boiler are:
1. Shell
2. Grate
3. Combustion chamber
4. Fire tubes
5. Fire hole
6. Firebox (Furnace)
7. Chimney
 8. Man Hole
9. Flue pipe

Cochran boiler
Shell:
The main body of the boiler is known as a
shell.
It is hemispherical on the top, where space is
provided for steam.
This hemispherical top gives a higher volume
to area ratio which increases the steam
capacity.
Grate:
The area where the fire is placed known as a
grate.
ertisement: 5:15
It is placed at the bottom of the furnace where
coal is burnt.
Combustion Chamber:
It is lined with fire bricks on the side of the
shell to prevent overheating of the boiler.
Hot gases enter the fire tubes from the flue
pipe through the combustion chamber.
The combustion chamber is connected to the
furnace.
Fire Tubes:
There are various fire tubes whose one end is
connected to the furnace and other to the
chimney.
A number of horizontal fire tubes are
provided, thereby the heating surface is
increased.
Fire Hole:
The small hole is provided at the bottom of
the combustion chamber to place fuel is
known as a fire hole.
Fir Box (Furnace):
It works as a mediator of fire tubes and
combustion chamber.
It is also dome-shaped like the shell so that
the gases can be deflected back till they are
passed out through the flue pipe to the
combustion chamber.
Chimney:
It is provided for the exit of flue gases to the
atmosphere from the smokebox.
Man Hole:
It is provided for the inspection and repair of
the interior of the boiler shell.
Flue Pipe:
It is a short passage connecting the firebox
with the combustion chamber.
Working Principle of
Cochran Boiler:
The Cochran boiler works as same as other
fire tube boiler.
First, The coal is placed at the grate through
the fire hole.
Then the air is entering into the combustion
chamber through the atmosphere and fuel is
sparked through fire hole.
Then flue gases start flowing into the
hemispherical dome-shaped combustion
chamber. This flue gases further moves into
the fire pipes. And then
Heat is exchanged from flue gases to the
water into the fire tubes.
The steam produce collected into the upper
side of the shell and taken out by when the
required pressure generated and then
The flue gases now send to the chimney
through a firebox where it leaves into the
atmosphere.
Now, this process repeats and runs
continuously. The steam generates used into
the small industrial processed.
Various boiler mounting and accessories
are attached to the boiler for its efficient
working:
1. Pressure Gauge: It measures the pressure
of steam inside the boiler.
2. Safety Valve: It blows off the extra steam
when the steam pressure inside the boiler
reaches above safety level.
3. Water level Indicator: The position of the
water level in the Cochran boiler is indicated
by the water level indicator.
4. Stop Valve: Stop valve is used to transfer
steam to the desired location when it is
required. Otherwise, it stops the steam in the
boiler.
5. Blow off Valve: It is used to blow off the
settle down impurities, mud, and sediments
present in the boiler water.
Lamont Boiler
Lamont Boiler is a water tube boiler and It is
a high-pressure boiler.
The other different types of water tube boiler:
Benson boiler, Stirling boiler, Babcock and
Wilcox boiler, Yarrow boiler and Loeffler
boiler.
Here we are going to study Definition, Main
Parts, Working, Application, Advantages,
Disadvantages of Lamont Boiler and you can
download whole articles in PDF at the end.
Lamont Boiler Definition:
LaMont boiler is a high pressure forced
circulation water-tube boiler in which water
is circulated through an external pump
through long closely spaced tubes of small
diameter.
The pump is employed in order to have
adequate and positive circulation in steam
and hot water boilers.
Parts or Construction of Lamont Boiler:
A Lamont Boiler consists of several parts
like:
· Economizer
· Centrifugal Pump
· Evaporator Tube
· Grate
· Furnace
· Superheater
· Water Steam Separator Drum
· Air Preheater
Economizer:
Economizer use to preheat the water by using
the remaining heat of the combustion gases.
The feed water first supplied to the
economizer before entering the boiler.
Economizer is a device that is used to
increases boiler efficiency.
Centrifugal pump:
The Lamont boiler is a force convection
boiler. So a centrifugal pump is used to
circulate water inside the boiler.
This pump is driven by a steam turbine. The
steam for the turbine is taken by the boiler.
Evaporator tube:
The evaporator tube or can say water tubes
are situated at the furnace wall which
increases the heating surface of the boiler.
This is also at the upside and downside of the
furnace and other equipment.
The main function of these tubes to evaporate
water into steam.
This also cools down the furnace wall.
Grate:
The space in the furnace where the fuel is
burned is called grate.
It is placed at the bottom side of the furnace.
Furnace:
In the Lamont boiler vertical furnace is used.
The main function of the furnace is to burn
the fuel.
Superheater:
The steam generated by the evaporator tube is
saturated steam.
If it directly used in the steam turbine can
cause corrosion.
So the saturated steam sends to the upper
heater, where it can increase the temperature
of the steam.
Water Steam Separator Drum:
The steam separator is situated outside of the
boiler.
The mixture of water and steam from the
evaporator tube sends it to the steam
separator, where it separates the stem and
sends it to the superheater.
The remaining water again sends to the
economizer.
Air Preheater:
The main function to preheat air before
entering into the furnace.
Air preheater is a device that increases the
efficiency of the boiler.
Tower Types and
Two Pass Boilers
The two-pass design is used in the vast
majority of boiler installations around the
world. Tower-type single pass designs, on the
other hand, are useful in situations when the
fuel is highly corrosive. In the case of once-
through design, the tower type has a wide
range of applications. The tower type of
construction is commonly used for
supercritical units because it can easily adapt
to spiral wall construction. The furnace's
water walls are made up of four plane
components that support the weight of the
furnace and its associated equipment. The
superheater, reheater, and economizer heat
transfer tube bundles in the top pass are all
supported by vertical supporting tubes. As a
result, the boiler structure can respond to all
transient phenomena caused by load
fluctuations or other dynamic processes. The
erosion rate in these types of boilers is
reduced since the flue gases flow through the
pressure components section of the
superheater, reheater, and economizer
without changing direction. The drainable
sections of the superheater, reheater, and
economizer are all horizontal heat transfer
sections. The tower design of boilers, on the
other hand, has several drawbacks.
Since the entire horizontal heat transfer
surfaces have to penetrate though the
furnace waterwall tubes in the upper
portion, the sealing arrangement requires a
careful design and erection. These areas
are vulnerable points of air ingress in to
the boiler if it is balanced draft or leakage
points if it is a pressurized unit. Due to air
ingress in these points, if it happens, the
pressure parts get eroded near the
penetration points and can cause leakage.
This type of heat transfer surface
arrangement does not allow parallel
erection of pressure parts. Any pressure
part failure in the superheater, reheater,
and part of economizer is cumbersome to
attend and leads to higher amount of down
time. The very tall structure of the tower
type design requires extra care and
checking to be done if the unit is to be put
in a high wind load or cyclone-prone area.
The type of erection tools used should also
be selected in such a way they can handle
the higher height requirement of the tower
type boiler. These types of boilers have
higher amount of settlement of ash on the
heat transfer surface and so they need a
higher frequency of soot blowing.
In the case of the two pass design, the gas
flow takes a turn from the furnace outlet
through a small horizontal pass to the
second pass where a part of the superheater
surface, sometimes even a portion of
reheater surface and economizer surface, is
accommodated. Due to the change in
direction of flue gas the ash particles
segregate and lead to higher erosion rate in
localized areas.
This design has the advantage that they
have about 40 % fewer erection pressure
parts welds and also parallel erection of
first and second pass is possible, thus
reducing the total erection time. Even
though this type of design has an inherent
disadvantage for high ash coals, there are
designs for protecting the pressure parts
from erosion, and the availability losses in
these units have been contained due to
pressure part failures by erosion.
Some boiler designers even today prefer a
two pass design for sub-critical and
supercritical units and feel they are more
economical than the tower type.
INTERNAL
COMBUSTION
ENGINES
The internal combustion (IC) engine has been
the dominant prime mover in our society
since its invention in the last quarter of the
19th century [for more details see, for
example, Heywood (1988)]. Its purpose is to
generate mechanical power from the
chemical energy contained in the fuel and
released through combustion of the fuel
inside the engine. It is this specific point, that
fuel is burned inside the work-producing part
of the engine, that gives IC engines their
name and distinguishes them from other types
such as external combustion engines.
Although Gas Turbines satisfy the definition
of an IC engine, the term has been
traditionally associated with spark-ignition
(sometimes called Otto, gasoline or petrol
engines) and diesel engines (or compression-
ignition engines).
Internal combustion engines are used in
applications ranging from marine propulsion
and power generating sets with capacity
exceeding 100 MW to hand-held tools where
the power delivered is less than 100 W. This
implies that the size and characteristics of
today's engines vary widely between large
diesels having cylinder bores exceeding 1,000
mm and reciprocating at speeds as low as 100
rpm to small gasoline two-stroke engines
with cylinder bores around 20 mm. Within
these two extremes lie medium-speed diesel
engines, heavy-duty automotive diesels, truck
and passenger car engines, aircraft engines,
motorcycle engines and small industrial
engines. From all these types, the passenger
car gasoline and diesel engines have a
prominent position since they are, by far, the
largest produced engines in the world; as
such, their influence on social and economic
life is of paramount importance.
The majority of reciprocating internal
combustion engines operate on what is
known as the four-stroke cycle (Figure 1),
which is subdivided into four processes:
intake, compression, expansion/ power and
exhaust. Each engine cylinder requires four
strokes of its piston which corresponds to two
crankshaft revolutions to complete the
sequence which lead to the production of
power.

Figure 1. Four-stroke engine cycle.

The intake stroke is initiated by the
downward movement of the piston, which
draws into the cylinder fresh fuel/air mixture
through the port/valve assembly, and ends
when the piston reaches bottom-dead-center
(BDC). The mixture is generated either by
means of a carburetor (as in conventional
engines) or by injection of gasoline at low
pressure into the intake port through an
eiectronically-controlled pintle-type injector
(as in more advanced engines). Effectively,
the induction process starts with the opening
of the intake valve just before top-dead-center
(TDC) and ends when the intake valve (or
valves in four-valve per-cylinder engines)
closes shortly after BDC. The closing time of
the intake valve(s) is a function of the design
of the induction manifold, which influences
the gas dynamics and volumetric efficiency
of the engine, and engine speed.
The intake stroke is succeeded by the
compression stroke which effectively starts at
the intake valve closure. Its purpose is to
prepare the mixture for combustion by
increasing its temperature and pressure.
Combustion is initiated by the energy
released through the spark plug towards the
end of the compression stroke and is
associated with a rapid rise in the cylinder
pressure.
The power or expansion stroke starts with the
piston at TDC of compression and ends at
BDC. At this point, the high temperature and
pressure gases generated during combustion
push the piston down, thus forcing the crank
to rotate. Just before the piston reaches BDC,
the exhaust valve(s) opens and the burned
gases are allowed to exit the cylinder due to
the differential pressure between the cylinder
and the exhaust manifold.
This exhaust stroke completes the engine
cycle by evacuating the cylinder from burned,
partially-burned or even unburned gases
escaping the combustion process; the next
engine cycle starts when the intake valve
opens near TDC and the exhaust valve closes
a few degrees crank angle later.
It is important to note that the properties of
gasoline, in association with combustion
chamber geometry, exert a significant
influence on combustion duration, rate of
pressure rise and pollutant formation. Under
certain conditions, the mixture at the end gas
may autoignite before the flame reaches that
part of the cylinder, leading to knock which
gives rise to high-intensity and frequency
pressure oscillations.
The tendency of gasoline fuel to resist
autoignition and thus prevent possible
damage to the engine as a result of knock is
characterised by its octane number. Until
recently, the addition of a small quantity of
lead into the gasoline was the preferred
method for suppressing knock but the
associated health risks, combined with the
need to use catalysts for reducing exhaust
emissions, have necessitated the introduction
of unleaded gasoline. This requires a
reduction of the engine's compression ratio
(ratio of the cylinder volume at BDC to the
volume at TDC) in order to prevent knock
with undesirable effects on thermal
efficiency.
As already mentioned, the four-stroke cycle,
also known as Otto cycle after its inventor
Nicolaus Otto who built the first engine in
1876, produces a power stroke for every two
crankshaft revolutions. One way to increase
the power output of a given engine size is to
convert it to a two-stroke cycle (Figure 2) in
which power is produced during every engine
revolution.
Figure 2. Two-stroke engine cycle.
Because this mode of operation gives rise to
increased power output—albeit not to the
double levels expected from simple
calculations—it has been extensively used in
motorcycle, passenger car and marine
applications with both spark-ignition and
diesel engines. An additional advantage is the
simple design of two-stroke engines since
they can operate with side ports in the liner,
covered and uncovered by piston motion,
instead of the bulky and complicated
overhead cam arrangement.
In the two-stroke cycle, the compression
stroke starts after the inlet and exhaust side
ports are covered by the piston; the fuel/air
mixture is compressed and then ignited by a
spark-plug, similar to ignition in a four-stroke
gasoline engine, to initiate combustion near
TDC. At the same time, fresh charge is
allowed to enter the crankcase before its
subsequent compression by the downward-
moving piston during the power or expansion
stroke. Daring this period, burned gases push
the piston until it reaches BDC, which allows
first the exhaust ports and then the intake
(transfer) ports to be uncovered. The opening
of the exhaust ports permits the burned gases
to exit the cylinder while partly at the same
time the fresh charge, which has been
compressed in the crankcase, enters the
cylinder through the properly orientated
transfer ports.
The overlapping of the induction and exhaust
strokes in two-stroke cycle engines is
responsible for some of the fresh charge
flowing directly out of the cylinder during the
scavenging process. Despite various attempts
to reduce the magnitude of this problem by
introducing a deflector into the piston
(Figure 2) and directing the incoming charge
away from the location of the exhaust ports,
charging efficiency in conventional two-
stroke engines remains relatively low. A
solution to this problem is to introduce the
fuel directly into the cylinder, separately from
the fresh air, through air-assisted injectors
during the period when both the exhaust and
transfer ports are closed. Despite the short
period available for mixing, air-assisted
atomizers can achieve a homogeneous lean
mixture at the time of ignition by generating
gasoline droplets of less than 40 μm mean
diameter, which vaporize very easily during
the compression stroke.
Amongst the various types of internal
combustion engines, the diesel or
compression-ignition engine is renowned for
its high efficiency, reduced fuel consumption
and relatively low total gaseous emissions. Its
name comes from the German engineer
Rudolf Diesel (1858−1913) who in 1892
described in his patent a form of internal
combustion engine which does not require an
external source of ignition and where
combustion is initiated by the autoignition of
the liquid fuel injected into the high
temperature and pressure air towards the end
of the compression stroke.
The inherent efficiency advantages of the
diesel engine stem from its lean overall
mixture ratios, the high engine compression
ratios afforded due to the absence of end-gas
ignition (knock) and the greater expansion
ratios. As a consequence, diesel engines in
either the two-stroke or four-stroke
configuration have been traditionally the
preferred power plants for commercial
applications such as ships/boats, energy-
generating sets, locomotives and tracks and,
over the last 20 years or so, passenger cars as
well especially in Europe.
The low power-output disadvantage of diesel
engines has been circumvented by the use of
superchargers or turbochargers which
increase the power/weight ratio of an engine
through an increase of the inlet air density.
Turbochargers are expected to become
standard components of all future diesel
engines, irrespective of application.
The operation of the diesel engine differs
from that of the spark-ignition engine mainly
in the way the mixture is formed prior to
combustion. Only air is inducted into the
engine through a helical or directed port and
the fuel mixes with air during the
compression stroke, following its injection at
high pressure into a prechamber indirect-
injection diesel or IDI) or into the main
chamber (direct-injection diesel or DI) just,
before combustion is started.
The need to achieve good fuel/air mixing in
diesel engines is satisfied by high-pressure
fuel injection systems which generate
droplets of about 40 μm mean diameter. For
passenger cars, the fuel injection systems
consist of a rotary pump, delivery pipes and
fuel injector nozzles which vary in their
design according to the application; direct-
injection diesel engines use hole-type nozzles
while indirect-injection diesels employ pintle-
type nozzles. Larger diesel engines use in-
line fuel-injection pumps, unit injectors
(pump and nozzle combined in one unit) or
individual single-barrel pumps which are
mounted close to each cylinder.
Over the last 20 years or so, the realization
that the resources of crude oil are finite and
that the environment we live in is becoming
more and more polluted, has urged
governments to introduce laws which limit
the exhaust emission levels of vehicles and
engines of all types. Since their introduction
in Japan and the USA in the late 60s and in
Europe in 1970, emission regulations are
consistently becoming more stringent and
engine manufacturers are facing their
toughest ever challenge with the standards
agreed for 1996 onwards, which are
summarized for passenger cars in Table 1. It
is expected that the new standards to be
imposed in Europe for the year 2000 will be
even lower, following Californian levels
which require zero emission levels after the
turn of the century. However, it is uncertain
whether existing engines will satisfy these
limits despite the desperate attempts by
engineers worldwide.
Table 1. European Emission Standards for
1996
Figure 3. Model of a three-way catalytic
converter.
It is clear from Table 1 that the major
pollutants in spark-ignition engines are
hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO)
and oxides of nitrogen (NOx = NO + NO2)
while in diesel engines, NOx and particulates
—which consist of soot particles formed
during combustion of lubricating oil and
hydrocarbons—are the most harmful.
At present three-way catalysts, which are a
standard component of today's passenger cars
equipped with spark-ignition engine running
on unleaded gasoline, allow about 90%
reduction of the emitted HC, CO and NOx by
converting them into carbon dioxide (CO2),
water (H2O) and N2.
Unfortunately these catalysts require
stoichiometric (air-fuel ratio of ~14.5) engine
operation, which is undesirable from both the
fuel consumption and CO2 emissions points
of view. An alternative approach is the lean
burn concept which offers promise for
simultaneous reduction of fuel consumption
and exhaust emissions through satisfactory
combustion of lean mixtures with much
higher than 20 air-fuel ratios. It is expected
that the development of lean burn catalysts
with conversion efficiencies over 60% may
allow lean burn engines to satisfy future
emissions legislation; this is an area of active
research in both industry and academia. On
the other hand, new diesel engines depend on
two-way or oxidizing catalysts for reduction
of exhaust particulates through conversion of
HC into CO2 and H2O, and on exhaust gas
recirculation and retarded injection timing for
reduction of NOx levels.
ENGINE
CLASSIFICATION
ENGINE:

ANY MACHINE, WHICH PRODUCES

POWER, IS CALLED AN ENGINE.
HEAT ENGINE:

ANY ENGINE, WHICH PRODUCES

POWER OR WORK FROM A SUPPLY OF
HEAT, IS CALLED HEAT ENGINE.THE
HEAT CAN BE SUPPLIED BY BURNING,
I.E. BY COMBUSTION OF FUEL.

EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE:

IF THE COMBUSTION OF FUEL TAKES

PLACE OUTSIDE THE ENGINE, IT IS
CALLED
AN EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE,
E.G. STEAM ENGINE, STEAM TURBINE,
ETC.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE:

IF THE COMBUSTION OF FUEL TAKES
PLACE WITHIN THE ENGINE ITSELF, IT
IS
CALLED AN INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINE. FUEL ECONOMY, SIMPLICITY,
AND LOW OPERATIONAL COSTS
MAKE IT MORE POPULAR THAN
EXTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES.

CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES:

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

CAN BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO
DIFFERENT CRITERIA AS FOLLOWS:

1. ACCORDING TO IGNITION SYSTEM

A) COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE

(C. I. ENGINE)
IN THIS TYPE OF ENGINE, THE HEAT
OF THE COMPRESSED AIR ITSELF
IGNITES THE FUEL. NO OTHER MEANS
OF IGNITION ARE REQUIRED, E.G.
DIESEL ENGINE. IN A COMPRESSION
IGNITION ENGINE, E.G. DIESEL
ENGINE, A PISTON RECIPROCATES IN
A CYLINDER. AT DOWNWARD STROKE
OF PISTON, AIR ENTERS THE
CYLINDER. AT UPWARD STROKE OF
PISTON AIR IS COMPRESSED. DUE TO
COMPRESSION PRESSURE AND
TEMPERATURE OF AIR BECOMES
QUITE HIGH (OVER 35 BAR AND 500*C
RESPECTIVELY). FINELY ATOMISED
FUEL OILS SPRAYED INTO SUCH
COMPRESSED AIR IGNITE
SPONTANEOUSLY AND PRODUCE
POWER.

B) SPARK IGNITION ENGINE (S. I.

ENGINE)
IN THIS TYPE OF ENGINE (OTTO
ENGINE), THE FUEL IS IGNITED BY
THE SPARK PRODUCED BY A HIGH-
TENSION ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT. IN
SPARK IGNITION ENGINE, LIQUID
GASOLINE IS SPRAYED OR DRAWN
THROUGH A NOZZLE OR JET INTO THE
AIR STREAM GOING TO THE WORKING
CYLINDER. A COMBINATION OF MILD
HEATING AND REDUCTION OF
PRESSURE PARTIALLY
VAPOURISES THE GASOLINE.
PROPORTIONATE MIXING OF AIR AND
GASOLINE VAPOUR IS DONE IN
CARBURETOR. MIXTURE ENTERS THE
CYLINDER WHERE AT A SUITABLE
TIME, AN ELECTRIC SPARK IGNITES
THE MIXTURE, WHICH BURNS THEN
QUICKLY AND PRODUCES POWER.

2. ACCORDING TO OPERATING
CYCLES
(A) OTTO CYCLE (CONSTANT
VOLUME COMBUSTION CYCLE)
IT IS THE IDEAL AIR STANDARD
CYCLE FOR PETROL ENGINE, THE GAS
ENGINE AND THE HIGH-SPEED OIL
ENGINE. THE ENGINES BASED ON THIS
CYCLE HAVE HIGH THERMAL
EFFICIENCY BUT NOISINESS RESULTS
PARTICULARLY AT HIGHER POWER
DUE TO HIGHER PRESSURES IN THE
CYLINDERS.

OTTO CYCLE
P-V DIAGRAM

T-S DIAGRAM

CONSTANT VOLUME CYCLE

1-2 ISENTROPIC COMPRESSION
2-3 HEAT ADDITION AT CONSTANT
VOLUME
3-4 ISENTROPIC EXPANSION
4-1 HEAT REJECTION AT CONSTANT
VOLUME AIR STANDARD THERMAL
EFFICIENCY
= 1-(1/R) ϒ−1 , R = COMP. RATIO.

(B) DIESEL CYCLE (CONSTANT

PRESSURE COMBUSTION CYCLE)
IT IS THE IDEAL AIR STANDARD
CYCLE FOR DIESEL ENGINE,
ESPECIALLY SUITABLE FOR LOW
SPEED DIESEL ENGINE BUT NOT FOR
HIGH SPEED DIESEL ENGINE. THE
THERMAL EFFICIENCY IS LOWER
THAN OTTO CYCLE ENGINES BUT
ENGINES RUN SMOOTHLY DUE TO
LOWER PRESSURES IN THE CYLINDER.

(C) DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE

(CONSTANT PRESSURE AND
CONSTANT VOLUME COMBUSTION
CYCLE)
MODERN DIESEL ENGINES DO NOT
OPERATE PURELY ON CONSTANT
PRESSURE COMBUSTION CYCLE BUT
SOME PART OF COMBUSTION
PROCESS TAKES PLACE AT CONSTANT
VOLUME WHILE THE REST IS
COMPLETED AT CONSTANT
PRESSURE.
IN GENERAL, THIS CYCLE RESEMBLES
CONSTANT VOLUME COMBUSTION
CYCLE MORE THAN CONSTANT
PRESSURE COMBUSTION CYCLE. IT IS
SUITABLE FOR MODERN MEDIUM AND
HIGH SPEED DIESEL ENGINES. THE
THERMAL EFFICIENCY IS MORE THAN
DIESEL CYCLE BUT LESS THAN OTTO
CYCLE. ALSO NOISE LEVEL IS IN
BETWEEN THE TWO. THIS IS A MORE
PRACTICAL ENGINE.
DUAL COMBUSTION

· MIXED CYCLE OF OTTO AND

DIESEL CYCLE
 · HEAT ADDED PARTLY AT
CONSTANT VOLUME AND PARTLY
AT CONSTANT PRESSURE.

HENCE HAVING ADVANTAGES OF

BOTH CYCLES.

3) ACCORDING TO
STROKES/CYCLE
IN AN ENGINE, THE FOLLOWING
EVENTS FORM A CYCLE:
· FILLING THE ENGINE CYLINDER
WITH FRESH AIR.
· COMPRESSING THE AIR SO MUCH
THAT INJECTED FUEL IGNITED
READILY BY COMING IN CONTACT
WITH HOT AIR AND BURNS
EFFICIENTLY.
· COMBUSTION OF FUEL.
· EXPANSION OF HOT GASES.
· EMPTYING THE PRODUCTS OF
COMBUSTION FROM THE
CYLINDER.
DEPENDING ON HOW MANY
STROKES OF PISTON ARE REQUIRED
IN COMPLETING THIS CYCLE, THE
ENGINES CAN BE DIVIDED INTO
TWO CLASSES:

1. FOUR STROKE ENGINE

AN ENGINE, WHICH NEEDS 4 STROKES
OF THE PISTON (2 IN AND 2
OUT) TO COMPLETE ONE
CYCLE, IS CALLED FOUR-STROKE
ENGINE.
2. TWO STROKE ENGINE
AN ENGINE THAT NEEDS ONLY 2
STROKES OF THE PISTON (1 IN AND 1
OUT) TO COMPLETE ONE CYCLE IS
CALLED TWO-STROKE ENGINE.

4) ACCORDING TO PISTON
CONNECTION
1) TRUNK PISTON TYPE
THE PISTON IS CONNECTED DIRECTLY
TO THE UPPER END OF THE
CONNECTING ROD. A HORIZONTAL
PIN (GUDGEON PIN) WITHIN PISTON IS
ENCIRCLED BY THE UPPER END OF
THE CONNECTING ROD. THIS
CONSTRUCTION IS QUITE COMMON,
ESPECIALLY IN SMALL AND MEDIUM
SIZE ENGINES.

2) CROSS HEAD TYPE

THE PISTON FASTENS TO A VERTICAL
PISTON ROD WHOSE LOWER END IS
ATTACHED TO A ‘CROSS HEAD’,
WHICH SLIDES UP AND DOWN IN
GUIDES. THE CROSSHEAD CARRIES A
CROSSHEAD PIN, WHICH IS
ENCIRCLED BY THE UPPER END OF
THE CONNECTING ROD. THIS MORE
COMPLICATED CONSTRUCTION IS
COMMON IN DOUBLE ACTING
ENGINES AND LARGE SLOW SPEED
SINGLE ACTING ENGINES.

COMPARISON BETWEEN TRUNKS

PISTON VERSUS CROSS HEAD
ENGINE

MOST MEDIUM AND SMALL SIZE

ENGINES USE TRUNK PISTONS.
RESULTING SIDE THRUST CAUSES THE
PISTON TO PRESS AGAINST THE
CYLINDER WALL, FIRST ON ONE SIDE,
THEN ON THE OTHER. AT THE TOP OF
STROKE, WHEN THE GAS PRESSURE IS
GREATEST, SIDE THRUST IS
NEGLIGIBLE (DUE TO SMALL
CONNECTING ROD ANGLE). SO MOST
OF WEAR TAKES PLACE AT THE
MIDDLE OF STROKE. MAKING PISTON
SKIRT INCREASES THRUST-BEARING
AREA, AND HENCE REDUCES WEAR.
IN MEDIUM AND SMALL SIZE
ENGINES, DUE TO LOWER GAS
PRESSURE; UNITS’ SIDE PRESSURE IS
SO SMALL THAT NEITHER PISTON
NOR LINER WEARS MUCH.

IN CROSSHEAD ENGINES, CROSSHEAD

TAKES THE SIDE THRUST, WHICH
WILL BE HIGH IN LARGE ENGINES. SO,
CROSSHEAD ENGINES HAVE THE
FOLLOWING ADVANTAGES: EASIER
LUBRICATION, REDUCED LINER
WEAR, UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED
CLEARANCE AROUND PISTON,
SIMPLER PISTON CONSTRUCTION
BECAUSE THE ‘GUDGEON PIN’ AND
ITS BEARING ARE ELIMINATED.

HOWEVER THESE ADVANTAGES OF

CROSS HEAD ENGINES ARE OFFSET
BY:
· GREATER COMPLICATION
· ADDED WEIGHT
· ADDED HEIGHT
· CAREFUL ADJUSTMENTS.

5) ACCORDING TO METHOD OF
CHARGING
(A) NATURAL ASPIRATED ENGINE
THE VACUUM IS CREATED WHEN THE
PISTON MOVES AWAY FROM THE
COMBUSTION SPACE DRAWS IN THE
FRESH CHARGE.

(B) SUPERCHARGED ENGINE.

THE CHARGE IS ADMITTED INTO THE
CYLINDER AT A HIGHER THAN
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. THIS HIGH
PRESSURE IS PRODUCED BY A PUMP
OR BLOWER OR EXHAUST GAS
TURBOCHARGER.

6) ACCORDING TO SPEED
SLOW SPEED ENGINES: 100 TO 150
R.P.M.
MEDIUM SPEED ENGINES: 300 TO 1000
R.P.M.
HIGH SPEED ENGINES: MORE THAN
1000 R.P.M.

7) ACCORDING TO
BORE/STROKE RATIO:
(A) SQUARE ENGINE
IF BORE/STROKE IS ABOUT ONE,
CRANKSHAFT WEB DIMENSIONS
BECOME LESS COMPARED TO
JOURNAL AND CRANKPIN.

(B) OVER SQUARE ENGINES (SHORT

STROKE)
IF BORE/STROKE > 1, WEB
DIMENSIONS (LESS HEIGHT, MORE
THICKNESS) ARE SUCH THAT WEBS
WILL BE WEAK. SO
GENERALLY OVER SQUARE ENGINES
ARE NOT USED.

(C) LONG STROKE ENGINES

GENERALLY, ENGINES HAVE
STROKE/BORE >1. THIS GIVES
CRANKSHAFTS OF GOOD STRENGTH.
MOST COMMON RATIO IS
STROKE/BORE = 2. 0: 2.2.

(D) SUPER-LONG STROKE ENGINES

TO HAVE BETTER PROPELLER
EFFICIENCY AND BETTER
COMBUSTION EVEN WITH LOWER
GRADE FUELS, LOWER R.P.M.
ENGINES WITH LONGER STROKES ARE
GAINING POPULARITY. THESE
ENGINES HAVE STROKE/BORE RATIO
= 3.

THE DIESEL ENGINES FIND THE

FOLLOWING APPLICATION ON BOARD
MERCHANT SHIPS.
a) MAIN PROPULSION
b) ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
c) EMERGENCY PUMPS (E.G. FIRE
PUMP)
d) LIFE BOAT
e) EMERGENCY GENERATOR
f) EMERGENCY AIR COMPRESSOR

REASONS FOR WIDE USE OF DIESEL

ENGINES IN MARINE POWER
PLANTS

1. SMALL FUEL CONSUMPTION

DIESEL ENGINE IS ONE OF THE MOST
EFFICIENT HEAT ENGINES. HENCE IT
GIVES MORE POWER WITH LESS FUEL.
IT IS AN
ENGINE OF HIGH ECONOMY.

2. CHEAP FUEL
DIESEL ENGINE USES FUEL COSTING
VERY LESS AS COMPARED TO OTHER
ENGINES.

3. ECONOMY AT LIGHT LOADS

DIESEL ENGINE IS NOT ONLY
EFFICIENT WHEN IT IS FULLY
LOADED, BUT ALSO WHEN IT IS
PARTLY LOADED.
4. GREATER SAFETY
DIESEL FUEL IS NON-EXPLOSIVE AND
LESS FLAMMABLE AT NORMAL
TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES. IT
REQUIRES SPECIAL EFFORT TO MAKE
IT START TO BURN. THIS FEATURE
MAKES IT VERY ATTRACTIVE IN THE
MARINE TRADE, BECAUSE IT WOULD
BE MUCH SAFER CARRYING DIESEL
OIL ON BOARD SHIPS.
DIESEL EXHAUST GASES ARE LESS
POISONOUS THAN OTHER ENGINES,
BECAUSE THEY CONTAIN LESS
CARBON MONOXIDE.

5. IGNITION SYSTEM IS NOT

REQUIRED
DIESEL ENGINES DO NOT REQUIRE
BATTERY OR MAGNETO RUNNING
THEM.

6. MORE POWER CAN BE

PRODUCED DUE TO MORE
COMPRESSION ALLOWED.
7. DIESEL ENGINE IS MORE ROBUST
AND STRONGER.
8. ECONOMY IN SMALL SIZES
AS GREAT CONTRAST TO STEAM
POWER PLANT, A SMALL DIESEL
ENGINE HAS NEARLY AS GOOD AN
ECONOMY AS A LARGE
ONE. THIS MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO
ENLARGE A DIESEL ENGINE PLANT
WITH ADDITIONAL UNITS AS THE
LOAD GROWS. AT ALL
STAGES OF GROWTH, THE EFFICIENCY
IS HIGH.

9. SUSTAINED ECONOMY IN
SERVICE

AGAIN IN CONTRAST TO A STEAM

POWER PLANT, DIESEL EFFICIENCY
FALLS OFF VERY LITTLE DURING
THOUSANDS OF HOURS
OF USE BETWEEN OVERHAULS.

10. LIGHTNESS AND COMPACTNESS

DIESEL ENGINE PLANTS HAVE LESS
WEIGHT AND SPACE PER UNIT POWER.
IT IS THEREFORE WELL SUITED TO
PORTABLE AND MOBILE
INSTALLATIONS.

11. INDEPENDENCE OF WATER

SUPPLY
A DIESEL ENGINE REQUIRES VERY
LESS WATER IN CONTRAST TO STEAM
PLANTS.

12. QUICK STARTING

A COLD DIESEL ENGINE CAN BE
STARTED INSTANTLY AND MADE TO
CARRY ITS FULL LOAD IN FEW
MINUTES. IT IS THEREFORE IDEAL
FOR SUPPLYING EMERGENCY POWER.

13. EASILY IN MANEUVERING

A DIESEL ENGINE CAN BE MADE TO
RUN AT FULL POWER IN EITHER
DIRECTION.

14. ECONOMY IN LABOUR

NO FIRE ROOM FORCE IS NEEDED.

15. FREEDOM FROM NUISANCE

THERE ARE NO ASHES TO BE
DISPOSED OF, NO NOISY AND DUSTY
COAL HANDLING AND PULVERISING
EQUIPMENT TO MAINTAIN, NO
SMOKE, AND NOISE CAN BE EASILY
ELIMINATED. DUE TO ABOVE
MENTIONED REASONS, DIESEL
ENGINES ARE QUITE POPULAR ON
BOARD SHIPS.
THESE REASONS CAN VERY WELL BE
REGARDED AS THE ADVANTAGES OF
DIESEL ENGINES OVER OTHER PRIME
MOVERS SUCH AS GASOLINE
ENGINES, GAS TURBINES, STEAM
ENGINES, STEAM TURBINES AND
HYDRAULIC TURBINES.

HOWEVER, DIESEL ENGINES ALSO

HAVE CERTAIN DISADVANTAGES,
WHICH CAN BE LISTED AS
FOLLOWING:
1. COST
DIESEL ENGINES, BECAUSE OF THE
HIGHER PRESSURES AT WHICH, THEY
WORK, REQUIRE STURDIER
CONSTRUCTION, BETTER MATERIALS
AND CLOSER FITS THAN GASOLINE
ENGINES. THEREFORE, THEY COST
MORE TO BUILD.

2. WEIGHT
BECAUSE OF STURDIER
CONSTRUCTION, WEIGHT PER POWER
IS MORE THAN GASOLINE ENGINES.
3. ATTENDANCE
A DIESEL ENGINE REQUIRES MORE
ATTENTION THAN AN ELECTRIC
MOTOR RUNNING ON PURCHASED
CURRENT. IT ALSO REQUIRES MORE
ATTENTION PER UNIT OF POWER
PRODUCED THAN A LARGE STEAM
TURBINE.
4. FUEL COST
OIL USED IN DIESEL ENGINES IS
COSTLIER THAN COAL. HENCE,
STEAM POWER PLANTS USING COAL
AS FUEL ARE CHEAPER IN
OPERATION.
How Does a Diesel
Engine Work?

When people think of a diesel engine, they

often think of a big truck which hauls a lot of
items. Although diesel engines are commonly
found in bigger vehicles, they can really be in
any size vehicle. The benefit of a diesel
engine is getting better miles per gallon.
Since truck drivers are constantly on the road
for most of the day, it is more economical for
them to drive a diesel-powered vehicle versus
a petrol-powered vehicle. The reason that
diesel engines provide better gas mileage is
because they have fewer revolutions per
minute.
Unlike with a petrol engine, the air is the only
thing that gets compressed in the chamber.
This highly compressed air is then used to
ignite the diesel fuel. This differs from the
petrol engine which requires separate spark
plugs to generate a spark for ignition. The
diesel engine does not require such a spark. It
relies solely on the highly compressed air to
generate enough heat for a proper ignition of
its fuel.
Read also: Petrol Engine Working Principle

The Four Strokes of the Diesel

Engine
There are two types of diesel engines; a four-
stroke engine and a two-stroke engine. The
typical diesel engine will have four strokes
just like the petrol engine. However, the
process of the strokes is different than the
petrol strokes. The main difference between
the two processes has to do with how the fuel
is supplied and ignited.
Ironically, there was another German
engineer responsible for inventing the four
strokes of the diesel engine. This inventor’s
name was Rudolph Diesel, who invented the
process called the “Diesel Cycle.” This is a
cycle that relies on a higher ratio of
compression for air. The heat generated from
this compressed air can get to anywhere
between 400°C and 800°C. Sometimes the
temperature will even go above this
temperature. But it is necessary for the
temperature to go up to this amount because
if it didn’t, then the diesel fuel would not be
able to get ignited.
Below are the 4 strokes of the diesel
engine.
Stroke #1 – The first stroke of the Diesel
Cycle is virtually identical to the petrol cycle.
The inlet valve opens and lets the outside air
come inside. The cylinders below receive this
air because of the downward motion of the
pistons that draw the air into them.
Stroke #2 – The second stroke involves
compression. After the inlet valve closes, the
air becomes compressed as the pistons start to
move upward. There is a small confined
space in this region that allows for higher
compression.
Stroke #3 – The third stroke will involve
combustion. As the air becomes highly
compressed, it begins to heat up drastically.
The fuel injectors will then spray the diesel
fuel into the combustion chamber where all
this hot compressed air is located. As soon as
the fuel touches this compressed air, it will
immediately ignite. The result of this ignition
is heat energy which creates the power
necessary to move the vehicle.
Stroke #4 – The fourth stroke has to do with
the exhaust. All the exhaust gases that were
generated will be pushed out of the open
exhaust valve because of the pistons. This
creates the infamous black smoke which
diesel vehicles are known for. This smoke
will come out of the stacks and/or the
tailpipe.
Read also: Diesel Engine VS Petrol Engine
Comparison
Conclusion
Again, there are no spark plugs to worry
about for diesel engines. That might be one
less piece of maintenance that you’ll have to
worry about. On the other hand, you should
still continue to maintain your engine by
regularly bringing your vehicle to the auto
shop for checkups. This will guarantee that
you get the most life out of your diesel engine
that is possible.
What’s The
Difference Between
2-Stroke & 4-Stroke
Engines?
How Do Combustion Engines Work, and
What Is A “Stroke” Anyways?
In order to understand how these two engines
are different, you first need to become
familiar with the basics.
During an engine’s combustion cycle, the
piston moves up and down within the
cylinder. The terms “top dead center” (TDC)
and “bottom dead center” (BDC) refer to the
piston’s position within the cylinder. TDC is
its position nearest to the valves, and BDC is
its position furthest from them. A stroke is
when the piston moves from TDC to BDC, or
vice versa. A combustion revolution or
combustion cycle is the complete process of
gas and air being sucked into the piston,
igniting it, and expelling the exhaust:
 1. Intake: The piston moves down the
cylinder allowing a mixture of furl and
air into the combustion chamber
2. Compression: The piston moves back
up the cylinder; the intake valve is
closed to compress the gasses within
3. Combustion: A spark from the spark
plug ignites the gas
4. Exhaust: The piston goes back up the
cylinder and the exhaust valve is opened
Difference Between A 2-Stroke & A 4-
Stroke
The Difference between a 2-stroke and a 4-
stroke engine is how quickly this combustion
cycle process occurs, based on the number of
times the piston moves up and down during
each cycle.
4-Stroke:
In a 4-stroke engine, the piston completes 2-
strokes during each revolution: one
compression stroke and one exhaust stroke,
each being followed by a return stroke. The
spark plugs fire only once every other
revolution, and power is produced every 4-
strokes of the piston. These engines also do
not require pre-mixing of fuel and oil, as they
have a separate compartment for the oil.
Watch this quick video for a further
description of how the 4-stroke engine works:
2-Stroke:
In a 2-stroke engine, the entire combustion
cycle is completed with just one piston
stroke: a compression stroke followed by the
explosion of the compressed fuel. During the
return stroke, the exhaust is let out and a fresh
fuel mixture enters the cylinder. The spark
plugs fire once every single revolution, and
power is produced once every 2-strokes of
the piston. Two-stroke engines also require
the oil to be pre-mixed in with the fuel.
Watch this quick video for a further
description of how the 2-stroke engine works:
Pro’s and Con’s:
So, which is ‘better’? Here are a few of the
pro’s and con’s to both engine designs:
As far as efficiency goes, the 4-stroke
certainly wins. This is due to the fact that fuel
is consumed once every 4 strokes.
Four-stroke engines are heavier; they weigh
upwards of 50% more than a comparable
2stroke engine.
Typically, a 2-stroke engine creates more
torque at a higher RPM, while a 4-stroke
engine creates a higher torque at a lower
RPM.
The 4-stroke engine is also much quieter, a 2-
stoke engine is significantly louder and has a
distinctive, high-pitched “buzzing” sound.
Because 2-stroke engines are designed to run
at a higher RPM, they also tend to wear out
faster; a 4-stroke engine is generally more
durable. That being said, 2-stroke engines are
more powerful.
Two-stroke engines are a much simpler
design, making them easier to fix. They do
not have valves, but rather ports. Four-stroke
engines have more parts, therefore they are
more expensive and repairs cost more.
Two-stroke engines require pre-mixing of oil
and fuel, while the 4-strokes do not.
Four-strokes are more environmentally
friendly; in a 2-stroke engine, burnt oil is also
released into the air with the exhaust.
Two-stroke engines are typically found in
smaller applications such as remote-
controlled cars, lawn tools, chainsaws, boat
motors and dirt bikes. Four-stroke engines are
found in anything from go-karts, lawnmowers
and dirt bikes, right up to the typical internal
combustion engine in your vehicle. It’s up to
you to decide which engine you prefer, and
for what purpose.
IC ENGINE MAJOR
PARTS AND ITS
FUNCTIONS

IC engine Major Parts and Its Function,

Materials,Images,Manufacturing Method.
An internal combustion engine is the engine
in which combustion (burning of fuel) takes
place inside the cylinder of engine. By
burning of the fuel high temperature and
pressure force generates. This pressure force
use to move the vehicle or rotate wheels by
use of some mechanism.
In an engine many parts work together and
achieve the goal of converting chemical
energy of fuel into mechanical energy. These
parts are bolted together and the combination
of all these parts is known as engine. Today I
am going to tell you about these parts and
how they work so you can know the basic of
automobile engine.

Parts Of IC engine
1. Cylinder Block:-

It is a container fitted with piston, where the

fuel is burnt and power is produced.
Cylinder is the main body of IC engine.
Cylinder is a part in which the intake of fuel,
compression of fuel and burning of fuel take
place. The main function of cylinder is to
guide the piston.

For cooling of cylinder a water jacket (for

liquid cooling used in most of cars) or fin (for
air cooling used in most of bikes) are situated
at the outer side of cylinder.

At the upper end of cylinder, cylinder head

and at the bottom end crank case is bolted.
Material : Ductile (Nodular) Cast Iron ,30C8
(Low Carbon Steel)
Manufacturing method : Casting, Forging and
after that heat transfer , Machining

Cylinder Block
2.Cylinder Head/Cylinder Cover:-
One end of the cylinder is closed by means of
cylinder head. This consists of inlet valve for
admitting air fuel mixture and exhaust valve
for removing the products of combustion.

The inlet valve, exhaust valve, spark plug,

injector etc. are bolted on the cylinder head.
The main function of cylinder head is to seal
the cylinder block and not to permit entry and
exit of gases on cover head valve engine.
Material: Aluminium alloys

Manufacturing Method: Casting

Cylinder Cover
3. Piston:-

Piston is used to reciprocate inside the

cylinder.
It transmits the energy to crankshaft through
connecting rod.
Material : Aluminum Alloy 4652 because of
its Low Specific Gravity.
Manufactuirng Method: Casting

Piston
4. Piston Rings:-
These are used to maintain a pressure tight
seal between the piston and cylinder walls
and also it transfer the heat from the piston
head to cylinder walls.

These rings are fitted in grooves which have

been cut in the piston. They are split at one
end so they can expand or slipped over the
end of piston.
Material: cast iron of fine grain and high
elastic material

Manufacturing Method: Pot casting method

Piston rings
5. Connecting Rod:-
One end of the connecting rod is connected to
piston through piston pin while the other is
connected to crank through crank pin.

It transmits the reciprocatory motion of piston

to rotary crank.
There are two end of connecting rod one is
known as big end and other as small end. Big
end is connected to the crankshaft and the
small end is connected to the piston by use of
piston pin.

Material: Low Carbon steel 30C8

Manufacturing Methods : Forging and after
that heat heat treatment.

Connecting Rod
6. Crank:-
It is a lever between connecting rod and crank
shaft.

7. Crank Shaft:-
The function of crank shaft is to transform
reciprocating motion in to a rotary motion.
The crankshaft of an internal combustion
engine receives the efforts or thrust supplied
by piston to the connecting rod and converts
the reciprocating motion of piston into rotary
motion of crankshaft.
The crankshaft mounts in bearing so it can
rotate freely.

The shape and size of crankshaft depends on

the number and arrangement of cylinders.
Material: 37C15 Alloy Steel.
Manufacturing Method: Casting

Crank Shaft
8. Fly wheel:-
Fly wheel is a rotating mass used as an
energy storing device.

A flywheel is secured on the crankshaft. The

main function of flywheel is to rotate the
shaft during preparatory stroke. It also makes
crankshaft rotation more uniform.
Material : castManufacturing Method :
Casting

Flywheel
9. Crank Case:-
It supports and covers the cylinder and the
crank shaft. It is used to store the lubricating
oil.
The main body of the engine to which the
cylinder are attached and which contains the
crankshaft and crankshaft bearing is called
crankcase. It serves as the lubricating system
too and sometime it is called oil sump. All the
oil for lubrication is placed in it.

Crankcase
10.Poppet Valves

A valve is a device that regulates, directs or

controls the flow of a fluid (gases, liquids,
fluidized solids, or slurries) by opening,
closing, or partially obstructing various
passageways.
The intake and exhaust valves open at the
proper time to let in air and fuel and to let
out exhaust.

Note that both valves are closed during

compression and combustion so that the
combustion chamber is sealed.
Materials: Phosphorus Bronze and Monel
metal.

POPPET valve
11. Spark Plug:

The main function of a sparkplug is to

conduct the high potential from the ignition
system into the combustion chamber.
It provides the proper gap across which spark
is produced by applying high voltage , to
ignite the mixture in the ignition chamber.
Manufacturing Method: Each major element
of the spark plug—the center electrode, the
side electrode, the insulator, and the shell—is
manufactured in a continuous in-line
assembly process. Then, the side electrode is
attached to the shell and the center electrode
is fitted inside the insulator. Finally, the
major parts are assembled into a single unit.

Spark Plug
12. Engine Bearing:
The crankshaft is supported by bearing .
Everywhere there is rotary action in the
engine , bearings are used to support the
moving parts.
Its purpose is reduce the friction and allow
parts to move freely.
13. Governor:
A device for regulating automatically output
of a machine by regulating the supply of
working fluid.

When the speed decreases due to increase in

load the supply valve is opened by
mechanism operated by governor and the
engine therefore speeds up again to its
original speed.
Thus the function of a governor is to control
the fluctuations of engine speed due to
changes of load.
See: Introduction To Governors |
Classification / Types Of Governors

Governor:
14. Carburetor :
The function of a carburetor is to atomize and
meter the liquid fuel and mix it with the air as
it enters the induction system of the engine .

Maintaining fuel-air proportion under all

conditions of operation appropriate to the
conditions.
15. Fuel Atomizer or Injector
Fuel injection is a system for mixing fuel
with air in an internal combustion engine. It
has become the primary fuel delivery system
used in automotive petrol engines, having
almost completely replaced carburettors in
the late 1980s.
The primary difference between carburettors
and fuel injection is that fuel injection
atomizes the fuel by forcibly pumping it
through a small nozzle under high pressure,
while a carburettor relies on low pressure
created by intake air rushing through it to add
the fuel to the airstream.

The fuel injector is only a nozzle and a valve:

the power to inject the fuel comes from a
pump or a pressure container farther back in
the fuel supply.

16. Manifold
The main function of manifold is to supply
the air fuel mixture and collects the exhaust
gases equally form all cylinder. In an internal
combustion engine two manifold are used,
one for intake and other for exhaust.
Material : Aluminium alloy -Alloy 4600

Manifold
17. Gudgeon pin or piston pin
These are hardened steel parallel spindles
fitted through the piston bosses and the small
end bushes or eyes to allow the connecting
rods to swivel. It connects the piston to
connecting rod. It is made hollow for
lightness.

Material: Plain Carbon steel 10C4

18. Pushrod
Pushrod is used when the camshaft is situated
at the bottom end of cylinder. It carries the
camshaft motion to the valves which are
situated at the cylinder head.
SINGLE JET
CARBURETOR
Single jet Carburetor:
In this article we will learn about Single
jet Carburetor. A simple single jet carburetor
used to supply the required air-fuel ratio to
the combustion chamber to generate the
energy for further uses. The detailed
explanation about construction and working
about Single jet Carburetor is as follows.
CONSTRUCTION OF SINGLE JET
CARBURETOR:
Filter:
To clean the fuel from small particles.
Float:
This helps to supply and stops the fuel
entering the chamber.
Float chamber:
This used to store the fuel in it and supplied
when it is required.
Nozzle:
This helps the fuel to supply into the
combustion chamber.
Throat:
This creates the pressure difference when the
piston moves downwards and helps to flow
the fuel.
Throttle valve:
This used to control the supply of the air-fuel
mixture.
WORKING OF SINGLE JET
CARBURETOR:
First, the fuel enters from the fuel tank to
float chamber, there is a fuel filter to supply
the clean fuel to the float chamber, float
chamber contains a float to maintain the
required level of fuel in it when the fuel if
filled the float moves upward and stops the
supply of fuel. there is a nozzle which is
provided above the float chamber tube, this
used to spray the required amount of oil and
mix with air, this is function take places when
the pressure difference occurred at the throat
by moving the piston downwards. and this
mixture is supplied to the combustion
chamber for further process of combustion.
Mixture Strength

Mixture Strength

The ratio of air to fuel. The chemically

correct mixture strength for petrol is usually
14 or 15 to 1, depending on the blend, and
thus the chemical composition of the petrol,
but other combustible fuels used alone, or in
a blend, may have quite a different ratio.
Alcohols, for example, have a ratio of 7 or 8
to 1. Mixtures having less air than the
chemically correct ratio are rich; those with
more air are weak. Weaker mixtures are
sometimes used for economical cruising
under low power conditions.
Ignition System of
Petrol Engines
A spark plug is used to ignite a petrol engine
at the end of the compression stroke. A
voltage of 6000 to 10000 volts is necessary to
induce a spark across the space between the
sparking points of a plug. In petrol engines,
the following two ignition mechanisms are
crucial:

1. Coil ignition system (also known as battery

ignition system); and
2. Magneto ignition system.

The coil ignition system has an induction

coil, which consists of two coils known as
primary and secondary coils wound on a soft
iron core, as shown in figure above. One end
of the primary coil is connected to the
ignition switch, ammeter and battery
generally of 6 volts. The other end of the
primary coil is connected to a condenser and
a contact breaker. A condenser is connected
across the contact breaker for the following
two reasons :

(a) It prevents sparking across the gap

between the points,
(b) It causes a more rapid break of the
primary current, giving a higher voltage in
the secondary circuit.

The secondary coil is connected to a

distributor (in a multi-cylinder engine) with
the central terminal of the sparking plugs.
The outer terminals of the sparking plugs are
earthed together and connected to the body of
the engine.

The coil ignition system is employed in

medium and heavy spark ignition engines
such as in cars.

The magneto ignition system has the same

principle of working as that of coil ignition
system, except that no battery is required, as
the magneto acts as its own generator. This
type of ignition system is generally employed
in small spark ignition engines such as
scooters, motor cycles and small motor boat
engines.
Diesel Fuel Injection
Basic Principles
Purpose of Fuel Injection System
The design of a diesel engine's injection
system has a significant impact on its
performance. In reality, superior fuel
injection system designs were directly
responsible for the most significant
breakthroughs in diesel engines. While the
system's primary function is to distribute fuel
to a diesel engine's cylinders, how that fuel is
delivered determines engine performance,
emissions, and noise characteristics.
The diesel fuel injection system, unlike its
spark-ignited predecessor, provides fuel at
exceptionally high injection pressures. This
means that system component designs and
materials should be chosen to endure larger
stresses and perform for longer periods of
time in order to meet the engine's durability
goals. The system's efficiency also
necessitates increased manufacturing
precision and strict tolerances. Diesel
injection systems are distinguished by more
complex control needs, in addition to pricey
components and manufacturing expenses. All
of these elements add up to a system that
might account for up to 30% of the engine's
total cost.
The primary function of a fuel injection
system is to supply fuel to an engine's
cylinders. In order for the engine to make the
most of this fuel, it must:
i.Fuel must be injected at the proper time, that
is, the injection timing must be controlled and
ii. The correct amount of fuel must be
delivered to meet power requirement, that
is, injection metering must be controlled.
However, it is still not enough to deliver an
accurately metered amount of fuel at the
proper time to achieve good combustion.
Additional aspects are critical to ensure
proper fuel injection system performance
including:
· Fuel atomization—ensuring that fuel
atomizes into very small fuel particles is a
 primary design objective for diesel fuel
injection systems. Small droplets ensure
that all the fuel has a chance to vaporize
and participate in the combustion process.
Any remaining liquid droplets burn very
poorly or are exhausted out of the engine.
While modern fuel injection systems are
able to produce fuel atomization
characteristics far exceeding what is
needed to ensure complete fuel
evaporation during most of the injection
process, some injection system designs
may have poor atomization during some
brief but critical periods of the injection
phase. The end of the injection process is
one such critical period.
· Bulk mixing—While fuel atomization
and complete evaporation of fuel is
critical, ensuring that the evaporated fuel
has sufficient oxygen during the
combustion process is equally as
important to ensure high combustion
efficiency and optimum engine
performance. The oxygen is provided by
the intake air trapped in the cylinder and a
 sufficient amount must be entrained into
the fuel jet to completely mixed with the
available fuel during the injection process
and ensure complete combustion.
· Air utilization—Effective utilization of
the air in the combustion chamber is
closely tied to bulk mixing and can be
accomplished through a combination of
fuel penetration into the dense air that is
compressed in the cylinder and dividing
the total injected fuel into a number of
jets. A sufficient number of jets should be
provided to entrain as much of available
air as possible while avoiding jet overlap
and the production of fuel rich zones that
are oxygen deficient.
The primary purposes of the diesel fuel
injection system are graphically represented
in Figure 1.

Definition of Terms
Many specialized concepts and terms are
used to describe the components and the
operation of diesel fuel injection systems.
Some of the more common of these include :
Nozzle refers to the part of the nozzle
body/needle assembly which interfaces with
the combustion chamber of the engine. Terms
like P-Type, M-Type, or S-Type nozzle refer
to standardized dimensions of nozzle
parameters, as per ISO specifications.
Nozzle holder or injector body refers to the
part the nozzle is mounted on. In
conventional injection systems this part
mainly served the nozzle mounting and
nozzle needle spring preloading function. In
common rail systems, it contains the main
functional parts: the servo-hydraulic circuit
and the hydraulic actuator (electromagnetic
or piezoelectric).
Injector commonly refers to the nozzle
holder and nozzle assembly.
Start of injection (SOI) or injection timing
is the time at which injection of fuel into the
combustion chamber begins. It is usually
expressed in crank angle degrees (CAD)
relative to TDC of the compression stroke. In
some cases, it is important to differentiate
between the indicated SOI and actual SOI.
SOI is often indicated by an easily measured
parameter such as the time that an electronic
trigger is sent to the injector or a signal from
a needle lift sensor that indicates when the
injector needle valve starts to open. The point
in the cycle where this occurs is the indicated
SOI. Due to the mechanical response of the
injector, there can be a delay between the
indicated SOI and the actual SOI when fuel
exits the injector nozzle into the combustion
chamber. The difference between the actual
SOI and indicated SOI is the injector lag.
Start of delivery. In some fuel systems, fuel
injection is coordinated with the generation of
high pressure. In such systems, the start of
delivery is the time when the high pressure
pump starts to deliver fuel to the injector. The
difference between start of delivery and SOI
is affected by the length of time it takes for a
pressure wave to travel between the pump
and injector and is influenced by the length of
line between the high pressure pump and the
injector and by the speed of sound in the fuel.
The difference between the start of delivery
and SOI can be referred to as injection delay.
End of injection (EOI) is the time in the
cycle when fuel injection stops.
Injected fuel quantity is the amount of fuel
delivered to an engine cylinder per power
stroke. It is often expressed in mm3/stroke or
mg/stroke.
Injection duration is the period of time
during which fuel enters the combustion
chamber from the injector. It is the difference
between EOI and SOI and is related to
injection quantity.
Injection pattern. The rate of injection of
fuel often varies during the injection duration
period. Figure 2 shows three common rate
shapes: boot, ramp and square. Opening rate
and closing rate refers to the gradients in the
rate of injection during needle nozzle opening
and closing events, respectively.
Figure 2. Common injection rate shapes

Multiple injection events. While

conventional fuel injection systems employ a
single injection event for every engine cycle,
newer systems can use multiple injection
events. Figure 3 defines some of the common
terms used to describe multiple injection
events. It should be noted that the
terminology is not always consistent. The
main injection event provides the bulk of the
fuel for the engine cycle. One or more
injections before the main injection, pre-
injections, provide a small amount of fuel
before the main injection event. Pre-
injections can also be referred to as pilot
injection. Some refer to a pre-injection that
occurs a relatively long time before the main
injection as a pilot and one that occurs a
relatively short time before the main injection
as a pre-injection. Injections after the main
injections, post-injections, can occur
immediately after the main injection (close
post-injection) or a relatively long time after
the main injection (late post-injection). Post-
injections are sometimes called after-
injections. While there is considerable
variation in terminology, a close post-
injection will be referred to as a post-
injection and a late post-injection as an after-
injection.
Figure 3. Multiple Injection Events
The term split injection is occasionally used
to refer to multiple injection strategies where
a main injection is split into two smaller
injections of approximately equal size or into
a smaller pre-injection followed by a main
injection.
Unintended post-injections can occur in some
fuel injection systems when the nozzle
momentarily re-opens after closing. These are
sometimes referred to as secondary
injections.
Injection pressure is not used consistently in
the literature. It may refer to the mean
pressure in the hydraulic system for common
rail systems, or to the maximum pressure
during an injection (peak injection pressure)
in conventional systems.
Basic Fuel System Components
With a few exceptions, fuel systems can be
broken down into two major component
groups:
· Low pressure side components—
These components serve to safely and
reliably deliver fuel from the tank to the
fuel injection system. Low pressure side
components include the fuel tank, fuel
supply pump and the fuel filter.
· High pressure side components—
Components that create high pressures,
meter and deliver the fuel to the
combustion chamber. They include the
high pressure pump the fuel injector and
fuel injection nozzle. Some systems may
also include an accumulator.
Fuel injection nozzles can be categorized as
hole-type or throttling pintle type and as
either a closed or open. Closed nozzles can be
actuated hydraulically using a simple spring-
biased mechanism or using servo control.
Open nozzles as well as some newer closed
nozzle injector designs can be directly
actuated.
Metering of the injected fuel amount is
commonly carried out in either the high
pressure pump or the fuel injector. A number
of different fuel metering approaches exist
including: pressure metered at a constant time
interval (PT), time metered at a constant
pressure (TP) and time/stroke metered (TS).
Lubricating system
Purpose and method
of lubrication
Lubrication is one of the most important
factors determining bearing performance. The
suitability of the lubricant and lubrication
method have a dominant influence on bearing
life.
Functions of lubrication :
· To lubricate each part of the bearing,
and to reduce friction and wear
· To carry away heat generated inside
bearing due to friction and other causes
· To cover rolling contact surface with
the proper oil film in order to prolong
bearing fatigue life
· To prevent corrosion and contamination
by dirt
Bearing lubrication is classified broadly into
two categories: grease lubrication and oil
lubrication. Table 12-1 makes a general
comparison between the two.
Table 12-1 Comparison between grease
and oil lubrication
Item Grease Oil

Sealing device Easy Slightly

complicated
and special
care required
for
maintenance

Lubricating Good Excellent

ability

Rotation speed Low/medium Applicable at

speed high speed as
well

Replacement Slightly Easy

of lubricant troublesome

Life of Relatively Long

lubricant short

Cooling effect No cooling Good

 effect (circulation is
necessary)

Filtration of Difficult Easy

dirt

12-1-1 Grease lubrication

Grease lubrication is widely applied since
there is no need for replenishment over a long
period once grease is filled, and a relatively
simple structure can suffice for the lubricant
sealing device.
There are two methods of grease lubrication.
One is the closed lubrication method, in
which grease is filled in advance into
shielded/sealed bearing; the other is the
feeding method, in which the bearing and
housing are filled with grease in proper
quantities at first, and refilled at a regular
interval via replenishment or replacement.
Devices with numerous grease inlets
sometimes employ the centralized lubricating
method, in which the inlets are connected via
piping and supplied with grease collectively.

1) Amount of grease
In general, grease should fill approximately
one-third to one-half the inside space, though
this varies according to structure and inside
space of housing.
It must be borne in mind that excessive
grease will generate heat when churned, and
will consequently alter, deteriorate, or soften.
When the bearing is operated at low speed,
however, the inside space is sometimes filled
with grease to two-thirds to full, in order to

2) Replenishment/replacement of grease
The method of replenishing/replacing grease
depends largely on the lubrication method.
Whichever method may be utilized, care
should be taken to use clean grease and to
keep dirt or other foreign matter out of the
housing.
In addition, it is desirable to refill with grease
of the same brand as that filled at the start.
When grease is refilled, new grease must be
injected inside bearing.
Fig. 12-1 gives one example of a feeding
method.

Fig. 12-1 Example of grease feeding

method (using grease sector)
In the example, the inside of the housing is
divided by grease sectors. Grease fills one
sector, then flows into the bearing.
On the other hand, grease flowing back from
the inside is forced out of the bearing by the
centrifugal force of the grease valve.
When the grease valve is not used, it is
necessary to enlarge the housing space on the
discharge side to store old grease.
The housing is uncovered and the stored old
grease is removed at regular intervals.

3) Grease feeding interval

In normal operation, grease life should be
regarded roughly as shown in Fig. 12-2, and
replenishment/replacement should be carried
out accordingly.

Fig. 12-2 Grease feeding interval

4) Grease life in shielded/sealed ball

bearing
Grease life can be estimated by the following
equation when a single-row deep groove ball
bearing is filled with grease and sealed with
shields or seals.

The conditions for applying equation (12-1)

are as follows :

12-1-2 Oil lubrication

Oil lubrication is usable even at high speed
rotation and somewhat high temperature, and
is effective in reducing bearing vibration and
noise. Thus oil lubrication is used in many
cases where grease lubrication does not work.
Table 12-2 shows major types and methods
of oil lubrication.

Table 12-2 Type and method of oil

lubrication
① Oil bath
· Simplest method of bearing immersion
in oil for operation.
· Suitable for low/medium speed.
· Oil level gauge should be furnished to
adjust the amount of oil.
(In the case of horizontal shaft)
About 50 % of the lowest rolling element
should be immersed.
(In the case of vertical shaft)
About 70 to 80 % of the bearing should be
immersed.
· It is better to use a magnetic plug to
prevent wear iron particles from
 dispersing in oil.

② Oil drip
· Oil is dripped with an oiling device, and
the inside of the housing is filled with oil
mist by the action of rotating parts. This
method has a cooling effect.
· Applicable at relatively high speed and
up to medium load.
· In general, 5 to 6 drops of oil are
utilized per minute.
(It is difficult to adjust the dripping in
1mL/h or smaller amounts.)
· It is necessary to prevent too much oil
from being accumulated at the bottom of
housing.
③ Oil splash
· This type of lubrication method makes
use of a gear or simple flinger attached to
shaft in order to splash oil. This method
can supply oil for bearings located away
from the oil tank.
· Usable up to relatively high speed.
· It is necessary to keep oil level within a
certain range.
· It is better to use a magnetic plug to
prevent wear iron particles from
dispersing in oil.
It is also advisable to set up a shield or
baffle board to prevent contaminants from
entering the bearing.
④ Forced oil circulation
· This method employs a circulation-type
oil supply system.
Supplied oil lubricates inside of the bearing,
is cooled and sent back to the tank
through an oil escape pipe. The oil, after
filtering and cooling, is pumped back.
· Widely used at high speeds and high
temperature conditions.
· It is better to use an oil escape pipe
approximately twice as thick as the oil
supply pipe in order to prevent too much
lubricant from gathering in housing.
· Required amount of oil :
⑤ Oil jet lubrication
· This method uses a nozzle to jet oil at a
constant pressure (0.1 to 0.5MPa), and is
highly effective in cooling.
· Suitable for high speed and heavy load.
· Generally, the nozzle (diameter 0.5 to 2
mm) is located 5 to 10 mm from the side
of a bearing.
When a large amount of heat is generated, 2
to 4 nozzles should be used.
· Since a large amount of oil is supplied
in the jet lubrication method, old should
be discharged with an oil pump to prevent
excessive residual oil.
· Required amount of oil : see Remark 1.
⑥ Oil mist lubrication (spray lubrication)
· This method employs an oil mist
generator to produce dry mist (air
containing oil in the form of mist). The
dry mist is continuously sent to the oil
supplier, where the mist is turned into a
wet mist (sticky oil drops) by a nozzle set
up on the housing or bearing, and is then
sprayed onto bearing.
· This method provides and sustains the
smallest amount of oil film necessary for
lubrication, and has the advantages of
preventing oil contamination, simplifying
bearing maintenance, prolonging bearing
fatigue life, reducing oil consumption etc.
· Required amount of mist : see Remark
2.
⑦ Oil/air lubrication
· A proportioning pump sends forth a
small quantity of oil, which is mixed with
compressed air by a mixing valve. The
admixture is supplied continuously and
stably to the bearing.
 · This method enables quantitative
control of oil in extremely small amounts,
always supplying new lubricating oil. It is
thus suitable for machine tools and other
applications requiring high speed.
· Compressed air and lubricating oil are
supplied to the spindle, increasing the
internal pressure and helping prevent dirt,
cutting-liquid, etc. from entering. As well,
this method allows the lubricating oil to
flow through a feeding pipe, minimizing
atmospheric pollution.

Remark 1Required oil supply in forced oil

circulation ; oil jet lubrication methods
Values of friction coefficientμ
Bearing type μ

Deep groove ball bearing 0.0010 -

0.0015

Angular contact ball 0.0012 -

bearing 0.0020

Cylindrical roller bearing 0.0008 -

0.0012

Tapered roller bearing 0.0017 -

0.0025

Spherical roller bearing 0.0020 -

0.0025
The values obtained by the above equation
show quantities of oil required to carry away
all the generated heat, with heat release not
taken into consideration.
In reality, the oil supplied is generally half to
two-thirds of the calculated value.
Heat release varies widely according to the
application and operating conditions.
To determine the optimum oil supply, it is
advised to start operating with two-thirds of
the calculated value, and then reduce the oil
gradually while measuring the operating
temperature of bearing, as well as the
supplied and discharged oil.
1）Required amount of mist (mist pressure
: 5 kPa)
In the case of high speed（dmn≧40万）it is
necessary to increase the amount of oil and
heighten the mist pressure.
2) Piping diameter and design of
lubrication hole/groove
When the flow rate of mist in piping exceeds
5 m/s, oil mist suddenly condenses into an oil
liquid.
Consequently, the piping diameter and
dimensions of the lubrication hole/groove in
the housing should be designed to keep the
flow rate of mist, obtained by the following
equation, from exceeding 5 m/s.

3) Mist oil
Oil used in oil mist lubrication should meet
the following requirements.
 · ability to turn into mist
· has high extreme pressure resistance
· good heat/oxidation stability
· rust-resistant
· unlikely to generate sludge
· superior demulsifier
（Oil mist lubrication has a number of
advantages for high speed rotation bearings.
Its performance, however, is largely affected
by surrounding structures and bearing
operating conditions.
If contemplating the use of this method,
please contact with JTEKT for advice based
on JTEKT long experience with oil mist
lubrication.）
Marine refrigeration
system
Onboard any vessel, a marine refrigeration
system is an essential component. Food and
beverages, as well as cargo and waste, must
be kept in perfect condition at all times. The
health of passengers and crew depends on
well-maintained food and beverages. Many
cargo ships also require high-quality marine
refrigeration and air conditioning because
their primary mission is to ensure the cargo's
quality during transportation.

From garbage cooling to wine cellar

Heinen & Hopman has a great expertise in
the engineering of marine refrigeration
systems onboard any type of vessel; from the
most luxurious superyachts to naval ships and
offshore accommodation vessels. A few
examples of our commonly supplied
refrigeration systems are:
 o Garbage cooling
o Provision cooling
o Custom-built refrigerating rooms and
cabinets
o Morgue cooling
o Seawater or freshwater cooled
condensing units
o Air-cooled condensing units
o Fan coils in the cold rooms
o Evaporators

Custom-built marine refrigeration

No vessel is the same and therefore Heinen &
Hopman will always provide you with a
custom-built solution to your specific needs.
We work together with our clients in order to
make the most suitable systems for the vessel.

How a refrigeration system works

The refrigeration cycle consists of five
components:
 · The refrigerant;
R22 is an often used refrigerant, but due to
the European F-gas Regulation, we have
been researching alternatives like R290
(Propane).
· The compressor;
We use Turbocor compressors in our
systems as these are exceptionally
sustainable, totally oil-free and take up
half the space of conventional
compressors.
· The condenser;
Our condensing units are either sea-water
cooled, fresh-water cooled or air-cooled.
· The evaporator;
· The expansion device.
The refrigerant starts as a gas and is
compressed in the compressor, which
increases its temperature dramatically.
Thereafter, the condenser cools the hot high
pressure refrigerant and this way the
refrigerant turns into a liquid. Next, the
evaporator boils the refrigerant back to a gas,
at a very low temperature. The change from
liquid to gas absorbs the heat from the
evaporator, which in turn removes the heat
form the insulated refrigeration box, thereby
lowering its temperature. Hereafter, the
refrigerant is returned back to the
compressor and the refrigeration cycle starts
again.
Vapor Compression
Refrigeration System
Introduction:
Vapor-compression refrigeration, in which
the refrigerant undergoes phase changes, is
one of the many refrigeration cycles and is
the most widely used method for air-
conditioning of buildings and automobiles. It
is also used in domestic and commercial
refrigerators, large-scale warehouses for
chilled or frozen storage of foods and meats,
refrigerated trucks and railroad cars, and a
host of other commercial and industrial
services. Oil refineries, petrochemical and
chemical processing plants, and natural gas
processing plants are among the many types
of industrial plants that often utilize large
vapor-compression refrigeration systems.
Working Of Vapor Compression
Refrigeration System:
The figure shows the basic components of a
vapor compression refrigeration system.
As shown in the figure the basic system
consists of an evaporator, compressor,
condenser and an expansion valve. The
refrigeration effect is obtained in the cold
region as heat is extracted by the vaporization
of refrigerant in the evaporator. The
refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is
compressed in the compressor to a high
pressure at which its saturation temperature is
greater than the ambient or any other heat
sink. Hence when the high pressure, high-
temperature refrigerant flows through the
condenser, condensation of the vapor into
liquid takes place by heat rejection to the heat
sink. To complete the cycle, the high-pressure
liquid is made to flow through an expansion
valve. In the expansion valve the pressure and
temperature of the refrigerant decrease. This
low pressure and low-temperature refrigerant
vapor evaporates in the evaporator taking
heat from the cold region. It should be
observed that the system operates on a closed
cycle. The system requires input in the form
of mechanical work. It extracts heat from a
cold space and rejects heat to a high-
temperature heat sink.
Vapor Compression Cycle -Working
Diagram
A refrigeration system can also be used as a
heat pump, in which the useful output is the
high-temperature heat rejected at the
condenser. Alternatively, a refrigeration
system can be used for providing cooling in
summer and heating in winter. Such systems
have been built and are available now
Vapor Compression Thermodynamic
Cycle
PV And TS Diagram For Vapor Compression
System
Most of the modern refrigerators work on this
cycle, in Its simplest form, there are four
fundamental operations required to complete
one cycle.
(a) Compression
(b) Condensation
(c) Expansion
(d) Vaporization

a) Compression
The low-pressure Vapour in the dry state is
drawn from the evaporator during the suction
stroke of the compressor. During
compression Stroke, the pressure and
temperature increase until vapor temperature
is greater than the temperature of condenser
cooling medium (air or water)
At point 1 in the diagram, the circulating
refrigerant enters the compressor as a
saturated vapor. From point 1 to point 2, the
vapor is isentropically compressed (i.e.,
compressed at constant entropy) and exits the
compressor as a superheated vapor.
b) Condensation
When the high-pressure refrigerant vapor
enters the condenser heat flows from the
condenser to the cooling medium thus
allowing the vaporized refrigerant to return to
the liquid state.
From point 2 to point 3, the vapor travels
through part of the condenser which removes
the superheat by cooling the vapor. Between
point 3 and point 4, the vapor travels through
the remainder of the condenser and is
condensed into a saturated liquid. The
condensation process occurs at essentially
constant pressure.

c) Expansion
After condenser the liquid refrigerant is
stored in the liquid receiver until needed.
From the receiver it passes through an
expansion valve where the pressure is
reduced sufficiently to allow the vaporization
of liquid at a low temperature of about -10°C.
Between points 4 and 5, the saturated liquid
refrigerant passes through the expansion
valve and undergoes an abrupt decrease of
pressure. That process results in the adiabatic
flash evaporation and auto-refrigeration of a
portion of the liquid (typically, less than half
of the liquid flashes).
d) Vaporization
The low-pressure refrigerant vapor after
expansion in the expansion valve enters the
evaporator or refrigerated space where a
considerable amount of heat IS absorbed by it
and refrigeration is furnished.
Between points 5 and 1, the cold and
partially vaporized refrigerant travels through
the coil or tubes in the evaporator where it is
vaporized by the warm air (from the space
being refrigerated) that a fan circulates across
the coil or tubes in the evaporator.
The resulting refrigerant vapor returns to the
compressor inlet at point 1 to complete the
thermodynamic cycle.
Main Parts Of Vapor
Compression
Refrigeration Cycles:
1. Evaporator
Its function is to provide a heat transfer
surface through which heat can pass from the
refrigerated space into the vaporizing
refrigerant.
This is generally a Fin & Tube (Hair-Pin
type) heat exchanger, similar to Air-Cooled
Condensers.
2. Suction Line
It carries the low-pressure vapor from the
evaporator to suction inlet of the compressor.
3. Compressor
The function of the compressor is to draw
refrigerant vapor from the evaporator and to
raise Its temperature and pressure to such a
print to that it may be easily condensed with
normally available condensing media. It also
maintains a continuous flow of the refrigerant
through the system.
Compression Ratio = Absolute Discharge
Pressure / Absolute Suction Pressure
The Capacity of a Compressor is determined
by its Mass Flow rate (Lb/Min) and not by
Volume Flow(CFM).
The most common compressors used in
chillers are reciprocating, rotary screw,
centrifugal, and scroll compressors. Each
application prefers one or another due to size,
noise, efficiency and pressure issues.
4. Discharge Line
It conveys the high pressure and high-
temperature refrigerant from the compressor
to the condenser.
5. Condenser
The function of the condenser is to provide a
heat transfer surface through which heat
passes from the refrigerant to the condensing
medium which is either water or air.
Types of Condensers:
• Air-Cooled
• Water-Cooled
6. Liquid Receiver
It acts as, a reservoir that stores the liquid
refrigerant coming from the condenser and
supplies it to the evaporator according to the
requirement.
7. Liquid Line
It carries the liquid refrigerant from the
receiver and conveys it to the expansion
valve.
8. Expansion valve
Function Of This valve is to Supply a proper
amount of refrigerant to the evaporator after
reducing its pressure considerably so that the
refrigerant may take sufficient amount of heat
from the refrigerating space during
evaporation
The Metering Device converts the High
Pressure and High-Temperature Liquid from
Condenser to Low Pressure and Low-
Temperature Liquid-Vapor mixture, which
will be fed to the Evaporator.
An expansion valve is a component in
refrigeration and air conditioning systems
that controls the amount of refrigerant flow
into the evaporator thereby controlling the
superheat at the outlet of the evaporator.
Types of Expansion devices
· Thermostatic EV
· Capillary tube
· Hand operated EV
· Automatic or Constant Pressure EV
· Float expansion
Types of Vapor Compression Cycles :
We have already disused that vapor
compression cycle essentially consists of
compression, condensation, throttling and
evaporation. Many scientists have focused
their attention to increase the coefficient of
performance of the cycle. Through there are
many cycles, yet the following are important
from the subject point of view:
1. Cycle with dry saturated vapor after
compression,
2. Cycle with wet vapor after compression,
3. Cycle with superheated vapor after
compression,
4. Cycle with superheated vapor before
compression, and
5. Cycle with under cooling or sub cooling of
refrigerant,
Advantages of Vapour Compression
System :
· It has a smaller size for the given
capacity of refrigeration.
· It has less running cost.
· It can be employed over a large range of
temperatures.
 · The coefficient of performance is quite
high.
· Less time required to produce
refrigerant effects.
Disadvantages of Vapour Compression
System :
· The initial cost is high.
· The prevention of leakage of the
refrigerant is the major problem in the
vapor compression system.
· More wear and tear and noise due to
Moving Parts
· Liquid droplets in suction line may
damages.
Window Air
Conditioner
The term "room air conditioner" is also used
to describe a window air conditioner. It's the
most basic type of air conditioner, and it's
fixed on windows or walls. It is a single unit
that is assembled in a case that contains all of
the components.
A double shaft fan motor is used in this
refrigeration device, with fans on both sides
of the motor. One is located on the evaporator
side, while the other is located on the
condenser side.
The evaporator side is facing the room for
cooling, while the condenser side is facing
the outside for heat rejection. Within the
same casing, an insulated partition separates
the two sides.
Front Panel
The front panel is the one that is seen by the
user from inside the room where it is installed
and has a user interfaced control be it
electronically or mechanically. Older unit
usually are of mechanical control type with
rotary knobs to control the temperature and
fan speed of the air conditioner.
The newer units come with electronic control
system where the functions are controlled
using remote control and touch panel with
digital display.
The front panel has adjustable horizontal and
vertical(some models) louvers where the
direction of air flow are adjustable to suit the
comfort of the users.
The fresh intake of air called VENT
(ventilation) is provided at the panel in the
event that user would like to have a certain
amount of fresh air from the outside.
The mechanical type is usually lower in price
compared to the electronic type. If you just
want to cool the room and are not too
particular about aesthetic or additional
functions, the mechanical type will do the
work.
Indoor Side Components
The indoor parts of a window air conditioner
include:
● Cooling Coil with a air filter mounted on
it. The cooling coil is where the heat
exchange happen between the refrigerant
in the system and the air in the room.
● Fan Blower is a centrifugal evaporator
blower to discharge the cool air to the
room.
● Capillary Tube is used as an expansion
device. It can be noisy during operation if
installed too near the evaporator.
● Operation Panel is used to control the
temperature and speed of the blower fan.
A thermostat is used to sense the return air
temperature and another one to monitor
the temperature of the coil. Type of
control can be mechanical or electronic
type.
● Filter Drier is used to remove the
moisture from the refrigerant.
● Drain Pan is used to contain the water
that condensate from the cooling coil and
is discharged out to the outdoor by
 gravity.

A typical window unit.

Outdoor Side Components

The outdoor side parts include:
● Compressor is used to compress the
refrigerant.
● Condenser Coil is used to reject heat
from the refrigeration to the outside air.
● Propeller Fan is used in air-cooled
condenser to help move the air molecules
over the surface of the condensing coil.
● Fan Motor is located here. It has a
double shaft where the indoor blower and
outdoor propeller fan are connected
together.
Operations
During operation, a thermostat is mounted on
the return air of the unit. This temperature is
used to control the on or off of the
compressor. Once the room temperature has
been achieved, the compressor cuts off.
Usually, it has to be off for at least 3 minutes
before turning on again to prevent it from
being damaged. For mechanical control type,
there is usually a caution to turn on the unit
after the unit has turned off for at least 3
minutes. For electronic control, there is
usually a timer to automatically control the
cut-in and cut-out of compressor.
The evaporator blower fan will suck the air
from the room to be conditioned through the
air filter and the cooling coil. Air that has
been conditioned is then discharge to deliver
the cool and dehumidified air back to the
room. This air mixes with the room air to
bring down the temperature and humidity
level of the room.
The introduction of fresh air from outside the
room is done through the damper which is
then mixed with the return air from the room
before passing it over the air filter and the
cooling coil.
The air filter which is mounted in front of the
evaporator acts as a filter to keep the cooling
coil clean to obtain good heat-transfer from
the coil. Hence, regular washing and cleaning
of the air filter is a good practice to ensure
efficient operation of the air conditioner.
Heat Pump Window Air Conditioner
In temperate countries, heating of the room is
required. A heat pump window air
conditioner unit is able to cool the room
during summer and heat the room during
winter. A reversing valve (also known as 4-
Way-Valve) is used to accomplish this.
During heating operation, it reverses the flow
of the refrigerant which results in the
evaporator to act as a condenser and the
condenser as evaporator.
What is
thermoelectric
cooling?
Thermoelectric cooling is a way to remove
thermal energy from a medium, device or
component by applying a voltage of constant
polarity to a junction between dissimilar
electrical conductors or semiconductors.
A thermoelectric cooling system typically
employs a matrix of semiconductor pellets
sandwiched in between two large electrodes.
When a DC voltage source is connected
between the electrodes, the negatively-
charged side becomes cooler while the
positively-charged side becomes warmer. The
negative electrode is placed in contact with
the component, device or medium to be
cooled, while the positive electrode is
connected to a heatsink that radiates or
dissipates thermal energy into the external
environment.
Thermoelectric cooling is used in electronic
systems and computers to cool sensitive
components such as power amplifiers and
microprocessors. The technology can also be
useful in a satellite or space probe to
moderate the extreme temperatures that occur
in components on the sunlit side and to warm
the components on the dark side. In scientific
applications, digital cameras and charge-
coupled devices (CCDs) are sometimes
cooled using thermoelectric cooling to
minimize thermal noise, thereby optimizing
the sensitivity and image contrast.

In general, thermoelectric cooling is less

efficient than compressor-based refrigeration.
However, in situations where thermal energy
must be transferred away from a solid or
liquid on a small scale, a thermoelectric
cooling may be more practical and cost-
effective than a conventional refrigeration
system. Other advantages of the
thermoelectric cooling include the absence of
moving mechanical parts, physical
ruggedness, portability, long operating life
and minimal maintenance requirements.
Metal Forming

A bend in a pipe. Metal bending is one of

various metal forming techniques.
Metal forming is a subset of fabrication that
includes bending metals while they are still
solid. The shaping process allows a solid
piece of metal to be moved from its current
shape to the desired shape by utilising the
plasticity of certain metals. The metal
forming technique accomplishes this without
melting the material, avoiding any potential
problems with molten metal handling or
moulded product integrity.
Working in the heat vs. working in the cold
Cold working deforms metal below its
recrystallization temperature, whereas hot
working deforms it above it. Hot working is
done at temperatures above 60% of the
melting point of the metal (on the Kelvin
scale). Metal grains that have been stressed
by previous procedures re-melt above the
recrystallization temperature into new
unstressed grains that are more ductile and
less rigid. This makes it easier to shape the
metal.
Most metals are cold worked at room
temperature or somewhat higher
temperatures. Cold working is defined as
working at a temperature below the
recrystallization temperature of the metal.
The temperatures involved in these processes
aren't constant; they differ from one metal to
the next. Room temperature can lead to hot
working conditions in some circumstances.
The Benefits and Drawbacks of Hot Work
When a high quantity of distortion is
required, hot working is the best option.
Forming hot metal requires less force, and hot
forming allows the metal to extend
significantly more than cold forming.
Furthermore, it does not work harden metal,
allowing it to retain its ductility. Hot
working, on the other hand, has several
drawbacks, such as a rougher surface finish,
less precise dimensions, and a shorter tool
life.
Cold Working Advantages and
Disadvantages
Cold working, as opposed to hot working,
requires more energy but results in stronger
products. Cold working allows for tighter
tolerances, a better surface polish, and
minimal post-processing machining. Strain
hardening gives the metal extra strength and
hardness, and the way cold forming modifies
the metal's grain flow can be advantageous
for specific applications. Cold forming also
saves money for the manufacturer because it
doesn't require a furnace or fuel.
However, because the metal is cold worked,
forming it requires more power, and the
quantity of forming that can be done is
limited due to the strain hardening that
occurs. Furthermore, cold worked metal is
more difficult to distort than hot worked
metal.
Manufacturing Processes for Metal Forming
Depending on the desired effects, most
forming procedures can be performed at
either hot or cold temperatures. While some
procedures use bulk workpieces (such as
bars) to make a completed product, others use
sheet or plate.
Bulk Metal Forming Types
Bulk metal forming is done with materials
that have a low surface area to volume ratio,
such as bars, tubes, or billets. Roll forming,
forging, extrusions, castings, and drawing are
all examples of bulk forming procedures.
Rolling is the process of passing metal stock
through a set of rollers that bend it and shape
it into the desired shape. Rolling can be used
to make sheets, strips, rails, and other similar
shapes. This process results in tight,
repeatable tolerances, high-strength metal,
and minimal scrap.
To shape metal stock, forgers utilise presses,
hammers, and other compressing instruments.
Cold-headed pieces are those produced by the
cold forging method. Forging's key
advantages are the minimum quantity of
secondary services required and the strength
and hardness of the end product, which are
frequently utilised in aerospace and
automotive applications.
Extrusion is a process in which material is
driven through a die and emerges as a tube
with a cross-section that is almost identical to
that of the die. The process of shaping
enables for complex cross sections and
hollow structures without seam welding.
The process of casting involves pouring
molten metal into a die or mould. Its benefits
include the ability to make intricate pieces
and the large range of alloys that can be
employed.
Drawing is similar to extrusion, except that
the workpiece is dragged through the die
rather being pushed through it. While
drawing is done on thicker metals, it should
not be confused with deep drawing, which is
a sheet metal procedure.
Sheet Metal Forming Types
Sheet metal forming creates goods by
forming them with metal forms with a large
surface area, such as plates and sheets. Deep
drawing, bending, shearing, and stamping are
examples of this.
Deep sketching entails sculpting a plate or
sheet into the desired shape to the point
where the finished product has a height that is
equal to or more than the width. This
technology is ideal for products with complex
geometry as well as quick manufacture.
Bending is the process of reshaping metal
around a linear axis, which is commonly done
with a press brake. When compared to roll
formation, bending produces less residual
stress.
Stamping is a method of creating indentations
in metal using a press. This method works
well for large volumes of complex pieces in a
short amount of time. It can also develop
items that are consistent and free of
fluctuation.
Metal Forming Instruments
Because there are so many different metal
forming methods, there are also so many
different metal forming instruments. Presses,
which make stampings, are among the most
fundamental. Metal is shaped in presses by
compressing it between two surfaces ( the
bottom is called the bed). Mechanical,
hydraulic, and pneumatic types are available.
Depending on whether the metal is a sheet or
a bulk material, numerous types of benders
are available. By pressing sheet metal into a
die with a die block, press brakes produce V-
and U-shaped bends. Tube and bar bending
equipment is available in both manual and
machine versions.
Roll forming machinery flattens and thins
metal by passing it between two rollers, and
it's frequently used to coil it. Depending on
the application, roll forming machinery can
include machines that can process numerous
workpieces or machines with multiple sets of
rollers for a single piece.
Die is a tool that is used to shape raw metals.
Dies are used for drawing and extrusion, as
metal is drawn or pushed through them to be
shaped, in addition to stamping and bending.
Extruders shape and strengthen metal by
forcing it through a die. Extruders can
extrude metal via direct, indirect, hydrostatic,
lateral, or impact methods.
Drawing machines, on the other hand, pull
metal through dies or draw plates to thin and
strengthen it. For the drawing process, draw
benches are also employed.
Applications for Metal Forming
Tubes, pipes, metal sheets, fasteners, and
wire are just a few of the goods made via
metal forming. Many metal products we
come across in our daily lives, from
thumbtacks to file drawers, were most
certainly made by one or more metal forming
operations. Metal forming is widely utilised
in a variety of industries, including the
automotive industry, which employs it for
door frames and bumpers. It's also utilised in
aerospace to make engine parts, blades, and
structural pieces out of metal. Metal is also
used in the construction of architectural
elements such as ornate moulding and roof
sections.
Conclusion
Metal forming offers various advantages as a
process, including a high rate of production,
higher mechanical qualities in the finished
product, and no waste in the raw material. It
is, however, simply one type of
manufacturing process.

CAD/CAM/CIM
The terms computer-aided design and
computer-aided manufacturing are
abbreviated as CAD/CAM. The usage of a
computer-aided design (CAD) system for
Boeing aeroplanes. Ed Kashi/Phototake NYC
is a photographer based in New York City.
With permission, this image has been
reproduced. The use of computers in design
and manufacturing applications eliminates a
lot of the tedium and physical labour. For
example, the thousands of highly technical
and exact drawings and charts required to
manufacture complicated machinery can
necessitate thousands of design requirements,
blueprints, material lists, and other papers.
All of these plans and drawings must be
altered if the engineers decide that structural
components need to be changed. Human
designers and draftspeople had to update
them manually before CAD/CAM, which was
a time-consuming and error-prone process.
When a computer-aided design (CAD)
system is employed, the computer may
instantaneously analyse and alter all
corresponding documents. Designers,
engineers, and architects can also use
interactive graphics workstations to build
models or drawings, adjust their sizes, rotate
or change them at will, and see the results
instantly on screen.

CAD is especially useful in space

programmes, because there are a lot of
unknown design variables. Engineers
formerly relied on trial-and-error testing and
modification, which was time-consuming and
potentially dangerous. Computer simulation
and testing, on the other hand, can save a lot
of time, money, and possibly lives. CAD is
employed in the civil aviation, automotive,
and data processing industries, in addition to
the military.

Computers are used to send instructions to

automated machines in CAM, which is
typically used in conjunction with CAD.
CAM techniques are particularly well
adapted to manufacturing plants when human
workers must do jobs that are repetitive,
monotonous, or risky.

Autofacturing is another word for computer

integrated manufacturing (CIM), which was
coined by Joseph Harrington in 1975. CIM is
a programmed manufacturing technology that
uses unattended processing workstations to
connect CAD, CAM, industrial robotics, and
machine manufacture. CIM provides
continuous production from raw materials to
completed product, as well as quality
assurance and automated assembly.

CAE (computer assisted engineering) is a

technology that integrates software,
hardware, graphics, automated analysis,
simulated operation, and physical testing to
increase accuracy, effectiveness, and
productivity. It was first introduced in the late
1970s.
Simple Compound
Gear Train
Simple Gear Train-
When there is a vast distance to be spanned
between the input shaft and the output shaft, a
basic gear train is used. A basic gear train has
each gear positioned on its own shaft.
When looking at simple gear trains, it's
important to figure out if the output gear will
rotate faster, slower, or at the same speed as
the input gear. These two gears' respective
speeds will be determined by their
circumference (distance around the outside
edge).
Assume that the circumference of the input
gear is greater than the circumference of the
output gear. The output gear will rotate more
quickly than the input gear. The
circumference of the input gear, on the other
hand, may be smaller than that of the output
gear. The output gear would turn slower than
the input gear in this situation. The input and
output gears will turn at the same speed if
their sizes are precisely the same.
There are multiple gears between the input
gear and the output gear in many simple gear
trains.
Idler gears are the gears in the middle. The
output gear's speed is unaffected by idler
gears.

Compound Gear Train-

At least one of the shafts in a compound gear
train must have two gears.
When there is a little gap between the input
and output shafts and substantial changes in
speed or power output are required,
compound gear trains are used.
In a compound gear train, the direction of
rotation of the output gear is determined by
the number of shafts and rotational direction
of the input gear. Between the input and
output gears, the train in Figure has two
gears. These two gears are connected by a
single shaft. They spin in the same direction
and function as if they were one gear. In this
case, there are an unusually large number of
gear shafts. As a result, the input and output
gears have the same rotational direction.
Because there are two pairs of gears involved,
their ratios are “compounded,” or multiplied.
8 Engine Terms
Every Marine
Engineer Should
Know
1. Viscosity of Oils
Viscosity of oil is defined as the ability of the oil to flow. It
is the property of the liquid which tends to prevent relative
movement between adjacent parts within itself.

Generally, thicker the fluid, higher is its viscosity; whereas

thinner liquids have lower viscosity.

2. Viscosity Index
Viscosity Index is a term which is mainly related to marine
lubricating oils. It can be defined as the change in viscosity
of the oil which takes place as a result of change of
temperature.

Higher the viscosity index of the lubricating oil better is the

quality. This means that lubricating oil with higher viscosity
index has only a small change as a result of large
temperature difference.
As a general practice, various additives are added in the oil
to improve the viscosity index of the lubricating oil.

Viscosity index is a dimensionless number.

3. Cloud Point
Cloud point is the term which is related to the wax formation
in the oil.

Cloud point indicates the temperature at which waxes begin

to form in the oil.

Gradually, the wax formed crystallizes and clogs the filters.

The cloud point helps in finding out the tendency of the oil to
form wax.

4. Pour Point
Pour point of the oil can be defined as the temperature at
which the oil stops to flow.

Pour point is lowered using additives known as pour point

depressants.

5. Flash Point
Flash point of oil can be defined as the lowest temperature at
which the oil will give off sufficient inflammable vapour to
produce a flash when a small flame is brought to the surface
of the oil.
6. SAE Number
SAE number of the oil indicates its viscosity based on
classification involving two temperatures. Every lubricating
oil comes with a specific SAE number. The Society of
Automotive Engineers is responsible for the classification of
SAE numbers.

7. Total Base Number (TBN)

Total Base Number (TBN) can be defined as the measure of
reserve alkaline additives that are put into the lubricating oil
to neutralize the acids. It determines how effectively the
acids formed during the combustion process can be
controlled.

Higher the TBN better is the capability to fight oxidisation

and corrosion, and to improve viscosity characteristics. It
also allows longer operating period between lubricant
changes under harsh operating conditions.

Diesel engines burning low grades of fuel show high rate of

liner wear as low grade fuel have higher sulphur content.
This high sulphur content leads to corrosive wear to the liner
surface. Thus, alkaline lubricating oil is used to protect the
liner surface against corrosive attack by neutralizing the
sulphur derivative compounds.

The TBN is generally between 8-10 for marine lubricating

oils.
8. Total Acid Number (TAN)
Technically, the total acid number (TAN) of the oil indicates
the deteriorating condition of the lubricating oil. Higher the
TAN, more acidic is the lubricant, and further are its chances
of getting more deteriorated.

TAN also indicates the potential of the oil to cause corrosion

problems, leading to component failure. The TAN should not
be more than 2 for marine lubricating oils.
Excessive Loss of
Water from Main
Engine Fresh Water
Expansion Tank
The water from the ship's main engine's fresh water
expansion tank is utilised to cool the engine. To ensure that
enough water is provided to the engine, the water level in the
tank must be maintained at all times.

In this article, a strange circumstance was detailed in which

the main engine fresh water tank had to be replenished five
or more times each day to feed the engine with the required
amount of fresh water - obviously, this is excessive.
Excessive fresh water tank leaking can occur for a variety of
causes. Some of the most common ones, along with their
solutions, are given below:

1) Leakages from Cylinder Head

“O” rings
This occurs owing to insufficient preheating (below 45 °C),
but ends once the engine is started and the jacket cooling
water outlet temperature reaches 80-82 °C due to thermal
expansion.

Regular maintenance, including the use of the correct size

and type of O-ring and thorough surface cleaning, is the key
to resolving this issue.
A cylindrical component in the middle of some engines
serves as a section of the jacket. This piece may shatter if it
is not properly fitted (check the dowel pin and see if the
rubber ring is not large). To turn off this device, we may
need to close the cylinder's inlet and outflow valves.
However, it has been reported that these valves do not hold a
blank and that putting one in is difficult.

During dry docking, the main engine's jacket cooling water

entry and exit valves must be overhauled on all units.
Engineers must also practise properly cutting off the fuel
supply to a specific cylinder. It's not a smart idea to try to
figure this out at the last minute.

2) Leakages from Cylinder liner

“O” rings.
Engineers should try to pull out the liner and
replace the "O" rings during cylinder
overhauling after a thorough cleaning of the
landing surface.
This process takes time, and the ship's
immobility at ports is one of the most
pressing worries these days. However, we
should be on the lookout for opportunities to
complete this work as soon as possible.

3) Leakage from Main Engine

Turbocharger Water Cooled Casing:
The turbo charger casing should be cleaned
chemically on the water side (do not hard
scrape or hammer the casing) after 10 years
of operation. Ultrasonic gauging of the casing
at the top (near air vent) and at the bottom
(mud collects here and circulation is
inadequate in this area) is required.
If, unfortunately, the casing develops a crack,
it is very difficult to trace and equally
difficult to repair. Rigging of air cooling may
be resorted to ensure that the oil temperature
does not go more than 120 ° C (attached
pumps and individual sumps).
4) Leakage from Pump Gland:
With improvement of pump designs (Shinko)
and use of mechanical seals, the leakage from
pump glands is quite minimal these days.
However, on older engines, renew the pump
sleeve and use correct size gland packing,
ensuring very less leakage at the gland
(follow maker’s advice).
Leakage in Fresh Water Cooler:
Maine engine’s fresh water cooler for jacket
cooling water should regularly be cleaned and
pressure tested as per the planned
maintenance system of the engine room. Any
leaking tube must be plugged as per the
maker’s instruction.
6) Degraded Cooling Water
Property:
Maintaining cooling water quality is of prime
importance. Once in 6 months, engineers
should send cooling water sample for analysis
and also try to keep PH of the water about
8.0-8.5 by giving regular chemical dozing.
There are training videos provided by the
chemical suppliers and these should also be
viewed by engine room staff to understand
the process in a better way.
7) Improper Maintenance and
Overhaul:
Marine engineers often overhaul the exhaust
valves but do not pay minute attention to the
cooling water side by removing the plugs.
It is to note that cylinder heads may also
develop cracks with time mostly around air
starting valve area. Ship superintendents
often ask to get all cylinder heads shifted to
workshop for cleaning (during dry dock) and
carefully testing for cracks on cylinder head
using modern techniques.
Main Engine
Performance Curve
Sea trials are conducted after the ship is
completed and before it is handed over to the
owners to ensure that the ship can deliver the
contractually stipulated speed. The major
goal of the sea trial is to determine the ship's
speed in relation to its RPM and the power it
generates.

Aside from the hull of the ship, key engine

room machinery such as boilers, auxiliary
engines, and the main engine are also tested
at sea. Aside from the sea trial data, machines
have a test record called test bed data, which
is done in the manufacturing factory. It is
common to have test bed data for the primary
engine, generators, motors, and pumps,
among other things.

The Chief Engineer can run the ship safely

and inexpensively using the data from sea
trials/machinery trials, shop trials/test bed
trials, and the derived performance curves.

The charter party regulates, among other

things, speed and fuel use. There is limited
room for mistake, so if the speed is
insufficient, there is a speed claim;
additionally, if excessive fuel use is required
to maintain speed, there is a fuel claim.

The main engine must perform adequately

and deliver the rated power at the given RPM
under tight but allowed temperature and
pressure limitations, as well as consume the
correct specific fuel oil.

To keep the owners pleased, lubricating oil

and cylinder oil consumption must be kept to
a minimum, and engine maintenance must be
current to match the engine to the
performance curves supplied in the shop trial.

PERFORMANCE CURVES
During the test bed or shop trial the performance curves of
the engine are plotted. The performance curves are the
graphs of different parameters on x-axis plotted against
engine power or load on the y-axis. These different plotted
curves are as follows:

· Engine RPM vs. Load: This curve

helps in ascertaining whether main engine
is overloaded or not. A higher power
generated at a lower RPM indicates an
over loaded main engine.
· Mean effective pressure vs. Load:
Mean effective pressure is used to
calculate horse power hence these two
values should co-relate. In case they don’t
then there may be some error in
calculation or instrumentation.
· Maximum pressure vs. Load: This
curve helps in knowing the condition of
fuel injection equipment, injection timing
and the compression in the cylinder etc.
· Compression pressure vs. Load:
This curve indicates the condition of the
parts maintaining compression like
piston, piston rings and exhaust valves.
· Scavenge air pressure vs. Load: It
indicates the condition of the
turbocharger and associated equipment.
· Exhaust gas temperature in
receiver vs. Load: It indicates the
enthalpy of the exhaust gas prior to entry
in turbocharger. This value compared
with the value after the turbocharger gives
the temperature drop across the
turbocharger, is an indicator of
turbocharger efficiency.
· Exhaust gas temperature after
exhaust valve vs. Load: This curve sheds
light on the combustion, fuel injection,
timing and compression etc. A higher
temperature may be caused due to after
burning.
· Exhaust gas temperature after
turbocharger vs. Load: This curve is
very useful as it indicates the enthalpy
captured from the exhaust by the
turbocharger and hence its condition. In
case the receiver temperature is within
range but the outlet temperature is higher
it may indicate fouling of the
turbocharger and hence the associated
lower scavenge air pressure and high
exhaust gas temperature.
· Total excess air ratio vs. Load: This
curve is scarcely used by ship staff and is
useful for design engineers. This curve
sheds light on scavenging and the
turbocharger capacity and condition. It
shows that as the power increases the
excess air decreases due to consumption.
· Specific fuel oil consumption vs.
 Load: This curve helps to counter check
whether the engine is consuming fuel oil
correctly as per the load.

Economical Fuel Consumption

The main engine will run economically if it is
well maintained and operated at its rated
economic rating, which is the lowest in terms
of Specific Fuel Oil Consumption. If an
engine can safely run at the rated RPM at the
rated load, it is said to be functioning well or
properly maintained. There is a loss of ship
speed and a subsequent speed claim if an
engine has a continuous service rating of
15000 BHP at 104 RPM but cannot attain the
rated RPM and develops 15000 BHP
prematurely at 98 RPM. It also indicates that
there is a problem, that the ship is unable to
maintain speed, that it is burning too much
fuel, and that the engine is overloaded. It
could be due to hull fouling, a damaged
propeller, or a malfunctioning prime mover,
for example.

In such circumstances, a thorough

examination of the sea trial data, engine shop
data, and performance curves will aid in
determining the source of the issue.

To begin troubleshooting, the primary engine

performance must be measured on a sunny
day with a steady load. The main engine must
be operating at full capacity. The data
discovered must then be superimposed on the
performance curves.

We can determine whether the measured

parameters are normal or abnormal by
superimposing them on the performance
curves. A thorough examination of the
parameters allows us to pinpoint the issue.
Below is an example of performance data
placed on the performance curve.
From above diagram the following points are
inferred:

· At 75% MCR the RPM attained is

lower that the sea trial.
· The average maximum cylinder
pressure P max is lower than the sea trial.

· The compression pressure P comp is

almost same as sea trial confirming that
the running gear like piston, piston rings
and exhaust valves are ok.
 · The scavenge pressure is almost
normal suggesting that the turbocharger is
in satisfactory condition and the enthalpy
of the exhaust gas is higher than normal
for this RPM.
· Exhaust temperatures are all increased
suggesting abnormal combustion, after
burning or change of timing. It may also
indicate faulty fuel injection equipment.
The above example will help to understand
the use of performance curves for a ship’s
engineer. After the main engine performance
has been taken and plotted on the original
performance curves from the sea trial data,
the problem can be found out and SFOC
restored to normal values. In this way at any
stage during the life time of the ship, we can
understand why she is not performing based
on plotting her parameters on the
performance curves.
How Massive Main
Engines are Fitted in
the Ship’s Engine
Room?
The main engine of a ship is a large structure
with an average height of 3 to 4 storeys
(about 45 feet) and a weight of 500 giant
African elephants ( 2500 tonnes). The
technique for installing a new main engine in
the engine room is separated into stages
based on the engine's many components.
During the shipbuilding process, the engine is
fitted in sections at the shipyard.

The massive construction of the main engine

is made up of various moving pieces (both
spinning and reciprocating) that convey
mechanical power from the engine to the
propeller, allowing the ship to travel further.
Because all of the components of the main
engine are subjected to different forces, it
must be properly anchored to the ship to
minimise damage from excessive vibrations.

With the help of holding down bolts and

chocks, the main engine is installed on the
ship's hull. Heavy flooring and additional
bars and girders are used to reinforce the
floor where the engine is installed. The
bedplate, which serves as the engine's
foundation, is secured by a set of holding
bolts and chocks.

The primary engine is held in place by two

types of chock materials:

1. Cast steel Chock.

2. Epoxy resins Chock.

Cast steel chocks require expertise for

installation and are expensive to use. In
today’s time, marine engine makers are
recommending epoxy resin based chocks
which do not require any special measures
and are also cost effective.

Advantages:
· Deliver almost 100% contact even on
a rough surface.
· Cheap installation and no special
hands are required.
· Chemical resistant
· Non corrosive
Disadvantages:
· If engine is misaligned or chocks are
incorrectly fitted, the overall life reduces.
· Over tightening or stressing of
holding bolts may lead to chock damage.
· Maximum temperature of exposure is
80 °C.
Breaking-In and
Running-In in
Marine Diesel
Engines
It is impossible to conceive a ship without
marine engines, as they are responsible for
the vessel's propulsion and power generation.
Depending on the size of the ship, two or four
stroke engines are employed to propel it.
Because of its high speed characteristics, four
stroke engines are employed as a primary
mover for power generation.

For effective and trouble-free operation, two-

stroke and four-stroke marine engines require
routine maintenance. When the key
combustion sections of the engine, such as
the piston or liner, are changed or renewed, or
if the engine has gone through a complete
d'carb, the engine is placed back into action
using step running programmes known as
"Breaking in" and "Running in."

Why Breaking in and Running in?

In the ashore workshop, the newly installed,
piston, or piston rings are machined and
prepped. They have asperities on the surface
and no bedding between the moving surface,
i.e. the liner and the rings.

If appropriate step running is not followed in

such instances, substantial blow past of
combustion gases may occur. The scavenging
fire that can result from the blow past can be
deadly. As a result, for the freshly installed
piston, piston rings, and liner, a step running
programme is required at first.

It is critical to monitor various engine

parameters under increasing load for a full
d'carb engine, which can be accomplished via
breaking in and running in.

Breaking In and Running In

It is a brief time of no-load operation of
marine engines to allow them to seat and be
properly oiled. The break-in period varies by
engine and is specified by the manufacturer
in the engine handbook. A four-stroke
engine's typical break-in time is 48 hours.

Breaking in is done to get the best wear rate

possible so that asperities break faster. As a
result, HFO and low TBN oil are used. The
break-in period will be longer if low-sulfur
fuel or marine diesel oil is utilised. To
accelerate the rate of wear, the jacket's water
temperature is kept low.

Running in
It's a long-run programme that gradually
increases the load and speed of the engine
after breaking it in.
The running in schedules, like the breaking in
schedules, are supplied in the engine manuals
and vary by part.

The cylinder lubrication of a two-stroke

engine is kept on the higher side in terms of
oil quantity to provide proper lubrication of
the piston rings and liner.

Low TBN lubricating oil is used initially in

four stroke engines with common sump
lubrication, and after 30 percent load, the new
suggested oil is utilised.
What is
Turbocharger
Surging?
The ship's main propulsion system includes a
turbocharger, which is one of the most
significant components. Turbocharger
surging is a phenomena that affects the
performance and efficiency of the
turbocharger. We'll learn everything there is
to know about turbocharger surging in this
essay.

Turbocharger surging is characterised as a

high-pitched, audible vibration emanating
from the turbocharger's blower or compressor
end. It's common in low-speed diesel engines,
and any sea-going marine engineer has
probably heard this howling sound at least
once during his or her time at sea.

Surging happens when the turbocharger's gas

flow breaks down, causing a reversal of
scavenging air via the diffuser and impeller
blades into the blower side. Simply put, a
large mass of oscillating airflow can induce
vibration of the turbo compressor impeller
and vanes, preventing the compressor from
operating smoothly and, as a result,
producing a high-pitched noise known as
compressor surge.

Other terms for this phenomena include turbo

surge and engine surge, however the
turbocharger compressor, often known as the
turbo-compressor, is the directly involved
component in surging. The turbocharger's
turbine side, or exhaust gas side, has no direct
impact on the surging process. It will surely
impair the overall performance of the
turbocharger, maybe resulting in turbocharger
surging.

If the surging occurs during normal engine

operation and the frequency of the surge is
excessive, it can damage the bearing and, in
some situations, cause the compressor rotor
to fail mechanically. As a result, the
turbocharger surging is caused by a lack of
coordination among various engine
components. Engine and turbocharger
difficulties might be caused by a worn out
engine cylinder or fuel system. Due to the
lower air flow to the compressor and the
increased back pressure, the compressor will
surge.

As a result, turbochargers must be

appropriately matched to the engine's air
consumption rate and pressure throughout the
engine's working range, and should not
exceed the surge limitations.

Terms Associated
with Turbocharger
Surge
Surge pressure dip: The surge cycle has a
defined pressure dip, and the size of the
pressure dip will remain constant if the cycle
is continued without changing the operating
point.

Surge cycle time: The time from the start of

the surge until the operating point is altered to
re-establish equilibrium, i.e. the end of the
engine surge.

Temperature fluctuations: There will be a

reversal of air flow as the surge occurs,
resulting in a shift in upstream temperature.

Variations in surge shaft speed: During the

compressor surge, the turbocharger shaft
housing the compressor and turbine wheel
will suffer a shift in speed.

The turbochargers should thus be matched to

the engine's air consumption rate and pressure
throughout its working range, and should not
exceed the surge limitations.
Category of Turbocharger Surging:
Mild surge: The surges happening under mild conditions are
not significant. They may rise due to no flow reversal and
small oscillations in pressure.

Classic surge: Classic surge which happens

due to low-frequency oscillations with larger
pressure oscillations.

Deep surge: This is the critical condition

when the reversal of the mass flow occurs in
the compressor which leads to surging
Methods to Measure
Bearing Clearance
To assess the clearance of a marine engine's main bearing,
different marine engine manufacturers use a variety of
methods. The following are some of the most common
methods for measuring main bearing clearance onboard
ships:

1) Bridge with Depth Gauge

The bearing shell is removed together with
the keep in SULZER 2 stroke marine engines
using this approach (the bearing shell is lined
with the keep). Then, from port to starboard,
a bridge is fitted over the top of the journal
pin, forming a bridge over the crankshaft with
two ends supported by the cross girder.

The scale of the depth gauge is then resting

on the crankshaft pin, and a basic vernier type
depth gauge is fitted in the hole supplied on
the bridge. For calculating bearing wear, the
total depth on the scale is measured and
compared to the previous reading and the
reading in the manual.

A collar and a small hole are included in the

bearing shell of older model SULZER
engines. The bridge is attached to the keep
without removing it, and the depth gauge is
used to measure the wear down of the shell
through the hole provided in the shell.

2) Bridge With Feeler Gauge

After removing the shell and keep from some
engines, the bridge is mounted as described
above. A feeler gauge is also used to measure
the clearance between the journal pin top and
the bridge bottom instead of a depth gauge.
The height of the bridge utilised here is
different from that of the bridge used in the
previous approach, and the gap between the
pin and the bridge is much less.

3) Telescopic or Swedish Feeler

Gauge
In engines like MAN B&W, this is the most common
method used to measure the bearing clearance of the top
shell. In this method there is no need to remove any
connection or keep for measuring the clearance.

The telescopic gauge is inserted between the

gap of the crank web and the bearing keep.
When the tip reaches the shell top, the feeler
is inserted between the shell and the pin to
check the clearance.

4) Dial type Depth Gauge

This method is used in new MAN B&W engines (SMC-C)
which does not require the top keep to be removed. The lube
oil pipe connection screw hole is in the bearing keep which
can be accessed from the hole on the bearing shell.

The dial gauge is inserted in this screw hole and the reading
is taken as the clearance for upper shell.

5) Lead wire – The Traditional

Method
This is a traditional method and to be used when no other
alternative or tools are present. In this method, lead wire is
inserted at different positions between bearing and pin. The
bearing housing is tightened. Ensure not over squeezed the
wire more than 1/3 rd of original diameter. General Method
for taking clearance using lead wire:
· Turn the crank shaft to set the crank at
TDC position.
· remove locking and slacken the nut to
lower the bottom half with bolts.
· Three lengths of lead wires to be
inserted or laid circumferential in the
bottom half at three different places.
· Close the bottom half into position
and tighten the nut to its rated tightening
torque.
· Open and lower down the bottom half
again.
· Remove the lead wires and take the
measurement.
Procedure for Cross
Head Bearing
Removal of Marine
Engine
In a large two-stroke slow-speed engine, it's
critical to transport power from the
combustion chamber to the crankshaft
without transferring transverse stresses to the
piston or substantial thrust directly to the
crankshaft. As a result, a system known as
Crosshead is put in place to compensate for
this.

The cross head, where the piston rod and

connecting rod are joined on both sides,
converts the reciprocating action of the piston
into rotary motion for the crankshaft.

Crosshead bearings require routine

maintenance as per the manufacturer's
instructions. When removing the crosshead
bearing from a MAN MC-C engine, the
following procedure must be followed:

1) Inform company and take permission.

2) Take immobilization certificate from

port.

3) Read the manual and have a toll box

meeting with everyone involved in the job.
Discuss the procedure.

4) Prepare important tools and spares to be

used in this operation

5) A risk assessment of all personnel

doing the operation to be prepared and
documented

6) Shut main engine starting air

7) Engage turning gear to the main engine

crankshaft

8) Open indicator cocks of all cylinders

9) Stop main engine lube oil pump after
cooling down of engine

10) Open crank case doors of fore and aft

unit

11) Open crank case doors of that unit in

which maintenance is to be carried out.

12) Put blower and ventilate the crankcase

thoroughly as it is an enclosed space.

13) Prepare enclosed space entry checklist.

14) After sufficient ventilation wearing

proper PPE you can enter the C/C.

15) Turn the crank throw to 90° before

BDC.

16) Check the bearing clearance by

inserting feeler gauge b/w bearing cap and
crosshead journal exactly next to the landing
surface of the piston rod foot.

18) Turn the crankshaft down enough to

give access to nuts and screws on piston rod.
19) Mount two chain blocks on the top of
the crankcase for suspending the piston rod.

20) Loosen and remove the locking wire

and screws on the piston rod foot.
How to Prevent
Crankcase Explosion
on a Ship?
Crankcase explosions are one of the most
dangerous factors that can cause huge ship
accidents and fires. As a result, it is critical to
eliminate all potential causes of a ship's
crankcase explosion. We will learn about the
many strategies for preventing a ship's
crankcase explosion in this article.

To avoid any form of explosion aboard a

ship, the first and most important step is to
adopt preventive measures from the
beginning. There are other safety mechanisms
in the main engine crankcase to detect the
causes of explosion.
There are two main features provided on the
crankcase to prevent crankcase explosion.
They are as follows:

1. Oil Mist Detector

The Oil Mist Detector takes continuous
samples from the main engine crankcase and
checks if the mist concentrations in the
samples are considerably below the level at
which a crankcase explosion can occur. The
oil mist is pulled into the instrument by a tiny
fan that suctions suction from each crankcase
via sample tubes on each crankcase.
The oil mist detector is made up of a small
rotator that takes a sample from one cylinder
at a time before moving on to the next after
around 4 seconds. To determine the
difference in oil mist, a sample from the
rotator is sent to the measured cell, while a
sample from the remainder of the crankcase
is sent to the reference cell.

After each rotation of the sampling valve, the

overall mist density of the crankcase is
determined by comparing the samples to
fresh air. A photo cell measures the output of
a beam of light from a standard lamp that is
reflected by mirrors.

The output from the reference and measured

contacts is the same under normal conditions,
thus no deflection is measured. A deflection
in the output, on the other hand, triggers an
alarm, and the valve rotator comes to a halt in
order to determine which chamber has a high
mist concentration.

Some engines are also equipped with

slowdown alarms, which cause the engine to
slow down automatically when the oil mist
warning sounds, preventing a crankcase
explosion.

2. Crankcase relief doors

Crankcase relief doors are also installed to
protect the crankcase from damage and to
allow fresh air into the crankcase.

The crankcase doors are spring-loaded valves

that open up if the pressure inside the
crankcase rises. They re-seat once the
pressure is released to prevent any fresh air
from entering. This is especially useful in the
event of an air incursion, which can cause a
secondary explosion, as well as a lot of surge
and damage to the crankcase.

Depending on the volume of the crankcase,

different classification societies specify the
opening pressure and valve sizes. The
number of doors required is also determined
by the cylinder's bore.
Intelligent Engines –
The New Generation
Machines
Today's world requires engines that can meet
rigorous pollution standards as well as
increased demands for durable, reliable, and
smart engines with low operating costs. To
fulfil the above goals, a new generation of
engine called as "Intelligent Engines" is being
developed with extensive usage of
electronics, hardware, and software in
massive 2 stroke low speed cross head
engines.

The intelligent engine concept improves the

reliability of existing engines, allowing new
applications and concepts to be developed.
Although such an engine has a high starting
cost, its operating costs are cheaper than other
engines when operated with suitable
operating procedures and a skilled crew.

In October of 1998, the first intelligent engine

aboard the marine sector was delivered and
installed in the chemical carrier M/T Bow
Cecil.

Basic Concept of Intelligent Engine

– A central electronic control system is
incorporated which is the brain of the system
and which monitors and evaluate the general
condition to keep the operating parameter
within limits and maintain the performance of
the engine at the higher side.

– Central control system operates Engine

control unit (ECU) and cylinder control unit
(CCU).

– ECU controls the overall protection and

efficient performance of the whole engine.
CCU controls the each cylinder of the engine
for safe and efficient working.

– This control system saves the engine

from damage due to overloading,
malfunctioning, maladjustment and lack of
maintenance.

The intelligent engine provides flexibility in

operation by replacing mechanical cam shaft
for fuel pump and exhaust valve with
common rail system and computer controlled
system.
– To comply with the emission norms,
system is incorporated with catalytic clean up
system and fuel economy modes which can
be selected from bridge.

A reversing and crash mode option is

provided in the bridge, controlled through the
main central electronic control which sends
signal to the engine when in operational
mode.

– The central system consists of a

program in which the protection system can
be override in case of emergency.

Main goals
The basic aim for developing intelligent
engine is to reduce the operational cost of the
propulsion plant, to have high fluctuation in
operation and to cope up with the stringent
emission norms imposed by regulating
authorities under . Apart from this, the
following points to be considered for
intelligent engines:
1) Reliability of engine increases

– The central monitoring system keeps an

eye on the fluctuation of load and distribute
equally to all the cylinders.

– It consists of overload protection

system which will give alarm and trip’s the
engine, ruling out the possibilities of overload
and thermal stresses.

– Any other abnormality is displayed

with an early warning and alarm system so
that the problem can be tackled before it
hampers the operational aspects of the
engine.

– This system increases the emission

control flexibility.

2) Fuel and lube oil consumption cost

reduces

– The load operating efficiency

increases as compared to normal engines
which increases the life of the engine and
maintenance schedule can be delayed which
cut shorts the operational cost.

– The performance is fuel optimized.

Fuel oil, lube oil and other lubricants
consumption drastically decreases which
reduces the operational cost.

– The engine and its performance is

maintained “as new” for its lifetime.

– The cylinder lubrication is one of the

most expensive lubrication oil used in marine
operation. The consumption is controlled
with the help of mechatronic (incorporated
with mechanical and electronic controlled
enhanced system) cylinder lubrication with
advanced dosage of oil.

3) Follow up of stringent air pollution

emission norms.

– Now almost all the countries are

following the stringent norms for emission
from the ship’s propulsion plant. The
intelligent engine gives the flexibility to cope
up with different norms for different
controlled bodies by enhancing the emission
performance characteristics.

– To reduce the emission of harmful

substance like Nox and Sox, catalytic
controller and fuel control and consumption
modes are incorporated in the control system.
A Chief Engineer’s
Concern Regarding
Slow Steaming of
Ships
In order to survive in these difficult times of
growing fuel prices and financial slump, the
majority of corporations and ship owners
have embraced slow steaming.

The concept was first used by Maersk Lines

for Container Shipping and was supported by
cost sheets and economics. It has since been
adopted by other types of ships, including
Dry Bulk ships, whose operating speeds are
generally low.

Shipowners direct their Chief Engineers to

operate the vessel at economy speed, often
known as Eco speed or slow steaming.

Long before other ship owners realised the

value of slow steaming, shipping corporations
like Maersk experimented with it and
published a detailed data sheet on slow
steaming, as well as the financial viabilities,
to their clients and ship owners. They also
proposed that all major engine builders
provide a no objection certificate, which
would persuade sceptic Marine Engineers and
ship owners that slow speeding is doable and
would not imperil the Main Engine if done
correctly.

We will explore the technical requirements

for slow steaming, various modes of slow
steaming, including super slow steaming,
retrofitting, modifications using upgrade kits,
and the applicability of intelligent engines for
slow steaming in this series of well-
researched articles.

Chief Engineer’s Concern

It finally translates to the ship's Chief
Engineer, along with his team of marine
engineers, in cooperation with technical
management, to make the modifications
aboard the ship in the transient times of
changing standards, harsher rules, and new
emerging technology.

Because slow steaming is not a common

occurrence for a marine engineer, and they
have not been prepared for it, considerable
efforts must be made to overcome the engine
staff's traditional thinking and retrain them.
They must also be taught about extra routines
and inspections for the Main Engine, which is
operating outside of its designated ideal
range.

Engine makers have always told marine

engineers that low-load operation should be
avoided. To optimise all of the engine's
parameters and allow the various components
to perform within their planned range, the
engines must be run close to their continuous
rating.

A chief engineer has the following concerns

with regards to slow steaming:

· Frequent and thorough scavenge and

under piston inspections must be carried
out.
· Slow steaming causes fouling of the
turbochargers and loss of efficiency.
· Turbochargers operating outside their
designed range produce less air flow
leading to more deposits.
· Causes increased carbon deposits on
the injectors compromising their
performance.
· Causes fouling of the exhaust gas
economizer resulting in reduction of
capacity as well as increased danger of
soot fire.
· Leads to improper atomization of the
fuel as well as impingement.
· Causes increased carbon deposits and
maintenance intervals have to be
modified likewise.
· Causes low exhaust gas temperatures.
Running the engine with exhaust gas
temperatures below 250 deg C can cause
low temperature corrosion.
· Causes reduced peak compression
pressure.
· Damage occurs and becomes
imminent when engine is run at full load
after long period of slow steaming.
· Compromises the piston ring pack
efficiency, leading to increased under
piston and scavenge deposits.
· Cause loss of heat transfer due to
carbon deposits and failure of
components due to thermal stresses.
· Causes reduction in the efficiency of
the economizer causing the need of oil
fired boiler to operate and adding to extra
cost and maintenance.
What is an
Entablature in Ship’s
Engine?
The main engine of a ship has an entablature.
The cylinder liner, as well as the scavenge air
space and cooling water areas, are all held in
the housing. Cast iron is commonly used for
the entablature.

Installing and Assembling an

Entablature
Entablature can be fitted during the assembly
or installation of an engine in a ship by
manufacturing a casting for each cylinder and
then bolting the mating surfaces together, or
by casting in multi-cylinder units and then
bolting them together.
The “A” frame is aligned and bolted to the
entablature with fitted bolts. It's worth noting
that the "fitted bolts" used to join the
entablature, A" frames, and bedplate together
are simply for alignment, not to withstand
pressures caused by firing forces.

Entablature damage can result in a loss of

engine power as well as damage to the
crankshaft and other components.

The cooling jacket for the cylinder liner,

where high-temperature combustion takes
place, is part of the engine's Entablature. The
water is circulated around the liner via this
jacket, which absorbs the liner's heat and
prevents thermal stress.
O'rings are installed in the entablature liner to
prevent leaking of jacket water into the under
piston space. To avoid the formation of air
pockets or air locks, cylinder water in the
entablature jacket enters from the bottom and
exits from the top.

How to do Inspection of
Entablature?
The entablature is additionally fitted with the
liner and the cylinder head on the top.
Therefore when the head and liner is
removed, thorough inspection of the
entablature must be carried out.

· Check the upper surface where liner

face lands for cracks and deformation
· Check the condition of the inside of
jacket for mud formation. Clean
whenever the liner is removed.
· Check and clean the portion where o’
rings of the liner sits on the entablature
jacket.
 · Check for corrosion signs inside the
water space.
· Check for salt deposits
· Check the mating surface of
entablature and “A” frame for fretting.
· Check for cracks.
· Check for oil or water leakages near
the mating surface.
· If there is fretting between “A” frame
and entablature, tightness of the tie rods
must be checked.
The entablature jacket inspection can be
carried out without removing the liner and
inspecting through the cover provided at the
bottom of the jacket. Prior to opening the
cover, the engine must be stopped along with
the cooling water supply, inlet and outlet
valve for cooling water supply should be shut
and drain for the unit to be inspected must be
open (air vent to be open to facilitate
draining).
What is
Turbocharger?
The ship's main propulsion system includes a
turbocharger, which is one of the most
significant components. Turbocharger
surging is a phenomena that affects the
performance and efficiency of the
turbocharger. We'll learn everything there is
to know about turbocharger surging in this
essay.
Turbocharger surging is characterised as a
high-pitched, audible vibration emanating
from the turbocharger's blower or compressor
end. It's common in low-speed diesel engines,
and any sea-going marine engineer has
probably heard this howling sound at least
once during his or her time at sea.
Surging happens when the turbocharger's gas
flow breaks down, causing a reversal of
scavenging air via the diffuser and impeller
blades into the blower side. Simply put, a
large mass of oscillating airflow can induce
vibration of the turbo compressor impeller
and vanes, preventing the compressor from
operating smoothly and, as a result,
producing a high-pitched noise known as
compressor surge.

Other terms for this phenomena include turbo

surge and engine surge, however the
turbocharger compressor, often known as the
turbo-compressor, is the directly involved
component in surging. The turbocharger's
turbine side, or exhaust gas side, has no direct
impact on the surging process. It will surely
impair the overall performance of the
turbocharger, maybe resulting in turbocharger
surging.
If the surging occurs during normal engine
operation and the frequency of the surge is
excessive, it can damage the bearing and, in
some situations, cause the compressor rotor
to fail mechanically. As a result, the
turbocharger surging is caused by a lack of
coordination among various engine
components. Engine and turbocharger
difficulties might be caused by a worn out
engine cylinder or fuel system. Due to the
lower air flow to the compressor and the
increased back pressure, the compressor will
surge.

As a result, turbochargers must be

appropriately matched to the engine's air
consumption rate and pressure throughout the
engine's working range, and should not
exceed the surge limitations.
What is Crash
Manoeuvring of Ship
in Emergency
Situation and what’s
its Procedure?
When one thing collides with another, the
term "crash" is commonly used to indicate an
accident or damage. When the word is paired
with the phrase "manoeuvring" in the
maritime business, it creates a method used to
avoid any kind of collision or accident.

Why Crash Manoeuvring?

Unlike terrestrial transportation, there are no
brakes on a seagoing vessel to stop the ship
when necessary. The vessel is stopped by
reversing the rotational direction of the main
engine, which pauses or slows the vessel's
speed as it approaches the collision course.

The crash manoeuvring is usually done to

avoid any type of collision or crashing of ship
to any other ship or structure (Jetty, land,
Iceberg etc). In this type of manoeuvring the
main engine is subjected to severe stress and
loading, but the safety of ship and life is
assured.
How to Perform Crash
Manoeuvring?
Turning the engine in the opposite direction
to reduce the ship's heading speed is known
as crash manoeuvring. After a set amount of
time, the ship comes to a halt and begins
streaming in the opposite direction. This is
accomplished by feeding the engine with 30
bar starting air from the air receiver. The
brake air is the air that stops the vehicle.
When brake air is suddenly introduced into
an engine cylinder, it will try to stop the
piston from moving and the crankshaft and
propeller from rotating.
Procedure
When a navigational officer phones the
engine room and says we need to stop right
away to avoid a collision, follow the
procedure below.

When there is an emergency, such as a

collision or a grounding, the controls are
immediately handed to the Engine room
controls.
In the telegraph, the bridge will give astern
direction and acknowledge it.

Only the starting air cam will reverse

direction when the telegraph is recognised,
but the fuel cam will continue in its running
position due to the running direction
interlock, as the engine is still running in the
forward direction.

In the engine control room, the fuel lever is

set to ‘0.'

As soon as the engine's RPM falls below 40%

of its Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR)
rpm, give break air a few times in a short
period of time.

Break air will be injected with astern timing

inside the forward moving piston, which will
impede piston motion.

Because fuel will not inject until the running

direction interlock opens, give fuel and air a
kick by lowering the fuel lever to the minimal
start position as soon as the rpm approaches
zero.

Some safety features must be bypassed when

doing Crash Manoeuvring to avoid the engine
tripping in the middle of an emergency.

When the ship comes to a complete stop and

the situation has been stabilised, a thorough
Main engine examination should be
performed whenever possible.

Cargo Sampling
Procedure on Ships
This cargo sampling instruction describes the
procedures for the Master and his crew to
follow in order to ensure that appropriate
samples of the cargo to be loaded or
discharged are taken as evidence to be used in
connection with presented claims for
contaminated cargo and to protect the vessel
and the Company's interests.

Procedure
· Cargo sampling should be done in
closed condition. (Note: most vessels
are screened / accepted by oil majors
based on closed sampling
requirements.)
· Should this not be possible,
Owner/Operator must be advised.
· If the cargo product has been loaded
and no samples have been drawn from
the manifold at commencement of
loading, the vessel can very easily be
claimed for any contamination of the
cargo and which contamination in fact
may have been caused by polluted lines
or hoses at the shore installation.
Samples taken from Manifold and
cargo tanks are the only proof that
Owners have against possible cargo
claims.

Cargo Sampling of Products to be Loaded /

Discharged:
Sampling of each cargo product to be loaded
or discharged shall be carried out as
described in OCIMF’s “International Safety
Guide for Oil Tankers & Terminals”
(ISGOTT) and always in compliance with the
Owner’s procedures.
Vessel shall always ensure following samples
are drawn and ensure same is witnessed by
surveyor;
Cargo Sampling at Load port

· Upon commencement of loading

(manifold samples, first cargo passing
each manifold)
· Just before 1st foot sample is loaded
(cargo tank samples)
· When about 50% of cargo has been
loaded (manifold samples)
· Upon completion of loading (cargo
tank composite samples)

Additional manifold samples shall always

be drawn upon;
 · Re-start of cargo operations when
there is a stop during the loading
operation
· Change of shore tank(s) during
loading
· Terminal is stripping/debottoming
tanks into vessel’s cargo tanks during
loading

If there exists doubt onboard as to when

further samples to be drawn, then decision
shall always be to draw the additional
samples.
During pre-loading meeting the vessel shall
check with Loading Master if the terminal
has any plans of stripping, debottoming or
change of shore tanks.
A visual check of cargo samples, to
determine any suspected contamination, must
always be carried out by an experienced
officer.
If any suspected contamination found in the
samples then below steps to be undertaken;
Vessel must immediately stop loading and
immediately contact the Owner/Operator and
await their further orders. The Master is to
send pictures of cargo manifold and ship tank
sample(s) – Such pictures to be taken with
white background. Master also to advise at
what time intervals such samples were taken
as well as how much cargo has been loaded
and into which tanks. Master also to advise
the surveyor’s and terminal’s reasons for the
apparent contamination.
In any case, pictures of the manifold and a
representative composite tank sample,
against a white background, shall always be
emailed to the Owner/Operator after loading,
in order to evaluate if cleaning is needed for
subsequent voyages.
Cargo Sampling at Discharge port
· Prior commencement of discharging
(cargo tank composite samples)
· On arrival at the discharge port, and
immediately after tank ullages and
temperatures have been carefully
checked, samples should be taken of all
cargo onboard. This sampling is
 usually carried out by the consignee’s
surveyor and the procedure should be
attended by vessel’s officers. It is usual
to take top, middle, lower and bottom
samples, though depending on the
cargo. In the event of cargo that
remains homogeneous during the
voyage, such samples may be mixed
into a composite sample with the
largest proportion coming from the
middle depth of the tank. It is also
desirable to use a water finding
instrument to establish if water is
present.
· Manifold samples taken at the
vessel’s manifold at the start of
discharge

If there is any doubt onboard about when

further samples should be taken, the decision
should always be to take the extra samples.
An experienced officer must always conduct
a visual inspection of cargo samples to assess
any possible contamination.
Because of the vacuum in the lines, obtaining
samples at the manifold during the initial
loading procedure may be challenging. If this
isn't practicable or isn't in accordance with
the Owner's procedures, samples should be
taken from the tank(s) where the loading
began (First foot sample)
If the terminal stops the ship from performing
quality control sampling as necessary for any
reason, this should be noted in the ship's
cargo operations log book, and the
Owner/Operator should be notified as soon as
possible.
Normally, a manifold sample should be
obtained against a closed valve (before the
product enters the ship's line). Only if the
terminal can gravitate or pump at a very slow
rate can this be done.
If the terminal prohibits this, and the ship is
unable to take a manifold sample, a running
sample should be collected as close to the
shore line connection as practicable.

In the ship's cargo operations log, a statement

indicating the location of the sample taking
should be added.
In order to pinpoint the source of any
contaminant if a sample fails any test, a
precise record of the manifold rigging, the
loading periods for each tank (start/stop), and
any foot sampling sequence must be kept.
Only if the Shipper or Charterers desire it,
samples will be taken from each individual
cargo tank.

Cargo Sampling by Surveyors/Shippers:

All "first-foot" samples taken during loading

must be witnessed by a responsible officer of
the vessel, divided, and the vessel must keep
one sealed sample of this or these samples on
board.
Following the completion of loading, a
responsible officer of the vessel must witness
the drawing of samples from the vessel's
cargo tanks or the vessel's composite
sampling. In order to reflect all cargo inside
the tank, samples from cargo tanks must be
taken at three levels: bottom, middle, and top.
If the Surveyor/shippers refuse to comply, the
master must issue a LOP (Letter of Protest)
and immediately notify the Owner/Operator.
In addition to the samples given by the shore
installation for carriage by the vessel and
handed over by the Master to the receivers at
the discharge port, the vessel must maintain
one full sealed set.
· Ensure a clean, dry and new
sampling bottle is used each time for
sampling and the sampling outlet
always flushed before drawing a
sample.
· The closed sampling device should
be thoroughly cleaned, dried and any
traces of previous cargo completely
removed. If several cargoes loaded at
 the same time, then sampler to be
cleaned in between each grade.
· A sample should be drawn
immediately at the manifold on
commencement of loading of every
grade to ensure the correct product is
being received.
· If in doubt STOP LOADING and
re-confirm with terminal / surveyor.
· When loading certain sensitive
cargoes, the Cargo Surveyor, on behalf
of the Suppliers, may take running
foot-samples from the ship’s receiving
tanks for basic visual analysis. Vessel
should retain on set of such samples.
· On completion of sampling the
surveyor will place on board sample
drawn from the ships and shore tanks
for cargo receivers. The vessel shall
retain at least one set. When samples
are landed ashore, the master shall
ensure that a sample land receipt to be
obtained. On every occasion whenever
surveyor takes sample from the ship
tanks, vessel shall ensure to keep one
 set of such samples onboard.
· When the shore is using a line
displacement method for loading, i.e.
when multi-grades are being loaded by
the same lines and on completion of
one grade the same is displaced by the
second grade; samples should also be
drawn at the manifold on completion of
every grade.
· At the discharge port, the Cargo
Surveyors on behalf of the receivers
normally draw samples, from each tank
for analysis. After clearance is received
from ashore, discharge is commenced,
and samples should then be taken at the
manifold at commencement of every
grade.
· If the surveyor / terminal
representative refuses to seal any
samples, endeavour to get the
surveyor’s / terminal representative’s
signature on a letter acknowledging
that the said line and foot samples were
taken in his presence. In absence of
above, the Chief Officer must ensure
 that he himself seals and labels the
samples. He should also make a note
on the letter that the samples were
taken in the Surveyors presence, but he
refused to seal them / sign the letter.
· In all cases where the Surveyor
wishes or is instructed to draw only a
single sample just for the shore
reference, he should be persuaded to
draw an additional one for the vessel’s
retention as well.
· All shore tank / line samples being
delivered to the vessel shall be
accepted for delivery only and a remark
entered on the cargo sampling receipt
stating that “Vessel’s Staff did / did not
attend the Sampling Procedure” (delete
as applicable).
Marking and Storage of Samples:

Marking and storage of samples shall comply

with the Owner/Operator’s instructions.
In case Owner/Operator do not have
procedures/instructions for marking samples,
the below information shall be used as
minimum:
· Vessels name
· Port / Terminal
· Date / Time of Sampling
· Seal number
· Cargo Name and Grade
· Destination and Shipper
· Manifold No. and/or Cargo Tank
No.
· Sample type (top, middle, bottom,
running, composite)
· Name/Rank of Person responsible
for drawing sample

All Cargo samples should be retained on

board for at least 12 months and all Manifold
samples should be retained onboard for 3
months.
Disposal of all samples should be done in
compliance with MARPOL regulations.
Operation and
Maintenance of
Eductor on Ships
What is meant by Eductor ?

The eductor is a simple form of pump that

uses the'venturi effect' to remove air, gas, or
liquid from a certain region. For functioning,
Eductor just requires a motor fluid or driving
fluid, allowing it to be used in any part of the
ship, including dangerous places. A low
pressure is formed inside the eductor when
the driving fluid is passed through it at the
required capacity (which relies on the
eductor's design). The eductor can suck liquid
or gas from a specific location because of the
low pressure or vacuum. Through the driving
fluid discharge, this liquid or gas is pumped
out.
Working Principle of Eductor on Ships

Eductor works on Bernoulli’s principle. It

states that an increase in the speed of a fluid
occurs simultaneously with a reduction in
pressure. Refer to the simplified Bernoulli’s
equation below for an in compressible flow.

Where,
v = Velocity of the fluid
p = Pressure of the fluid, and
ρ = Density of the fluid
From the equation it is clear that, when there
is an increase in velocity, pressure is reduced
and vice versa. In other words it is an
equation for conservation of energy.
Now refer to the piping arrangement shown
below.
The quantity (Q) of fluid flowing through the
pipe is the product of area of cross section of
the pipe (A) and velocity of the fluid (v); or,

Consider a constant flow of fluid in the pipe.

The area of cross section at point 1 of the
pipe is larger than compared to the area at
point 2. Since the discharge quantity is same
throughout the pipe, the velocity of the fluid
increases at point 2 compared to the velocity
at point 1. In other words,

Hence it is understood that because of the

geometry of the pipe shown above, fluid
velocity increases at point 2. According to
Bernoulli’s principle, as fluid velocity
increases pressure reduces. So we have,
As a result, we have a reduced pressure or
vacuum at the point 2.

Operation of Eductor on Ships

The diagram below reveals parts of an

eductor used on ships. Working principle is
same as described above.

The driving fluid (normally seawater or air on

ships) is allowed to pass through the
nozzle(3) and diffuser(2) as shown in the
figure. When the driving fluid achieves
desired pressure and capacity, it starts taking
suction through the suction side.

Normally valves will be connected to driving

fluid inlet, discharge side and suction side of
the eductor. To operate the eductor follow the
procedure below.
· Open driving fluid inlet valve and
discharge valve of the eductor.
· Start the driving fluid pump
(normally fire pump) and regulate the
pressure to obtain necessary capacity
for the operation of the eductor.
Driving pressure varies with the
discharge head.
· Now open suction the valve for
enabling eductor to take suction from
the desired compartment.
· Never open suction valve before
achieving desired capacity of driving
fluid. It may cause back flow of driving
fluid through suction.
· Similarly, before stopping, first
close the suction valve before stopping
 driving fluid. (For the same reason
stated above).
The design parameters of a normal bilge
eductor used on ships are the following:
· Driving Fluid Pressure: 7 kg/cm2
· Driving Capacity: 20 m3/hr
· Suction Head: -7 mAq
· Suction Capacity: 5 m3/hr
· Discharge Head: 6 mAq
· Weight: 20 kg

Performance Curves for Eductor

From the suction flow capacity curve shown

below it can be seen that, for the same
discharge head, suction capacity varies with a
changes in driving fluid pressure. For
example, keeping discharge head as 6 mAq,
suction capacity is 3 m3/hr and 5 m3/hr for
driving pressures of 5 kg/cm2 and 7 kg/cm2
respectively. Increasing driving fluid pressure
above designed pressure will not increase the
design suction capacity. On the other hand,
reduction of driving pressure below design
pressure leads to reduction in suction
capacity. Again, higher discharge head (or
back pressure) results in reduced suction
capacity.

Also, driving flow capacity curve shown

below gives us the driving capacity for a
particular driving pressure.
Maintenance and Troubleshooting of
Eductor on Ships
Clogged Nozzle or Throat

The most common cause of trouble in the

eductor is restriction of fluid flow in the
nozzle or throat with foriegn particles.
Particles lodged in the nozzle or throat can be
removed with a soft material such as wood.
Do not use hard or sharp materials as these
can cause permanent damage to the eductor.
Low Driving Pressure
Driving fluid pressure below specified may
result in loss of suction capacity or even back
flow of fluid to the suction side.
High Back Pressure

Suction capacity will reduce drastically when

the back pressure of driving fluid increases.
This effect can be reduced by increasing the
driving fluid capacity or pressure. So back
pressure always to be monitored during
operation of eductor.

Application of Eductor on Ships

· For creating vacuum in freshwater
generator
· In vacuum toilet systems
· As self-priming system for
centrifugal pumps
· Foam applicator in fire
extinguishing system
· For pumping out water from bosun
store, chain locker, etc.
· As a stripping system for framo
ballast pumps
Maintenance of
Butterfly Valve on
Ships
Butterfly valve allows bi-directional flow of
fluids and provide air tight shutoff at full
rated pressure.

Advantages of Butterfly Valve

· They offer very little resistance to
the fluid when compared to equivalent
globe valves.
· They occupy very little space.
· Can be easily operated by hydraulic
or pneumatic actuators.
· Can be opened or shut by quarter
turn.
· Possible to throttle the flow without
damaging the valve.
· Can be easily installed or replaced.
· Need very little maintenance.
Instructions for Installation of Butterfly
valve
· Verify that the nominal dimensions
of the valve and pipe line matches.
· Spread the flange enough to allow
the valves with disc in closed position.
This prevents the damage of disc and
seat during installation.
· It is recommended that the flange
gaskets are not to be provided.
· Insert the bolts through the two
bottom pipe flange holes to rest valve
on during installation.
· Insert the remaining flange bolts
after aligning the valve with flanges
and tighten bolts partially.
· Adjust open and close operation of
the valve to be easy and smooth.
· Open the valve completely and
tighten the flange bolts evenly with
adequate torque to prevent the leakage
between flange and valve.
The Procedure of Butterfly Valve
Disassembly
While dismantling and reassembly, refer to
the diagram below to comprehend the various
elements of the butterfly valve. Please keep in
mind that pieces 10, 11, and 12 may only be
found in larger butterfly valves. Before
removing the valve from the system, be sure
the pipe line is not under pressure and that the
line contents have been fully emptied.
Release the actuator pressure and isolate the
valve if it has a hydraulic or pneumatic
actuator. Remove the actuator from the
system.
Follow the procedure below:
· Turn the disc (2) to closed position.
Loosen and remove all flange bolting.
Spread the flange if necessary and
remove the valve from the pipeline.
· Remove the taper pins (6) in the
disc (2).
· Remove the packing gland (7).
· Remove the stem (4) by pulling it
out through the valve top plate.
· Remove the disc (2) from the valve
 body (1) by pulling or rolling the disc
out of the seat bore.
· Collapse the seat (3) into the shape
of a round bottom heart and pull it out
of the body grooves.
· Remove the o-rings (6) and (10) and
inspect. Renew if necessary.

Inspection of Butterfly Valve

Before assembly carry out following checks:
· Inspect body for any deformation,
cracks, etc. Any deformation in the
body results in improper positioning of
the seat which leads to poor sealing of
the valve.
· Confirm disc is intact without bend
and perfectly sealing with the seat.
· Check the condition of the seat
(flexibility) and renew if necessary.
· Check for straightness of stem
spindle.
· Check the condition of packing
gland and o-ring, renew if necessary.
 Damaged o-ring causes leakage
through packing gland.

Assembly of Butterfly Valve

· Clean all the parts. Use silicone base
oil or lubricant to facilitate assembly.
· Install bearing bush (9) into the
valve body.
· Insert the seat (3) into the valve
body. Take care to align the holes in
seat and body for easy passage of stem
(4).
· Install disc (2) into the valve seat (3)
with taper pin holes toward the valve
top plate and align stem holes.
· Install packing o-ring (6).
· Install packing gland (7) and secure
it with screws.
· Install bottom cover (11).
· Align taper pin holes in the disc (2)
with the holes in the stem (4) and
install taper pins and tighten securely.
High Voltage System
on Ships
Low voltage systems in ships are those with
voltages up to and equal to 1000 volts,
whereas high voltage systems are those with
voltages greater than 1000 volts. On most
boards, a low voltage system is used.
However, increased power demand from
modern ships' heavy users need an efficient
and excess power supply. A high-voltage
system is the answer.
Why high voltage system used on ships ?
The following advantages of high voltage system explain
why it is preferred over low voltage system.

1. As we mentioned, higher power

demand for heavy consumers on ships is
the first reason to choose high voltage on
ships. High power bow thruster electric
motors, reefer containers in container
ships, cargo cooling machineries in gas
 carriers, etc. are examples of such heavy
power consumers.
2. High voltage machineries have much
reduced size and weight compared to
same power low voltage counterpart.

1. Reduced weight and space for

machinery means increased space for
cargo and more profit.
2. Using electric propulsion further
reduces engine room size, again more
cargo space and profit.
3. Ease of installation and reduced
installation cost.
4. Conductor size is reduced due to low
current flow in high voltage system,
means reduced copper requirement and
low cost.
5. In high voltage system, copper loss or
I²R losses are much reduced when
compared to low voltage system, as the
current flow is less.
6. Overall estimated 1/3 rd reduction in
cost compared to low voltage system.
What are the disadvantages of high voltage
system on ships ?
1. Handling high voltage means high
class insulation to be used on conductors.
(Generally ‘F’ class and above)
2. Higher voltages means greater risk
and hence require stringent safety
procedures.
3. Skilled labour required for handling
high voltage system.
4. Danger of arcing, chances of arc flash
and arc blast.
5. Special switch gears are required to
preventing arcing.

Why machinery working in high voltage

system has reduced weight and size ?
Consider an electric motor consuming power of 500 kW

We have the power, P = √3 V I Cos ∅

In low voltage system, power, P = 500 x 1000 Watts, power

factor, Cos ∅ = 0.8, Voltage, V = 440
P = √3 V I Cos ∅

Current, I = P / (√3 V Cos ∅ )

I = 500000 / (√3 x 440 x 0.8 )

I = 820 Ampere

Similarly, In high voltage system, power, P = 500 x 1000

Watts, power factor, Cos ∅ = 0.8, Voltage, V = 3.3 kV
P = √3 V I Cos ∅

Current, I = P / (√3 V Cos ∅ )

I = 500000 / (√3 x 3.3 x 1000 x 0.8 )

I = 109 Ampere
So for an electric motor, working in high voltage system
draw very low current compared to that of low voltage
system. As current carrying capacity of conductor reduces,
size of the conductor can also be reduced much. This
considerable reduction in conductor material result in
reduced size of machinery and save space for installation.

Why copper loss and iron loss is less in high

voltage system ?
From the above comparison on current flow between a high
voltage system and low voltage system, it is clear that
current draw with high voltage is much lesser. Hence copper
loss or I²R losses and iron loss are considerably lesser.

What is meant by arcing, arc flash and arc

blast in high voltage system ?
· Arcing is the production of
 unintentional electric arc during
opening circuit breaker, isolator or
contactor due to the discharge of
electricity through the medium between
the two contacts. (In fact arcing occurs
during closing the breaker also).
· Arcing also occurs when heavy
current flow to earth during an earth
fault or short circuit fault due to
insulation failure.
· During arcing temperatures at the
arc terminals can go upto 20000 ºC or
more, which is around 4 times the
temperature of sun’s surface.
· The intense light formed at the point
of arc is called as arc flash.
· Instant heating of air surrounding
the arc occurs and conductors
vaporises, resulting in formation of a
high pressure wave. If the pressure
wave is not released, it results in an
explosion called arc blast.

What are the hazards of arc flash and arc

blast ?
 · Permanent damages to the electrical
equipment.
· Irreversible damage to the human
tissue and incurable burns due to very
high temperatures.
· Arc flash produces intense UV light,
resulting permanent or severe damages
to the eye vision.
· Pressure wave from the arc blast
compresses the eyes, resulting
permanent or severe damages to the
eye vision.
· Heavy noise (above 140 dB) may
damage hearing ability, sudden
pressure changes may rupture ear
drums also.
· Arc blast explodes the equipment,
ejecting parts with tremendous force
and velocity. This may result in
damages to personnel and property.
· Flammable materials present in the
vicinity of arc may ignite, causing
secondary fires.
What is the difference between short circuit
and short circuit level ?
· A short circuit is a fault which
occurs when the current in a system
deviates its normal path and start
flowing through an alternate path.
· Since the alternate path offers very
low resistance, the current increases
very much above the normal value.
· Short circuit level (SCL) is the
maximum possible current that flows
through a circuit during a short circuit
fault.
What is the effect of short circuit fault in
high voltage system ?
· High current flow during a short
circuit fault result in increased
temperatures, which damages
insulation, produces high thermal and
mechanical stresses in the system, may
cause arcing, arc flash and arc blast.
What are the methods adopted to prevent ill
effects of short circuit fault ?
· Protective relay installed in the
system immediately trips and isolates
the equipment during a short circuit
fault within a short time. This prevents
the effects of high current flow through
the circuit.
· The generators, cables, equipment,
switch gears, etc. associated with the
system are designed to withstand the
heavy current during short circuit fault
for this short duration of time.
Insulation Resistance
Tests of High Voltage
Equipment
Importance of Insulation Resistance (IR)

Generators, electricity distribution lines,

transformers, switch gear, and consumers
make up the high voltage system. Large
electric motors for propulsion, air
conditioning compressors, bow thrusters, and
other users are found here. Insulation
resistance is the most important measure for
determining the overall condition of electrical
equipment. First and foremost, ensure that IR
readings are checked between phases and
between phases and the earth on a regular
basis. Additionally, these IR values are saved
for future use. In addition, high-voltage
equipment is typically designed to have an
usable insulating life of at least 20 years. As a
result, proper operation within rated power,
temperature, and periodic maintenance assure
the equipment's long life.

Insulation resistance is evaluated in high

voltage systems using a 5000 volt DC megger
for voltages up to 6.6 kV. Insulation
resistance is also tested under the following
conditions.

· Routines test as per planned

maintenance system (PMS)
· After a major repair of the
equipment, and
· Troubleshooting purposes

What is the procedure / precautions for

measuring insulation resistance of a high
voltage equipment ?
· First of all, disconnect the power
supply to the high voltage (HV)
equipment by opening circuit breaker
and opening isolator.
· In addition, confirm that all the
phases are dead using an approved live
line tester. Also make sure to check the
live line tester for proper functioning
using the testing tool provided along
with the same.
· Close the earthing switch now and
make sure all the conductors are
earthed.
· Now connect the insulation
resistance (IR) tester to the conductor,
with safety earth connection ON. This
is to ensure that the operator is not in
contact with any unearthed conductor
during insulation resistance (IR)
measurement.
· After connecting insulation
resistance (IR) tester to the circuit,
safety earth is to be disconnected.
· Now insulation resistance (IR) test
is applied and recorded.
· After completion of the testing,
safety earth is to be reconnected.
· Now disconnect the insulation
resistance (IR) tester from the circuit.
 · This safety measure to be followed
for each separate IR test.

Why normal insulation resistance (IR)

values are unreliable for high voltage
machinery ?
· IR values taken for a machinery at
different temperatures are unreliable,
especially when the temperature
difference is more than 10 °C.
· Also for high voltage system, it
takes to stabilise the IR values. So
instantaneous readings may lead to
false interpretations.

What is meant by Polarization Index (PI) ?

· Polarization Index (PI) value is the
ratio between the insulation resistance
(IR) value measured after the
application of the test voltage
continuously for 10 minutes to the IR
value measured after 1 minute of
application.
 · PI = (IR value after 10 minutes) /
(IR value after 1 minute)
· PI readings are less sensitive to
changes in temperatures.
· It will take some time for leakage
currents while IR testing to attain
saturation, hence reading is taken after
10 minutes.
· PI value of 2 or more is considered
as satisfactory. If the PI value is less
than 1.5, equipment to be used only
after improving PI value.
· An electronic merger tester is
essential for PI test. Because hand
driven merger testers will not be able to
give the steady test voltage for long
time.

Why it is necessary to measure bolted bus

bar joint resistance ?
· High current flows through the bus
bar. Any resistance in the bus bar cause
resistive heating (I²R heating).
· Same situation is applicable for any
 joints in the circuit.
· This resistive heating produces hot
spots or over heated areas. It is unsafe
and may gradually reduce useful life
time of the equipment.
How to measure bolted bus bar joint
resistance ?
· A normal ohm meter only drives
small milli ampere (mA) current
through the circuit. So it is not desired
for measuring bolted busbar joint
resistance.
· Special low resistance micro ohm
meter (also known as ducter) is
normally used for measurement.
· A calibrated current is allowed to
pass through the circuit (say 10 Amps).
Also the voltage drop across the circuit
is measured. Hence resistance can be
measured from the formula, R = V / I
· For a healthy bus bar, joint
resistance is about few milli ohms
(mΩ).
How the hot spots in the bus bars or
surrounding area is checked ?
· It is necessary to keep the system
running live to analyse any hot spots.
· A recording infra red camera can
take thermal images of different parts
of the system from a safe distance.
· These thermal images are processed
in a computer program to display hot
spots and temperature variations.

Earthing Down in
High Voltage System
Working in a high-voltage system
necessitates understanding of the idea of
earthing down. It's an extra layer of
protection for high-voltage systems. Earthing
guarantees that all electrical energy held in
the circuit insulation is securely discharged to
the ground. As a result, earthing assures that
electrical equipment that has been separated
is safe to use.
Note: Always check the circuit using ‘live line tester’
after isolating the circuit. Earthing down to be carried
out only after confirming that the circuit is dead.

Importance of Earthing Down

Higher insulation resistance is required in high voltage
system. This results in higher insulation capacitance. We
have the equation for stored energy in the system,

E = ( C x V² ) /
2
Where, E = Stored Energy in Joules
C = Insulation Capacitance
V = Voltage
In the formula square of the voltage is used. We know that
the voltage itself is very high in HV system. These factors
lead to heavy stored energy in the system which will be life
threatening.

In a high voltage system there are two types of earthing.

1. Circuit Earthing
2. Busbar Earthing
Circuit Earthing
All the three phases or conductors are connected to a heavy
earth connection after circuit breaker has been racked out.
This is carried out using a key, which is then locked in the
key safe. It is impossible to rack in the circuit breaker
without removing this earthing down connection using the
same key.

Busbar Earthing
When we have to work on part of the busbar itself, make
sure all the incoming sources of electricity are completely
isolated. These sources are generator cables, transformer
connections, bus tie breaker, etc. Each phase earthing down
to be done using portable leads. These portable leads give a
visible confirmation of earthing down.
Lambda Controller
and Jet Assist System
on Ships
The lambda controller's goal is to prevent the
injection of more fuel into the combustion
chamber of a ship's auxiliary engine than can
be burnt during a load increase. Controlling
the relationship between the fuel index and
the charge air pressure accomplishes this. The
Lambda controller serves as a stop cylinder
as well.

Advantages of Lambda Controller

The lambda controller has the following advantages:

1. Reduction of visible smoke in case of

sudden momentary load increases on
auxiliary engines.
2. Improved load ability.
3. Less fouling of the engine’s exhaust
 gas ways.
4. Limitation of fuel oil index during
starting procedure.
Principle of Lambda Controller

Figure above illustrates the controller’s operation mode. In

case of a momentary load increase, the regulating device will
increase the index on the injection pumps and hereby the
regulator arm (1) is turned, the switch (2) will touch the
piston arm (3) and be pushedb downwards, whereby the
electrical circuit will be closed.
Thus the solenoid valve (4) opens. This valve is supplied
with compressed air and the same is supplied to assist the
turbocharger. When this jet system is activated, the
turbocharger accelerates and increases the charge air
pressure, thereby pressing the piston (3) backwards in the
lambda cylinder (5). When the lambda ratio is satisfactory,
the jet system will be deactivated. At a 50% load change the
system will be activated for about 3-8 seconds.

If the system is activated more than 10 seconds, the solenoid

valve will be shut off and there will be a remote signal alarm
for “jet system failure”.

Fuel Oil Limiting During Start Procedure

The lambda controller is utilised as an index
limiter during the start procedure. As a result,
significant smoke production during the start
procedure is avoided, and the regulating
device cannot over-react. During the start-up
operation, the jet system is disabled until the
engine has reached roughly 110 RPM.
Pneumatic Control
Systems on Ships
What are the advantages and
disadvantages of both electrical and
pneumatic control systems on ships ?

Electrical Control System

Advantages

1. No air compressor and associated

machinery required.
2. High efficiency since there is no
leakages.
3. Instantaneous response.
4. Very little affected by normal
temperature variations.
5. Very accurate.
6. Electric cables are cheap and easy to
lay.
Disadvantages
 1. The system require uninterrupted
power supply with no voltage
fluctuations.
2. Standby batteries required in case of
power failure.

1. There is risk of fire due to

overheating. Expensive intrinsically safe
/ explosion proof equipment may be
required.
2. Moisture may cause damage to the
system.
3. Damage readily occurs in the event of
a fire.

Pneumatic Control System

Advantages

1. Not affected by ship’s power supply

variations for short term.
2. No heat generated and hence no risk
of fire.
3. Actuators are cheaper and accurate
than electric systems.
 4. Simple control air piping system.
Disadvantages

1. Require air compressor and associated

systems.
2. A clean, dry and oil free supply of
good quality air is essential for
satisfactory operation of the system.
3. Good quality air require driers, filters
with drains, etc. which increases
maintenance.
4. May have transmission lags in large
systems.

What is meant by ‘fail safe’ and ‘fail set’ in

a pneumatic control systems ?
When the control air supply fails, the
pneumatic actuator can be configured to
move to a position that permits the plant to
continue operating safely, such as completely
open or fully closed. This is referred to as
fail-safe. In the case of a jacket cooling water
system, for example, if the control air fails,
the actuator fully opens, allowing jacket
water to reach the cooler without bypass. On
the other hand, when a fuel oil control valve
for a boiler fails, it closes fully. This protects
the plant's safety.
Control air supply failure in certain other
systems locks the position of the valve at the
time of failure. This is referred to as a fail set.
The benefit of this method is that the plant
becomes stable, allowing for a regular
shutdown or a period of waiting for the
control air supply to be restored. Boiler water
level control is one example of such a system.

Explain two step control action, ratio

control and proportional plus integral
control with applications on ships ?
The simplest form of control is two-step
control, which assumes one or two predefined
states, such as ON or OFF for a switch or
OPEN or CLOSE for a valve. Because there
can be a significant difference between the
measured and intended values, a pressure
switch regulating the beginning air
compressor is an acceptable form of control.
Hydrophore pumps, for example, cut in and
out depending on the hydrophore pressure.

One variable is kept at a set ratio to another

variable in ratio management. The ratio
between the air and the fuel in a boiler
combustion control system must be regulated
to ensure proper combustion. Dampers adjust
the air flow to match the fuel flow.
What is the effect of a leaking proportional
bellows or measurement bellows in
pneumatic control systems ?
When proportional bellows begin to leak,
they lose their ability to introduce negative
feedback. As a result, the controller's gain
increases, and the control valve begins to
move to extreme locations, causing
instability.
When the measuring bellows leak, the flapper
is unable to move towards the nozzle, and the
desired or set value is altered, resulting in
system hunting.
Troubleshooting
Alarm Monitoring
and Control System
on ships
Faults in Alarm Monitoring and Control
System
The alarm monitoring and control system on the ship may
give false alarms and incorrect data printouts. These faults
could be:

1. Localized to a particular area of

engine operation or
2. General to the engine room
When the alarms are specific to a certain area of the engine
room it would be suspected that the following faults could be
present

· Cable fault: If the cable connecting

the sensors with the control room were
damaged, the resulting short/open
circuits could generate false alarms
 · Control card/panel fault: The
alarms could be grouped within a
certain alarm or monitoring panel, and
there could be a defect within this
panel.
· External interference: Machinery
could be operating in the suspect area,
which is poorly screened, and the
resulting interference could be
transmitted via the instrument cables to
the monitoring panels.

When the alarms are general to the whole

engine room, then the main supply to the
alarm and monitoring panel would be
checked for:
· Earth faults: A combination of
earth faults could affect the earth
potential and hence the reading of the
instrumentation.
· Supply voltage level: The
monitoring circuit would use low 24V
supply, and this would need to be at the
correct level without any voltage ripple
 present.

The following action should be taken to

ensure continued safe operation of the vessel
if the defects with alarm monitoring and
control system were general to the engine
room.
· The problem with intermittent
alarms and incorrect printouts would be
that the engineer on duty would be
unable to rely on the information given
to him by the remote instrumentation
and alarm panel. Hence a greater use
would need to be taken of the local
readings from pressure gauges and
thermometers.
· This would mean that the UMS
operation would be stopped and watch-
keeping practices with a manned
engine room would be commenced.
The watch keepers would be instructed
to complete a full manual log of the
various operational parameters of
pressure, temperature and the various
 tank levels. This manual log would be
taken every watch period of four hours.
· The engineering staff would be
divided between the various watch
duties, ensuring that all watch keepers
were certified and had the appropriate
duty and rest periods assigned to them.
· Any machinery units requiring
manual control would have their
operation explained to all engineers,
and a procedural checklist compiled for
the operation of all such machinery.

Troubleshooting Alarm Monitoring and

Control System
The possible faults stated earlier would be the earth fault or
supply irregularity. The earth fault could be identified by
observing the 24V distribution panel that would have an
earth detection unit fitted. If an earth fault was indicated on
this panel then

· A positive earth would be traced by

disconnecting the supply fuses in turn
to parts of the engine room to identify
the problem area
· A negative earth would require that
each instrument have its earth wire
disconnected and left disconnected
until the fault is traced. This would
mean the loss of many of the
instruments within the engine room and
could only be carried out when watch
keeping duties were active. Each wire
would be marked to ensure correct
replacement.
· The supply irregularity could be
identified by using an oscilloscope,
which would show both the level of
voltage present and if any supply ripple
was present. A simple AVO meter
would also indicate correct voltage
levels. The earth fault would be
rectified by locating the
cable/insulation defect and then
replacing the cable, or repairing the
defect by re-insulating the damaged
area. The supply irregularity would be
rectified by replacing the charging unit
of the 24V DC supply, and/or replacing
any defective batteries.
Fuel Injection
Arrangement on
Large Two Stroke
Engines
The fuel injection system for a large two-
stroke marine diesel engine used on ships is
shown below. High-pressure fuel is routed
from the fuel pump through a double-skinned
pipe to a distribution block at the cylinder
head, and then through three double-skinned
pipes to the cylinder cover's evenly spaced
fuel injectors.
To assure the exact location of the nozzle,
studs or dowel pins are used to locate the fuel
injectors. As indicated in the diagram, fuel oil
circulation lines connect fuel injectors to the
fuel oil return line. When the main engine is
idle, this helps to keep the injectors at a
higher temperature.

Importance of Fuel Injection Arrangement

Uniflow scavenging is used in normal

crosshead engines with a central exhaust
valve. Three fuel injectors are installed
circumferentially around the cylinder head
due to the centrally located exhaust valve.
The atomizing nozzles, which differ from
those on a centrally located fuel injector in
design. These nozzles are made to inject
gasoline into the air swirl without making
contact with the liner. Although some engines
use two injectors per cylinder, a single fuel
injector could not be used because it would
result in poor air-fuel mixing, inefficient
combustion, and localised high temperatures.
The charge air swirls around the cylinder axis
due to the tangential design of the scavenge
ports, which encourages greater mixing of the
fuel from the three injectors and air. As a
result, temperature distribution is more
uniform, combustion is more efficient, and
exhaust valve temperatures are lower.

Fuel Oil Leak Off Arrangement

Between the fuel pump and the injector,

sheathed or double skinned fuel pipes are
employed as a safety measure to prevent fire
in the event of a fuel pipe failure. They're a
must for engines that run under UMS
conditions. They must be properly installed
and sealed against external leakage at the fuel
pump and injector to be functional. For more
information, see the figure below.

A leak off at the high pressure fuel pipe or

from the annular space is led to an alarm pot
or leak off tank, and subsequently to the fuel
oil drain tank, through a leak off line. The
pipe's outer wrapping prevents oil from
leaking into the environment. This leak-off
tank or alarm pot can be applied to all units or
to each cylinder individually. A little quantity
of leaking is sent to the fuel oil drain tank via
an aperture (small opening). When there are a
lot of leaks, the flow through the orifice won't
be enough to drain all of the oil. As the level
of the leak off tank rises, the float in the leak
off tank rises with it. An alarm circuit is
linked to the float. If the alarm goes off, the
engineer must locate the leaking pipe and fix
it as needed.
Investigation on Top
End Bearing Failure
for Main Engine on
Ships
Assessment of Top End Bearing Failure
The following information would be useful in assessing the
possible causes of the failure:

· History of all work carried out on

the bearings, to try and establish if any
possible pattern or links exist.
· History of bearing clearances, to
investigate whether the clearances have
been maintained at the correct values.
· Readings of the power developed by
the engine, to establish if the engine
has been operating at overload.
· Readings of the maximum
combustion pressures developed by
 each cylinder, to establish if the load on
the top end bearing has been excessive.
· Readings of the lubricating oil
analysis, to determine if the oil
condition is acceptable.

Causes of Top End Bearing Failure

Following are the possible causes of top end bearing failure:

1. Wiping of the bearing due to high

bearing loads caused by excessive
cylinder pressure being developed
2. Insufficient lubricating oil supply due
to supply pump failure, failure of the oil
piping linkage, oil filter blockage

1. Impurities within the lubricating oil,

causing abrasion of the bearing and pin
surface
2. Corrosion of the bearing and pin due
to oil contamination with acidic products
and/or water
3. Wiping of the bearing due to low
viscosity of the oil caused by excessive
 oil temperatures and/or water
4. Insufficient bearing clearances within
the bearing, causing excessive oil
temperatures and hence low oil viscosity
5. Excessive bearing clearances within
the bearing, causing low oil generated
pressures due to excessive bearing end
leakage

Prevention of Top End Bearing Failure

Prevention of all of the above causes will reduce the
probability of future failures. Hence the following
procedures would be instigated:

1. Bi- monthly monitoring of all bearing

clearances, to ensure these are within
normal limits
2. Bi -monthly oil analysis of the oil by
the oil manufacturer, to ensure oil quality
is ensured
3. Weekly oil tests on-board for water
contamination, dirt levels, viscosity and
BN levels, to ensure that the oil condition
is acceptable.
4. Monthly checks of the lubricating oil
 low pressure alarm and trip, to ensure
that the engine is protected at all times
5. Three times a day recording of the
supply oil pressure and temperature, to
monitor the supply oil
6. Monthly monitoring of the cylinder
pressures using indicator cards, to
prevent bearing overload
7. Closely monitor any overhaul and
repair work carried out on the bearings to
ensure that the correct procedure was
being followed, and that the re-assembly
was correct
8. Monitor any replacement parts that
have been used to ensure they are the
correct specification
9. Monthly checks of the general
crankcase to ensure all locking devices
are still in place.
Ignition Delay of
Fuel
Ignition Delay and Ignition Quality

The time between fuel injection and ignition

is known as the ignition delay. The fuel is
combined with hot compressed air and
vaporises during this period. After the
ignition delay, the gasoline ignites
spontaneously. More fuel is injected and
vaporises inside the combustion chamber
when the ignition delay is increased. This
causes shock waves and high surface
temperatures as a result of a quick explosion
or combustion. This can result in high piston
crown loading, broken piston rings, material
deterioration owing to hot gas flow erosion,
and so on. Increased NOx emissions are also
caused by greater temperatures inside the
combustion area.
The ignition quality of a fuel is a measure of
how easily it will ignite. For distillate fuels,
the cetane number is used to calculate it. The
greater the number, the easier it is for the fuel
inside the engine to ignite. The Calculated
Carbon Aromaticity Index is used to
determine the ignition quality of residual fuel
(CCAI). It's an empirical formula based on
the fuel's density and viscosity. CCAI is
usually in the 800-870 range. The higher the
CCAI, the longer it takes for the fuel to start
the engine. In other words, given a fuel with a
low CCAI, ignition delay is small.

Ignition Quality and Engine Performance

Changing to a fuel with a better ignition

quality or a lower CCAI index results in early
fuel ignition, higher peak pressures, excessive
load on bearings (particularly cross head
bearings), and engine power loss. Similarly,
utilising a fuel with a higher CCAI index or
lower ignition quality will result in late
ignition, resulting in afterburning that
damages the exhaust valve, fouls the
turbocharger, burns the piston crown and
liner, and results in a loss of engine power.

Variable injection timing (VIT) or fuel

quality setting (FQS) levers are used on two-
stroke slow-speed engines and some medium-
speed engines on ships to control the
injection start to account for the ignition
delay. These operations must be carried out
according to the manufacturer's instructions,
including calculating the CCAI index of the
gasoline to be used.
Reduction Gearbox
on Medium Speed
Engines on Ships
The diagram below depicts a simple single
reduction gearbox that can reduce speeds
from 750 to 150 rev/min (i.e. 5:1 reduction).
Two journal bearings for shaft support and a
thrust bearing to absorb propeller thrust
would be found in the main wheel. Simple
journal bearing supports would be required
for the input shaft.

The gearings and bearings would be lubricated by a self

contained lube oil system, with the gears being supplied by
sprayers.
Maintenance on Reduction Gearbox
The gear wheels are made of forged steel with post-
machining hardening to reduce gear wear. A horizontal
machining procedure known as "Hobbing" is used to create
the gear tooth profile. To form the tooth shape, the tooth
profile is formed on the hobbing tool, which is then spun and
passes across the forged gear wheel. The gear wheel must be
carefully turned during the hobbing operation since marine
gearing has a helix angle for multiple gear tooth meshing in
service. The gear wheel is hardened using the induction
hardening technique after the gear profile is machined.

Gear inspections should be performed with as little

disruption to the gear system or alignment as possible. As a
result, the condition of the gear teeth will be utilised to
determine whether the gearing system is in good working
order. The items listed below would be examined:

· Remove inspection covers to

examine wear on gear teeth.
· Marks along length of tooth could
be due to abrasive particles within the
oil, so the oil sample report would be
checked.
· Marks or pitting at the pitch line
would indicate either overload or
inferior properties of the lube oil, such
as low viscosity. The previous
 operating records of the gearbox and
the oil test results would be checked.
· Marks at one edge of the gear tooth
could indicate gearing mis-alignment.
The clearance at the journal bearings
would be recorded, or dismantled if
clearance measurements are difficult.
· The thrust bearing would be
removed for inspection on the running
face, and the pivot on the back of the
bearing. Any defects could require a
bearing replacement.
· The oil filters would be removed to
look for particles, and to check the
magnetic plug fitted at the filter core.
· The oil sprayers would be examined
to security, and function testing using
the auxiliary oil pump
Crankcase Oil for
Trunk Piston Engine
– Marine
Engineering
Properties required of a crankcase oil which is to be used for
a trunk piston main engine are the following:

Detergency
This keeps the crankcase, bearings and piston rings area
clean from sludge and carbonaceous deposits. As the trunk
piston engine suffers from a higher level of contamination
into the lube oil system than a slow speed engine, then higher
levels of detergency are important.

Dispersency
The dirt which is removed by the cleaning function is kept in
suspension by the dispersency additives. These prevent the
build up of sludge in the cooler regions of the engine.

Alkalinity
The level of this property is determined by the level of
sulphur within the fuel oil. The additive reduces the
corrosive effects which result when the products of
combustion condense on the cooler surfaces.

Anti wear
This additive is provided to reduce the wear on the highly
loaded areas of the engine, such as the camshaft and gearing
areas.

Anti-emulsion
This property allows the oil to be cleaned in a purifier and
allow any water contamination to be removed.

Stable Viscosity
This is ensured by the use of viscosity stabilisers or
improvers which reduce the rate of fall in oil viscosity when
the oil temperature increases.

Clean burning
As the oil is used to lubricate the piston ring pack, the oil
should burn without leaving a residue.

Oil Sampling of Trunk Piston Engine

The engine should be running at normal load for at least one
hour. The sampling point should be at the main LO entry
point into the engine. The sampling point should be flushed
through and when hot oil issues, a one litre container of oil
should be drawn. The oil should be decanted into the
sampling container, which is then sealed for analysis.

Shore Analysis Results of Lube Oil

Water in oil
Contamination source should be identified and cured. The
water in the oil could be reduced by purifier, if the sump
charge is large enough for a continuous purifier operation.

Falling alkalinity
Water contamination should be checked as when the water is
removed then the alkalinity reserve will also fall. If water is
not present then a small addition into the crankcase should be
considered. The sulphur content of the fuel should be
checked to ensure that the right grade of oil is being used.

Viscosity has fallen

Fuel or water contamination should be suspected. If fuel oil
is found within the oil, heating the sample to smell the fuel
contamination or testing for the flash point if this is available
on-board. Source of the fuel contamination should be
identified and cured. Note the diesel oil will reduce and fuel
oil will increase the lube oil viscosity.

Carbon content has risen

This indicates that the carbon from the combustion process is
contaminating the lube oil. Over the short term, regular filter
cleaning is the only course of action open to the engineer, but
over the long term the piston rings should be changed, and
the fuel injection equipment overhauled.
Checking Fuel Pump
Timing and Quantity
on Ships
Checking the Timing of the Fuel Pump
The most common way to check fuel pump
timing is to follow the manufacturer's
directions for setting the fuel pump when the
motor is turned off. A tiny window is located
at the base of the fuel pump for Bosch type
fuel pumps. An etched line may be observed
on the spring holding of the fuel pump within
this window. The spring holder is pushed up
when the cam follower is displaced by the
cam. The fuel pump plunger is at the point
where it is just covering the spill ports when
the engraved line corresponds with the line
on the fuel pump body.
As a result, the fuel pump is now beginning
to pressurise the trapped fuel volume, and
fuel delivery will begin. As a result, the
engine is rotated to the point where the two
lines intersect, signalling the start of gasoline
delivery. The flywheel would be used to
determine the actual crank angle.

Changing the timing of the fuel pump

If the fuel pump timing needs to be adjusted,
the shims beneath the fuel pump will be
adjusted as well. When shims are added, the
fuel pump injects later, and vice versa when
the shims are removed. The fuel pump is
mounted on the fuel rack, and the fuel control
lever is set to the same values as the other
gasoline pumps. This should provide the
same amount of fuel. When the governor is
set to no-fuel, the fuel pump rack should
always display zero, ensuring that the engine
will stop when needed.
Indicator cards would be necessary to
measure the actual fuel quantity delivered
from each fuel pump. The power developed
would be determined by taking indicator
cards from each cylinder and using a
planimeter to determine the area of the power
card for mechanically taken indicator cards,
or straight from the software for electronic
cylinder units.
Variable Injection Timing (VIT) Fuel
Pump Inspection and Adjustment
With the engine running, a variable injection
fuel pump can be adjusted for fuel timing.
The fuel pump timing can thus be checked
while the engine is operating using a draw
card style of indicator card. The position of
the fuel when it has ignited can be observed
on this type of card by either.

· The point at which the pressure-

volume curve moves away from the
normal compression curve, or
· The point on the pressure derivative
 curve on the electronic indicator when
the rate of pressure rise suddenly
increases. The derivative curve makes
the point of fuel ignition much easier to
determine.
Once the point of fuel timing is determined, then the fuel
pump can be adjusted either

§ Collectively for the whole engine by

adjusting the sensor which determines
the quantity of fuel timing advancement
by measuring the position of the fuel
rack position. Any adjustment of this
sensor will advance or retard the fuel
timing of all fuel pumps at once.
§ Individually by adjusting the linkage
from the individual fuel timing servo to
the fuel pump. This adjustment will
adjust the fuel timing of an individual
fuel pump.
§ The fuel pumps would need to be
adjusted collectively, when the fuel
combustion quality reduces. Hence if
combustion was slower than normal,
possibility due to a high level of
Conradson Carbon or Ashalptenes, then
 the fuel timing could be advanced. This
will allow more time for combustion,
and should reduce exhaust temperatures
and smoke levels. When fuel timing is
advanced it is important that the
cylinder maximum pressures are
measured to ensure that they are not
excessive.
§ Should the ignition quality of the fuel
be lower than normal, then the initial
raise in cylinder pressure when
combustion occurs will be higher than
normal, and may even lead to bearing
damage. In these cases the fuel timing
would be retarded to depress the rate of
pressure rise.
§ Individual fuel pump timing adjustment
would be required when the fuel pump
is internally worn. This will cause a
lower amount of fuel to be injected, but
also later in the engine cycle. Hence the
performance of the pump could be
regained by increasing the quantity
delivered at the fuel rack, and advancing
the individual fuel pump timing.
Fuel Oil Sampling
During Bunkering –
Marine Engineering
Fuel Oil Testing On-board

During the bunkering process, one of the

engineering employees who is not needed to
supervise or monitor the bunkering operation
could do on-board fuel testing. Tests such as
the ones below could be carried out:
§ Water content
§ Viscosity
§ Density
§ Compatibility
§ Check for abrasive fines

Although the tests are not as accurate as a shore based

laboratory the tests would indicate whether the fuel loaded is
the same as the fuel quality ordered and therefore the bunker
receipt.
Importance of Fuel Oil Sampling
A representative sample would be obtained by a permanent
sampling probe fitted close to the bunkering manifold. The
rate of sampling would ensure that a sampling quantity
required is taken over the full duration of the bunkering
operation. The sample container is then thoroughly mixed
before being poured into new, clean containers. The
containers are then sealed and signed before being sent to the
shore testing facility.

Effects of Contaminants in the Fuel

Oxides of nitrogen are formed when the nitrogen in the fuel,
and some of the nitrogen in the air combines with the oxygen
present during combustion in the heat of the combustion
process. The quantity of NOx produced is dependent on the
temperature and duration of combustion, and the quantity of
oxygen present in the combustion space.

Carbon monoxide is formed when the level of oxygen within

the combustion space is insufficient to provide complete
combustion to carbon dioxide. As usually there is ample
oxygen within a diesel engine, readings of carbon monoxide
indicate the present of pockets of fuel rich mixtures burning
locally without enough oxygen, hence poor fuel/air mixing
from incorrect atomization and air turbulence will cause
carbon monoxide levels to rise. Sulphur oxides are formed
when the sulphur in the fuel reacts with the oxygen to form
sulphur monoxide and dioxide. Increasing levels of fuel
sulphur content will increase the sulphur oxides produced.
In order to reduce the effects of the sulphurous products the
following can be used:

§ Reduce the level of sulphur in the fuel

by using low sulphur fuels
§ Counteract the condensation rate of the
sulphur oxides by elevating metal
temperatures at the cylinder walls, and
the skin temperature of the exhaust gas
boiler tubes
§ Use of high alkaline lubricating oils to
counteract-neutralise the acids formed
on condensation.
§ Increased frequency of cleaning of the
exhaust gas boiler and turbocharger gas
turbine
Fuel Injector Needle
Valve Seizure –
Marine Engineering
When the fuel injector needle valve seizes,
this can be when the needle is
1. Shut – causing nil or a smaller amount
of fuel to be injected (on multi valved
engines) causing low cylinder power
developed.
2. Partly open – causing less fuel to be
injected and the injector to dribble
causing exhaust smoke and low cylinder
power developed.
3. Open – causing the injector to inject
earlier and the injector to dribble.
The possible cause could be either:
1. Overheating of the fuel injector due to
inadequate cooling
2. Abrasives in the fuel from inadequate
 fuel preparation
The following actions to be taken to
minimize the seizing of fuel injector needle
valve:
1. Take a sample of the fuel entering the
engine and send it for analysis to
investigate possible contamination from
metal elements
2. Remove all of the other injectors at
the earliest opportunity to examine for
defects and to test the injectors.

1. Examine the injector tips looking for

overheating. If this is present, then check
the operation of the injector cooling
system (if fitted) and the cylinder head
cooling system. Inspect the same system
for internal fouling of the heat transfer
surfaces. Ensure that the high temp
alarms are functioning.
2. Ensure that the flow rates for the fuel
oil purifiers are as low as possible whilst
still maintaining the service tank level. If
a gravity disc is used, check that the
 largest sized disc is fitted without causing
water seal failure. Both of these actions
will reduce the level of contamination in
the purifier clean phase outlet.
3. If two settling tanks are available,
ensure that the filling of one settling tank
differ from that with the active FO
separator suction. This will maximize
fuel settling time and provide cleaner fuel
at the purifier suction.
4. Check the condition of the cold and
hot fuel oil filters for physical damage,
that would allow dirt to pass through the
filtering unit.
5. Check the correct operation of the fuel
injector test unit, with regard to the
correct calibration/protective oil.
Marine Engineering
Study Materials
Causes of Exhaust Valve Failures
Exhaust valve is prone to

§ Vanadium induced metal loss at the

base of the valve
§ Cold corrosion of the valve stem due to
sulphurous effects
§ Impact damage at the valve sealing face
causing eventual valve burn out
§ Hot corrosion induced metal loss at the
sealing face causing valve burn out

To resist the corrosion effects of vanadium

and salt, stellite is employed as the seating
material for exhaust valves. These elements
generate extremely corrosive compounds at
high temperatures, attacking the metal oxide
layer and eventually causing metal loss and
valve sealing failure. Reduced compression
pressure and, finally, total engine power loss
on that cylinder can result. When compared
to ordinary steel valves, stellite will lessen
corrosive effects by 50%.

How to Prevent Exhaust Valve Failures

During exhaust valve overhaul, corrosive

areas must be discovered if any exist, as these
could indicate a likely reason of failure.
Changes in engine operating elements such as
speed and load, as well as operational data
such as turbocharger speeds, boost air
pressure, and cylinder exhaust gas
temperatures, were evaluated to explore
corrosion. Fuel oil samples should be sent to
the Fuel Testing Lab for a complete analysis,
particularly the levels of fuel vanadium and
sodium. Other probable problems to be
checked during periodic overhauling include
improper valve clearances and valve carbon
buildup. If the level of impurities in the fuel
is higher, the valve overhaul period should be
kept to a minimum.
At greater operating temperatures, the
corrosive effects on the exhaust valve are
accelerated. Contact temperatures must be
regulated to reduce corrosion and hence the
risk of valve burnout. The valve seat is
cooled locally to achieve this (using cooling
passages within the seat on the larger valves,
and cooling of the cylinder head on the
smaller valves). When the valve is closed, the
seat cools the valve.
Fatigue Failure on
Ships – Marine
Engineering
Fatigue is the failure of a component under
varying stress, hence all components exposed
to alternating stress must either have a set
service lifespan or be subjected to a level of
fluctuating stress that is below the material's
fatigue limit. The relationship between
applied stress (S) and the number of stress
cycles can be determined by testing materials
(N). These tests result in the S-N curves
shown below, which attempt to define the
number of cycles until failure.

For the two variables of S and N, it can be

shown that as stress levels rise, the time to
failure decreases, and the component fails
sooner. Similarly, if the component is worked
for an excessive number of cycles, it will fail
at the typical stress level.

Fatigue Failure and Material Defects

When a material fault forms, the degree of

stress in the immediate vicinity of the flaw
increases. The location of the crack, its
direction to the applied stress, and the amount
of applied stress in the material will all
influence the level of stress increase. Any
material flaw that increases the stress level
will normally cause the component to fail
sooner.

Fatigue Failure on a Bedplate Transverse

Girder
The following factors would increase the stress imposed on
the girder, and would therefore increase the likelihood of
cracking:

1. Engine operating with excessive

cylinder pressures
 2. Tie bolt tension incorrect, either too
high or low
3. Jacking bolts over-tensioned on the
Sulzer type slow speed engines
4. Crankshaft alignment poor, either due
to local bearing failure or poor chock
support, or vessel hull deformation
To minimise these effects the following routine checks
should be carried out:

1. Regular monthly checks of engine

load using power cards, and measuring
the cylinder peak pressures using peak
pressure indicators or power cards
2. Regular yearly checks of the tie bolt
tension
3. Regular yearly checks of the tension
of the main bearing jack bolts
4. Regular three monthly checks of
crankshaft alignment.
5. By preventing an increase the applied
stress on the girder, the likelihood of
cracking is greatly reduced, however
regular visual checks should also be
carried out beneath the main bearing.
Reduction of
Scavenge Pressure
after Turbocharger
Overhaul
After a turbocharger overhaul, the reduced
turbocharger performance and, as a result, the
reduced engine output is strong proof of
faulty overhauling process and installation.
The following are possible defects during
overhauling:
§ The compressor axial clearances set
during the bearing reassembly are not
correct and the rotor could be fouling
the casing, hence the rotational speed
would fall. If the turbocharger rotates at
a slower rate, then there will be less air
delivered and hence lower pressure.
§ The turbocharger casings have not been
correctly reassembled, causing air
 leakage. This leakage would reduce the
pressure generated at the turbocharger
outlet
§ The turbocharger filters were not
cleaned, and the restriction would cause
an air flow restriction. The pressure
ratio is known across the turbocharger at
certain operating speeds, would cause
the discharge pressure to fall if the
intake or suction pressure is low.
The following engine operational information
should be gathered in order to detect the
possible cause of the problem with
turbocharger overhaul:

§ Engine power
§ Scavenge and exhaust manifold
pressures
§ turbocharger speed
§ Inlet/outlet gas, air and water
temperatures
§ Differential pressures of the air filter,
air cooler, and exhaust gas boiler (if
fitted)
Once these readings were taken, they could
be checked against previous data from before
the overhaul, or even datum readings when
the engine and turbocharger were new.
Abnormalities would be noted, and this
would hopefully indicate the possible defect.
Specific faults such as the air filter fouling
would be indicated by the measurement of
the pressure differential across the filters.
The defects stated would arise due to an
incorrect procedure during turbocharger
overhaul, and lack of suitable checks to
ensure correct reassembly. A new procedure
detailing the areas to be checked would be
drawn up. This procedure would list the
specific checks and measurements that must
be taken during reassembly. If a specific fault
has previously occurred, then a method to
overcome this defect would be recorded in
the new procedure.
Life Boat Release
Gear Mechanism on
Ships
The ‘SAFELAUNCH' life boat release gear
system for davit launched survival boats
described in this article allows simultaneous
release of the hooks while the life boat is still
tied to the davit falls and drifting owing to
wind or tide. The cables that open the hook
assembly are actuated by activating the
release handle assembly.

System Description
The release mechanism consist of two lifeboat release hook
on forward and aft(1), hydrostatic interlock unit or
diaphram (2), coxswain’s release handle assembly (3),
hydrostatic interlock cable (4), aft hook release cable (5),
forward hook release cable (6), fixing plate (7) and green
locking pin (8) as shown in the figure below.

Before moving to the release procedure, function of all the

parts shown above need to be explained.

Life Boat Release Hook

The hook is released when ‘release lever arm’ is turned in

anti clockwise direction while ‘operating cable’ is pulled
down. Please note that ‘locking or maintenance pin’ must be
removed before operating the release hook. Locking pin
must be always in position when the life boat is secured to
the ship. ‘Locking or maintenance pin’ is nothing but a fall
preventive device (FPD). It is colored green. Have a look at
the actual images of the life boat hook below. Click on the
thumbnails to enlarge.
Hydrostatic Interlock Unit or Diaphragm
Unit

The ‘hydrostatic release unit' ensures that the

life boat hooks are only released when the
boat is in the water. When water pressure
occurs on the diaphragm's bottom side, the
'hydrostatic interlock cable' is pulled
upwards, allowing the 'coxswain's release
handle' to move. The ‘coxswain's release
handle' cannot be adjusted with this interlock
in place.
Coxswain’s Release Handle Assembly

The forward and aft hook release wires are

pulled by the Coxswain's release handle
assembly for release. Two safeties have been
installed to prevent the lever from being
accidentally moved. To begin, there is a
‘safety pin' that prevents the ‘release handle'
from moving. Before activating the
‘coxswain's release handle assembly,' this
‘safety pin' must be removed. Second, before
turning to the aft direction, the ‘release
handle' must be raised up to liberate it from
the side plate holes on the assembly.

The ‘hydrostatic interlock cable' must be

forced upwards by the diaphragm for the
‘release handle' to be moved, as we
mentioned previously with the ‘hydrostatic
interlock unit.' A situation could emerge
when the diaphragm fails to operate and the
cable moves. In that situation, the'release
handle' will not be able to be turned. To avoid
this, a 'emergency override handle' is
provided, which can be manually shifted up
before releasing.
When the lifeboat is lowered to the water, the
'emergency interlock or override handle'
shifts to the 'open position,' as seen above.
The position of the 'emergency interlock
handle' can be checked through an inspection
glass. Interlock is abolished when the lock is
in the ‘open position' (which is painted red).
The'safety pin' can now be removed, and
the'release handle' can be lifted and rotated in
an aft direction to release the hooks.

All of the components of the lifeboat release

gear system have now been described. Let's
get down to business with the operating
instructions.

Operating Instructions
Normal Release Procedure
1. On contact with the water, ensuring
the life boat is totally waterborne, remove
the ‘safety pin’ from the ‘coxswain’s
release handle assembly’.
2. Confirm via inspection window that,
the hydrostatic interlock unit has
operated successfully in moving the
’emergency interlock handle’ to the open
position. (i.e. the red area)
 1. Lift the coxswain’s release handle up
(against the reaction of the return spring)
until the spigot pins are clear of the side
plate slots, then pull the handle back to
its full extent.
2. Proceed to sail away.
Emergency Release / On load Release
Procedure
In situation where the life boat is waterborne and the safety
pin from the ‘coxswain’s release handle assembly’ has been
removed, but the hydrostatic interlock unit has failed to
move the ’emergency interlock handle’ into the open
position or red area, the following procedure must be
adopted. (The procedure is same for ‘on load release’ where
the life boat is not waterborne.)

1. Break the inspection window glass to

gain access to the ’emergency interlock
handle’ and push it upwards and hold it
in the open position (i.e. the RED area).
2. Lift the coxswain’s release handle up
(against the reaction of the return spring)
until the spigot pins are clear of the side
plate slots, then pull the handle back to
its full extent.
3. Proceed to sail away.
Life Boat Launch and Recovery Procedure
This section describes the procedure for launching and
recovery of the life boat for drills.

Launching
1. Before entering life boat, ensure that
the forward and aft hook ‘release lever
arms’ pointing to the GREEN safe
position.
2. Enter the life boat and ensure that, (a)
the coxswain’s release handle is in the
closed position, (b) the safety pin is fitted
in the release handle assembly and (c) the
’emergency interlock lever’ is in the
GREEN safe position.
3. Fit the GREEN handled locking pins
to the forward and aft hooks.

1. Disembark the life boat and then; (a)

remove the gripe wires if fitted, (b) carry
out pre-launch checks.
2. Allow crew to enter the life boat and
ensure all crew are strapped in.
3. Lower the life boat until the keel is
 just above the water.
4. Instruct two crew (one forward and
one aft) to remove the GREEN handled
locking pins from the hooks.
5. Instruct both the crew members to
return to their seats and strap in.
6. Lower the life boat fully to the water
and carry out ‘normal release
procedure‘ as explained above.
Hook Reset and Recovery
1. For hook reset, rotate both hooks back
into closed position ensuring the hook
tail is behind the cam.
2. Return the coxswain’s release handle
to the closed position and the hooks are
now automatically reset.
3. Confirm the ‘release lever arms’ of
forward and aft hook pointing to the
GREEN safe position.
4. Attach each davit fall by inserting
chain link into the hook.
5. Ensure that chain link is suitably
seated.
6. Ensure that all crew are strapped in.
7. Hoist the life boat until the keel is
clear of the water.
8. As soon as the life boat leaves the
water during hoisting, ensure ‘hydrostatic
interlock unit’ returns to the closed /
GREEN safe position.
9. Instruct two crew (one forward and
one aft) to insert the GREEN handled
locking pins into the hooks, and then
return to their seats and strap in.
10. Insert the ‘safety pin’ to the
coxswain’s release handle assembly.
11. The life boat can now be recovered.
12. Ask the crew to disembark.
13. Stow life boat.
14. Remove the GREEN hook locking
pins.

SHIP
CONSTRUCTION
Types of Ships
Cargo ships are categorised into many sorts
based on their mission, size, and cargo type.

When designing a merchant ship, the

economic component is crucial. Every ship
owner wants to get the most out of their
investment, which means that a ship's design
is influenced not just by current economic
needs, but also by future adaptability.

The following information can be gained

from the preliminary design of a vessel that is
about to be built:

1. Dimensions
2. Displacement
3. Stability
4. Propulsive characteristics and hull
form
5. Preliminary general arrangement
6. Principal structural details
The numerous ship types and their
subdivisions will be listed out in detail,
encompassing a wide spectrum of all vessels
now in service.

The type of ship has a significant impact on

the metrics listed above.

Types of Ships
Ships are mainly classified into the following
types:

1. Container Ships

2. Bulk Carrier

3. Tanker Ships

4. Passenger Ships

5. Naval Ships

6. Offshore Ships

7. Special Purpose Ships

1. Container Ships
A container vessel, as the name implies, is a
vessel designed primarily to transport large
amounts of cargo packed into various types
of containers (ship).

Image For Representation Purpose Only

Types of Container Ships On Basis Of
Sizes:

· Panamax
· Suezmax
· Post-Panamax
· Post-Suezmax
· Post-Malaccamax
2. Bulk Carrier Ships
Bulk carriers are a type of ship that transports
cargoes in bulk (usually dry cargo). Food
grains, ores and coals, and even cement are
among the commodities transported in such
ships as loose cargo, that is, cargo that has
not been packaged.

Image for Representation purpose only;

· Conventional bulkers
· Geared bulker
· Gearless bulker
· Self-discharging bulker
· Lakers
· BIBO
Some other forms of dry cargo are:

· Tramps: A boat or ship engaged in

the tramp trade is one which does not
have a fixed schedule or published ports
of call.
· Cargo Liners: An ocean liner is a
ship designed to transport passengers
from point A to point B. The classic
 example of such a voyage would be a
transatlantic crossing from Europe to
America.
3. Tanker Ships
Tanker ships are boats designed to transport
enormous amounts of liquid cargo. Tankers
are further classified into many sorts based on
the payload they transport.

]
The main types of tankers are:

Oil Tankers: Oil tankers mainly carry crude

oil and its by-products.

Liquefied Gas Carriers: A gas carrier (or

gas tanker) is a ship designed to transport
LPG, LNG or liquefied chemical gases in
bulk.
Chemical and Product Carriers: A
chemical tanker is a type of tanker ship
designed to transport chemicals and different
liquid products in bulk

Other types of tankers: Some other types of

tankers are juice tankers, wine tankers,
integrated tug barges etc.

On the basis of their size, tankers are further

divided into varies types such as:

· VLCC
· ULCC
· Panamax
· Aframax
· Suezmax
· Capesize
· Handymax
· Lighters
· Handy
4. Roll-on Roll-Off Ships
Ro-Ro is an acronym for Roll-on/roll-off.
Roll-on/roll-off ships are vessels that are used
to carry wheeled cargo.

· Pure Car Carrier (PCC) and Pure Car

and Truck Carrier (PCTC) RoRo Ships
· Container Vessel + Ro-Ro (ConRo)
Ship
· General Cargo + Ro-Ro Ship
(GenRo) Ships
· RoPax
· Complete RoRo Ships
5. Passenger Ships
Passenger ships, as the name suggests, are
mainly used for transiting passengers.
They are mainly classified into:

Ferries – Vessels used for transiting

passengers (and vehicles) on short-distance
routes are called ferries.

Cruise Ships – Mainly used for recreational

activities, cruise ships are like luxurious
floating hotels with state-of-the-art facilities.

They are further classified as:

· Liners, Cruise Ships, Pilgrimage

Ships
· Cross Channel Ferries, Coastal
Ferries, Harbour Ferries
· Arctic and Antarctic Cruises
6. Offshore Vessels
Offshore vessels mainly help in oil
exploration and construction jobs at sea.
Offshore vessels are of several types.

Some of the main ones are:

· Supply Ship: Vessels that supply to

offshore rigs
· Pipe Layers: Vessels engages in
laying pipes and cables
· Crane Barges or floating cranes: A
crane vessel, crane ship or floating crane
is a ship with a crane specialized in
lifting heavy loads
· Semi-submersible Drill Rigs: These
are Mobile Offshore Drilling Units to
make stable platforms for drilling oil and
gas
· Drill Ships: A drillship is a merchant
vessel designed for use in exploratory
offshore drilling of new oil and gas wells
 or for scientific drilling purposes
· Accommodation Barges: Could be a
stand-alone floating hotel or can include
accommodation as well as space for
Cargo
· Production Platforms: To extract
and process oil and natural gas, or to
temporarily store product until it can be
brought to shore for refining and
marketing
· Floating Storage Unit (FSU) –
Floating vessel mainly used for storage
of oil and by-products.
· Floating Production and Storage
Unit (FPSO): A floating production
storage and the offloading unit is a
floating vessel used by the offshore oil
and gas industry for the production and
processing of hydrocarbons, and for the
storage of oil
· Anchor handling vessels – These are
used for offshore construction and
installation operations.
 · Diving vessels – Are vessels used by
divers for diving in the ocean for
underwater jobs.
7. Fishing Vessels
Ships or boats used for recreational or
commercial fishing at sea are called fishing
vessels.

Fishing vessels are mainly classified into two

types – trawlers and non-trawling vessels.

· Trawlers, Purse Seiners: A fishing

trawler, also known as a dragger, is a
commercial fishing vessel designed to
operate fishing trawls. Trawling is a
method of fishing that involves actively
dragging or pulling a trawl through the
water behind one or more trawlers. A
purse seine is a large wall of netting
deployed around an entire area or school
of fish. The seine has floats along the top
line with a lead line threaded through
rings along the bottom. Once a school of
fish is located, a skiff encircles the
school with the net.
 · Factory Ships: A factory ship, also
known as a fish processing vessel, is a
large ocean-going vessel with extensive
on-board facilities for processing and
freezing caught fish or whales
8. Speciality Vessels
Speciality vessels are constructed and used
for specific purposes.

Tugs: A tug (tugboat) is a boat or ship that

manoeuvres vessels by pushing or towing
them.

Tenders – A boat or a larger ship used to

service or support other boats or ships,
generally by transporting people and/or
supplies is called a tender vessel.

Pilot Crafts – Pilot crafts are used for the

transportation of harbour pilots.

Cable Layers – Cable laying vessels help in

laying cables on to the sea bed.

Research Vessels – They are special types of

vessels used for carrying out a variety of
researches at sea. Some of the most common
types of research vessels are – seismic
vessels, hydrographic vessels, oceanographic
vessels, polar vessels etc.

Salvage Vessels – Salvage vessels are vessels

engaged in salvage operation; recovery of lost
property at sea.

Lightships: A lightvessel, or lightship, is a

ship which acts as a lighthouse. They are
used in waters that are too deep or otherwise
unsuitable for lighthouse construction.

Barge Carriers: A barge is a flat-bottomed

boat, built mainly for river and canal
transport of heavy goods.

Timber Carriers: Vessels that carry timber

Livestock Carriers: Vessels that carry
livestock/animals

Ice breaker ships: They are used for cutting

ice deposits in extremely cold climate
conditions to make waters navigational.

Related Read: What is an Ice Breaker Ship?

9. High-Speed Craft
High-speed crafts are a special type of
technologically advanced high-performance
(typically high speed) marine vehicles.
Though most of these technologies are not
used in commercial vessels, a few have been
successfully implemented and tested in
conventional merchant vessels of small scale.

Some of the main types of high-speed crafts

are:

· Multihulls including wave piercers

· Small waterplane area, twin-hull
(SWATH)
· Surface effect ship (SES) and
 Hovercraft
· Hydrofoil
· Wing in Ground Craft (WIG)
10. Dredgers
Dredging is an excavation activity usually
carried out underwater, in shallow seas or
freshwater areas with the purpose of
gathering up bottom sediments and widening

Dredgers are vessels with excavation tools

used for removing sand and other types of
deposits from the seabed. Dredgers are used
for several purposes such as making shallow
coastal areas navigational, deep-sea mining
etc.

Dredgers are mainly classified into two types:

1. Mechanical dredgers
2. Hydraulic dredgers
Stresses in ship
structures
Countermeasures against various stressors: It
is the shipowner's obligation to ensure that
his vessel is built to a high enough quality to
resist all of the pressures to which she may be
subjected. Ships are designed to handle
enormous loads by their very nature, and
loading heavy weights without causing
structural harm to the vessel requires
considerable planning and experience.

Cargo ship unstable in a seaway

Heavy loads tend to cause the deck area

sustaining the load to deflect lower.
Depending on the position of initial loading,
this causes stresses, resulting in inward and
outward deflections of supporting bulkheads.
Increased scantlings are the standard to
prevent excessive deformation, and these
stresses are usually localised in the vicinity of
built-in structures such as windlasses,
accommodation blocks, and so on. Heavy
seas shipping may exacerbate the situation by
adding to the load and producing unwanted,
excessive distortions.
Another source of stress is the water
surrounding the ship, which exerts significant
pressure on the shell plating's bottom and side
sections.
The pressure on the bottom shell plates will
be greater than the pressure on the side shell
plates as the depth of immersion increases.
When the vessel is in a seaway, especially
when a large surf is present, water pressure
does not keep a consistent value and will
fluctuate. Water pressure fluctuations cause
the shell plating to shift in and out, with the
effects being more visible at the vessel's
extreme ends. The influence of water
pressure is usually more noticeable at the
vessel's fore end than at the back end. The
general effect is emphasised by the vessel's
pitching motion, which is referred to as
"panting."
Panting beams, which are large metal beams
that run from port to starboard in the vessel's
forepart.
They're positioned ahead of the collision
bulkhead to keep the shell plate on each side
of the fore and aft lines from moving in and
out. Panting beams are located at various
deck levels and combine with panting
stringers on either side of the vessel's
forepart.

Ships shearing stress

Shearing stress in a material is a third type of

stress that causes one section of the material
to shift relative to another.
Shearing stress is encountered at various
points in the ship due to the opposing forces
of gravity and buoyancy. Shearing forces are
undesirable in any shape or form within a
ship, and they can be reduced by proper
loading and ballast distribution.
The values of stresses incurred throughout the
loading period can be calculated numerically
and then shown on a graph to indicate the
areas of stress. It's worth mentioning that the
mathematical computations are complex, and
there's always the chance of making a
mistake. Errors have been minimised thanks
to'stress finders' and computerised
loadicators. There are numerous on the
market, most of which are custom built for
individual vessels and provide the operator
with information such as:

1. Bending moment.
2. Shear stress at critical points.
3. Mean draught.
4. Trim of the vessel.
5. GM final, after loading.
6. Deadweight.
The information supplied depends on the
make and type of software employed.
What is sagging
stress

sagging stress

The term'sagging' is the polar opposite of

hogging. When wave crests support a vessel
in the bow and stern, she will droop in the
middle. The ship's extremities experience
high buoyancy forces. High gravitational
forces act vertically down around the
midships point, in opposition to buoyancy
forces, due to the weight of the ship's
construction. The vessel has a tendency to
bend in the opposite direction when
compared to the hogging situation.
The issue of sagging can be exacerbated by
incorrect vessel loading or design factors.
Watchkeeping officers should be mindful of
the frequency of the waves and the risk of
this condition developing, and if necessary,
change the ship's direction to relieve any
sagging or hogging problems.
When it comes to weight distribution, careful
attention at the time of loading can help
prevent hogging or sagging.
With shipbuilding producing larger and
longer ships, either situation is extremely
undesirable, as the risk of breaking the ship's
back in a rough sea or swell becomes a
terrifying possibility. Prudent ballast
arrangements, combined with enhanced
scantlings during construction, as well as
effective ship and cargo loading, can help to
minimise any structural damage caused by
hogging or sagging later on.

Moulded Depth
The vertical distance measured from the top
of the keel to the top of the freeboard deck
beam at the side is known as moulded depth.
The distance is measured from the lowest
edge of the keel rabbet in wood and
composite ships. The distance is calculated
from the point where the line of the flat of the
bottom continued inwards cuts the side of the
keel when the lower part of the midship
section has a hollow nature or thick garboards
are fitted. The moulded depth should be
measured to the point of intersection of the
moulded lines of the deck and side shell
plating in ships with rounded gunwales, the
lines extending as if the gunwale were of
angular shape. When the freeboard deck is
stepped and the raised section of the deck
reaches above the place where the moulded
depth is to be determined, the moulded depth
should be measured to a line of reference
extending from the lower part of the deck
parallel to the raised part.
What is hogging
stress

Hogging stress

The vessel's length may be thought of as a

long girder pivoting on a wave at its centre.
The vessel's fore and after ends will bend
downwards in this posture, creating
compression forces in the keel area and
tension stresses on the upper deck level.
Increased buoyancy forces are formed at and
around the vessel's midships point, causing
the situation. At the ship's extremities,
increased gravitational force arises due to the
vessel's metal construction acting vertically
downward. A hogging condition exists when
both forces are present at the same time, such
as when the vessel is turned by a wave
midships.
This is amplified in an all-aft vessel, where
the added weight of the machinery space
results in increased loading in the aft section
of the vessel.
The problem could also be exacerbated
unnecessarily by ‘bad' cargo loading in the
vessel's fore and aft sections, leaving the
midships area comparatively light loaded.
Static stresses and
constraints
When the ship is not in motion, these stresses
are measured. A poor longitudinal
distribution of mass is frequently the cause.
Even though the overall force of buoyancy
balances the ship's total weight, these forces
may not be distributed uniformly along the
length of the ship.
If the buoyancy pressures are concentrated
around the section amidships and the ends are
loaded, the ship will tend to move downwards
at the bow and stern while moving upwards at
the section amidships. The structural
members of the deck are under tensile stress
in this circumstance, whereas the bottom
structure is under compressive stress. This
phenomena can be compared to a beam that is
supported in the middle and has weights on
both ends.

Hogging
● Sagging: If the forces of buoyancy are
concentrated under the bow and stern of
the ship and the section amidships is
loaded, the ship will tend to move
upwards at the ends and trough amidships.
In this situation, the deck's structural
members are under compressive stress
while the bottom structure is being
subjected to tensile stress. This
phenomenon can be compared to a beam
that is supported at both ends and loaded
with weights in the middle.
The movement of waves travelling along the
hull might amplify hogging and sagging.
Sagging is exacerbated by crests of waves at
both ends of a ship paired with a trough
amidships, whereas hogging is exacerbated
by a crest amidships mixed with a dip at both
ends.
The load curves table, the stress and sheer
curves table, and the bending moments table
can all be used to calculate the stresses
induced by these scenarios. There are various
manual and computer calculators available to
determine the value of the stresses on the
hull. The ship's stability book contains the
maximum permitted stress values.

Dynamic stresses and constraints

When a ship is underway, some
circumstances add to the stress. In rough seas,
they are mostly created by the influence of
waves on the hull. Pounding and panting are
two of them.
● Pounding: When a ship sails in heavy
seas, it pitches. It can happen that the bow
rises over the crest of a wave and emerges
completely out of the water. When the
bow comes back down on the water, it can
be subjected to a major impact, which is
pounding. The hull plating at the bow end
of the ship must be reinforced to avoid
bending of the plating. This stress can also
occur at the ship's stern, but to a lesser
degree.
● Panting: When waves hit the bow and
stern of a ship, they create variations in
pressure that tend to push the plating in
and out. This is panting. The framing at
the ship's ends must be reinforced to
prevent exaggerated movement of the hull
plating.
What Materials Are
Used For Building
Ships?
The economic component of operating a
merchant vessel is critical, since a shipowner
needs a design that maximises the return on
his initial investment while also covering his
operating costs.

This means that the final design considers

both the economic conditions at the time of
construction and those that are anticipated to
emerge during the ship's lifetime.

Apart from that, when planning and

executing shipbuilding activities, the safety of
seafarers on board, the type of vessel, and the
operational logistics of the journeys are all
taken into account.

For the initial and ongoing inspection of

ships, various classification bodies located in
various maritime nations have sprung up.
These are reputable and trustworthy
organisations that evaluate and maintain a
ship's seaworthiness and assign it a
classification.

The Classification Societies Include the

following;

Great Britain—Lloyd’s Register of Shipping

France—Bureau Veritas

Germany—Germanischer

Lloyd Norway—Det Norske Veritas

Italy—Registro Italiano Navale

United States of America—American Bureau

of Shipping
Russia—Russian Register of Shipping

Japan—Nippon Kaiji Kyokai.

The provision of suitable equipment, the

reliability of the machinery utilised on board,
the ship's strength, and other issues are
addressed by classification bodies. The vessel
can be built in any country and is not limited
to classification by that country's relevant
society; it can follow regulations in
compliance with any classification society's
norms.

Japan and Korea, which combined produced

nearly 77 percent of the gross tonnage
supplied in 2000, are presently building the
majority of the world's commerce ships.

Although classification is not required for all

ships, it is a popular business practise because
it serves as a positive endorsement for the
firm and the vessel.

Shipowners who have an unclassed vessel

must satisfy governmental regulatory
agencies to ensure that the vessel has the
structural strength required for the
assignment of a load line and the issuance of
a safety construction certificate.
Most commonly used
materials for
shipbuilding
Steel:
This is a highly adaptable shipbuilding
material that is widely employed in the
construction of ships' integral structures and
sections.

Steel has been used in shipbuilding for over

150 years due to its superior mechanical
characteristics and low cost.

The weight of steel is one of the biggest

disadvantages of using it in ship construction.

Mild steel with a carbon concentration of

0.15 percent to 0.23 percent and a relatively
high manganese content is utilised to
construct a ship's hull.

The amount of sulphur and phosphorus in

mild steel is kept to a minimal (less than 0.05
percent), as larger levels of each impede the
steel's welding capabilities.

Furthermore, if the sulphur concentration is

excessive, cracks and other defects can
quickly form during the rolling process.

Steels with a high tensile strength In the

highly strained areas of large tankers, cargo
ships, and bulk carriers, steels with higher
strength than mild steel are used. They're also
commonly utilised on the deck and bottom of
larger tankers. This is beneficial to both the
shipbuilder and the owner because it reduces
the scantlings of certain structural elements.

The thickness stringer plate, rounded

gunwales, sheerstrake, Bilge strake, deck
strake in the path of longitudinal bulkheads,
main deck plating, bottom plating, keel, and
the top strake of longitudinal bulkheads are
all steel sections of the ship. Mast tables,
crosstrees, and other structures can be made
out of welded steel plates and sections.
Derrick booms are typically seamless tubular
steel lengths that have been welded together.

Aluminium Alloys:
There are three main advantages which
Aluminium alloys have over mild steel in the
construction of ships.

1. Aluminium is lighter than mild steel and

studies suggest that up to 60 percent of the
weight of a steel structure can be saved by
using Al alloys. For merchant vessels, this is
a key advantage for increasing the cargo
carrying capacity of ships.

2. Aluminium is highly resistant to corrosion

3. Its non-magnetic properties and low-cost

maintenance
The most often used Al-alloys used in
shipbuilding are the 5083 type for plates and
6082 for extrusions. These alloys are reliable
in marine service as well as during
manufacture. It has estimated that the
selection of Al-Mg (Aluminium-Magnesium)
type alloys brings a potential for at least 10%
lower costs in respect of the heat-treatable,
and appears favourable after a total
estimation for applicability in shipbuilding

Excellent corrosion properties of aluminium

can be used easily, but correct maintenance
procedures and careful insulation from the
adjoining steel structures are necessary when
using this material.

A major disadvantage of the use of

aluminium alloys is their high initial cost
(They are estimated to cost 8 to 10 times the
price of steel per tonnage). This high initial
cost must be absorbed by an increase in the
earning capacity of the vessel or a major
increase in passenger accommodation on the
same draft.
Superstructure
Aluminium alloys can replace carbon steels
of normal strength. The weight saved by
using Al alloys improves the ship stability –
and allows the design of narrower ships,
which in turn enhances fuel efficiency.
Materials Used on
Different Parts of a
Ship
The Shell Plating: This forms the ship's
waterproof skin and contributes to the
structure's longitudinal strength while also
resisting vertical shear pressures. Several flat
and curved steel plates are butt welded
together for the bottom and side shell plating.
They are longer than they are wide.

Insulation: The heat conductivity of a steel

hull structure is outstanding. Where there is a
requirement to maintain desired temperatures,
such as the refrigerated compartments, some
type of insulation must be given.

Insulation materials include cork, glass fibre,

and many types of foam polymers in sheet or
granulated form. It is possible to provide air
voids, which are less efficient. Glass fibre has
various advantages over other materials and
is commonly utilised in modern ships. It is
low in weight, vermin-proof, moisture-
resistant, and fire-resistant.

Superstructures: The use of aluminium

alloy superstructures has resulted in increased
passenger capacity while maintaining the
same draught, as well as a lower lightweight
centre of gravity and improved stability. As a
result, passenger ships and cruise ships
employ them. In these superstructures, more
considerable deformation can be tolerated
than in steel superstructures. The reduced
weight of the aluminium framework
contributes to this.

Doors that are watertight:

Weathertight Doors
The Stern Frame:
This structure supports the rudder and the
propeller. The stern itself may be cast, forged,
or fabricated from steel plate and sections.
Modern rudders are also fabricated from steel
plates, with plate sides that are stiffened by
internal webs. To prevent corrosion, the
internal surfaces are suitably coated, and the
rudder may be filled with inert plastic foam.

Rudder Pintles:
The rudder pintle is a bolt or pin which is
inserted into a gudgeon to attach the rudder to
the ship. Older ships may have a brass liner
or bronze liner shrunk on the pintles which
turn in hardwood (Lignum Vitae) bearings,
fitted in the gudgeons. In these days, the
industry practice is to use synthetic materials
like Tufnol for the bearings, and in some
cases stainless steels for the liners. In either,
the water which immerses the bearing is used
to lubricate it.

Rudder Stock:
The stock may be of cast or forged steel, with
its diameter as determined by the torque and
any bending moment it is to withstand.

Propellers:
Ship propellers are made of copper alloys like
brass because they must survive the corrosive
effects of saltwater. These are made to
prevent cavitation, which occurs when a
propeller under heavy load creates a low-
pressure zone. Water vapour bubbles erupt
suddenly near the propeller blades, blasting
little craters into the surface and eroding it
away.

It is usual practise in shipbuilding to place

zinc plates in the way of bronze propellers
and other immersed equipment that are
utilised as sacrificial anodes. When immersed
in sea water, these anodes are metals or alloys
linked to the hull that have a higher anodic
potential than steel.

As a result, these anodes provide cathodic

protection current while also being
consumed. For protection, such systems need
to be maintained and replaced on a regular
basis.

Modern anodes are made of zinc, aluminium,

or magnesium alloys that have been subjected
to extensive testing to ensure their
appropriateness; high purity zinc anodes are
also utilised. Sacrificial anodes are installed
in the hull as well as in the ballast tanks.

Because of the risk of sparking if any part of

the anode falls and strikes the tank structure
where gaseous conditions prevail, magnesium
anodes are not used in the cargo-ballast tanks
of oil tankers. Tankers use an aluminium
anode system, which is only used in regions
where the potential energy is less than 28
kg.m.

Paints:
Maintenance of a ship requires that its hull
and parts be painted regularly to avoid
corrosion and provide resistance to other
natural elements. Paints consist of a pigment
dispersed in a liquid which is referred to as
the ‘vehicle’. It is spread out thinly and
overtime the vehicle changes to form an
adherent dry film.

Paints which inhibit corrosion of steel have

the following vehicle types:

(1) Bitumen or pitch solutions available in

naphtha or white spirit solvent.

(2) Oil-based: These consist mainly of

vegetable drying oils, such as linseed oil and
tung oil. To accelerate the drying by the
natural reaction with oxygen, driers are
added.

(3) Oleo-resin: In this case, the vehicle

consists of natural or artificial resins
incorporated into drying oils. Some of these
resins may react with the oil to give a faster
drying vehicle. Other resins do not react with
the oil but heat is applied to dissolve the resin
and cause the oil to stick to the body

(4) Alkyd resin: These vehicles provide a

shorter drying time and improved film
forming properties of drying oils. The name
alkyd arises from alcohols and acids, which
are the chemical ingredients. These may not
be made from oil, as an oil fatty acid or an
oil-free acid may be used. Vehicle types (2)
and (4) are not suitable for underwater
service, and only certain kinds of (c) are ideal
for such service.

(5) Chemical-resistant: Vehicles of this type

show high resistance to severe conditions of
exposure. A number of important vehicle
types come under this category which
includes: Epoxy resins Chemicals, coal
tar/epoxy resin, Chlorinated rubber and
isomerized rubber, polyurethane resins, Vinyl
resins, and Zinc-rich paints.

(6) Anti-fouling paints: These are a category

of underwater hull paints (known as bottom
paints) which are specialized coatings applied
to slow the growth and/or facilitate
detachment of subaquatic organisms that
attach to the hull of the ship and affect a
vessel’s performance and durability. Copper
oxides and biocides are commonly used in
anti-fouling paints. Another type of hard
bottom paint includes Teflon and silicone
coatings, which are too slippery for growth to
stick.
Floating of Metal
Structures
The Archimedes principle is used by marine
engineers and naval architects to build a ship
that floats when submerged in water. This
principle defines the weight of the fluid
displaced by a body that is fully or partially
immersed in it exerting an upward buoyant
force equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body. This buoyant force
acts in an upward direction at the displaced
fluid's centre of mass. The amount of water
that an object displaces should be equal to the
object's weight in order for it to float in water.

The volume of water displaced by a ship is

determined not just by its weight, but also by
its shape and size. An iron nail sinks in water,
whereas the same material (iron) grouped in
various sizes and shapes, such as a boat or
ship, floats in water.

We can see that if the structure is built in

such a way that the vessel's density is less
than that of water, the ship will float. As a
result, a seaworthy steel vessel's average
density will be lower than that of water,
allowing it to float. When building a ship,
shipbuilders must take into account both
intact and damaged stability.
Understanding
Different Types Of
Manoeuvres of a
Vessel
We learned about the various types of
manoeuvres that a ship can perform, as well
as the post-launch tests that are required. We
also learned about the Turning Circle; but, is
understanding the ship's turning capacity in
response to control sufficient to ensure the
ship's overall manoeuvring ability?

To address this question, we'll go over the

remaining sorts of manoeuvres, as well as the
necessary check-trials and objectives.

Types of Ship Manoeuvres:

Zigzag Manoeuvre
The Z-Manoeuvre, or Kempf Manoeuvre, is
another name for this manoeuvre. A ship may
be compelled to alter its course or heading in
certain circumstances. In rough seas or in the
event of a directional error, the ship may be
forced to shift direction more quickly in a
short period of time. As a result, the capacity
to zigzag manoeuvre should be an intrinsic
aspect of a vessel's manoeuvring qualities.
The following is the procedure for the trial:

· The ship is steadied on a straight line

course in the sea conditions described in
the previous article
· Then the rudder angle is applied to a
pre-defined angle of 10 degrees or 20
degrees to either port or starboard. This
is termed as the ‘First Execute’
· In response to the rudder, the ship
changes its yaw motion towards the
applied rudder angle and gradually
changes its heading
· After a certain defined angle of
heading is reached (not to be confused
with the rudder angle as the heading
angle is purely the angle between the
 ship’s own centreline and the reference
space coordinates of the earth; a measure
of the ship’s course), the rudder angle is
immediately reversed to the exactly
opposite value. If the first execute rudder
angle had been to port, it is reverted to
starboard and vice-versa
· Consequently, the ship’s yaw rate
begins to change towards the applied
direction. The ship begins to change its
heading once again
· Again when it approaches the steady
approach in that direction, the rudder is
swung in the opposite direction
· The cycle is iterated for a definite
number of times
Figure 1: Zig-zag Manoeuvres of a Naval
Vessel – Credits: damen.com

What conclusions can be drawn from the

above test? The major goal of this test is to
see how the ship reacts while changing its
path in response to a certain rudder angle and
the variation in Yaw rate. It is also a measure
of a ship's path stability; the more time and
effort it takes to change its heading, the more
it is considered to be "stable by path." Path-
changing ability is the inverse of path-
changing ability. The specifications range
from one vessel to the next. In naval vessels,
higher path-changing capability may be
required, whereas in cargo carriers, the
converse may be true.

Some Important Terms Determined during

the test:

· Initial Turning Time: the time taken

to change course or heading in response
to rudder execute. Time taken to change
yaw in a particular direction
· Overshoot angle: This is a very
crucial parameter determined using this
test. Overshoot angle is defined as the
excess angle of heading reached by ship
in its previous direction (after rudder is
applied). Most designs seek least
overshoot angle as it is desirable for
better controllability
· Yaw rate/turning speed in the changed
direction.
· Reach: The time between the first
execute to when the heading angle is
zero.
Based on the permissible values of rudder
angle, zigzag test can be of two types:
 · 10 degree zigzag manoeuvre
· 20 degree zigzag manoeuvre
Let us now analytically delve a bit further
into the analysis of zigzag manoeuvre.
(Figure 2)

Figure 2 – Analytic of Zig Zag Manoeuvre

First, the rudder angle is applied to starboard
(at 10 degrees). This alters the ship’s heading
angle to starboard gradually. After a certain
span of time, the rudder angle is reversed. In
effect to this change, the ship’s heading angle
again starts reverting to port.

This is a point where the overshoot is

measured from the curve. In all practical
cases, the ship does not have the ability to
immediately revert to port after rudder is
applied. It yields to some heading angle in its
‘set direction’ after gradually yawing to port.
This excess the angle of heading it attains
before reverting again is a measure of the
Overshoot angle.

The peak of the curve that is where the

heading changes its “tendency” in response to
the rudder angle. On similar lines, going
through the time axis, the time taken to
change its heading at each course in response
to rudder action is also a measure of the
manoeuvring efficiency of the ship. This is
given as the ‘Time taken to check Yaw’.
After crossing the zero line, it approaches
towards the negative heading angle (to port,
in this case).

Again after some time, the rudder is reversed

to starboard. The ship reverts to starboard
again after undergoing a certain overshoot.
Spiral Manoeuvre
This is a measurement of the vessel's
directional stability. Consider a scenario in
which your vessel deviates from its path
without warning, and when it is discovered,
the difference in direction is already
significant. This is not a good situation for
navigational health.

Figure 3: Frigate undergoing Spiral

Manoeuvre

Consider another scenario in which the vessel

must swerve to avoid an impediment. To
avoid a collision, the rudder angle is applied
in the required direction, but the vessel
continues to go in that direction for some
time before altering the rate of heading. But
it's too late, and the unintended occurs. Isn't it
true that no one wants to be in that situation?
As a result, the ship's efficiency in terms of
directional stability is measured by its ability
to change direction quickly in response to
rudder input.

The spiral manoeuvre also known as

Dieudonne spiral is conducted for this
purpose. This test is somewhat similarly done
as zigzag but the rudder deflection angles are
constantly varied from port to starboard (+15,
+10, +5,0,-5,-10,-15, for example).

Figure 4. Trajectory of the ship in a spiral

manoeuvre

The spiral manoeuvre trial is conducted as

follows:

· The ship is steadied on a straight line

course
· After that, the rudder is put hard over
to one side until the rate of change of
heading is constant (Constant Yaw rate)
· The ship is steadied for this new rate
of heading. Then it is again given a
rudder deflection to a higher value, say
10 degrees.
· The process is repeated for successive
values of rudder angle till the rudder has
covered the whole range to maximum
rudder angle on the given side
· The entire process is conducted in the
reverse direction, that is if the rudder
turns are given for successive values on
the starboard side (+5, +10, +15….) , it
now given to the opposite direction to
the port side ( -5, -10, -15….) to give a
counter clock path
· The path observed, in either case, is a
 spiral as shown in the figure
· The rate of turn or yaw is noted for
each rudder angle
· The yaw rate is plotted against rudder
deflection angle for analysis

Figure 5: Rudder angle versus the rate of

change of heading

The rudder angle vs the rate of change of

heading is depicted in the diagram above. The
numbers for a totally directional-stable ship
are plotted in figure 5(a). A starboard rudder
deflection results in a heading in that
direction. As a result, the yaw rate (“r”)
varies proportionally to the rudder deflection
in the same direction. When the rudder angle
is returned to its normal state (zero
deflection), the angle of heading, as well as
the yaw rate, returns to zero. As a result, there
is no ‘residual heading' in that direction, and
the ship is regarded fully stable. Similarly,
shifting the rudder to port increases the yaw
rate proportionately to port. The curve
intersects with the origin.

However, we rarely come with such excellent

outcomes. Instability is caused by
environmental elements such as sea states,
currents, and waves, as well as the interaction
of rudder response, engine performance, and
other hydrodynamic parameters, as depicted
in figure 5. (b). The rate of heading angle
stays non-zero even when the rudder angle is
restored back to zero in either scenario of port
or starboard. That is, there is a ‘directional
set' in reaction to rudder angle change. The
dotted lines serve as a reminder of this. When
the rudder is returned to zero after a starboard
turn, the rate of change of heading continues
at a starboard value for a short time before
gradually reverting to port. In the opposite
case, the same is true. In both clockwise and
counterclockwise turns, the curve depicted
(yaw rate vs rudder angle) creates a hysteresis
loop. For an immediate response to the
rudder, none of the yaw rates from any sense
is zero. The hysteresis loop is a measure of
the vessel's directional instability.

This test should primarily be carried out on

ships that yaw from port to starboard and
starboard to port. Congenial sea conditions
and a broad expanse of water, however, are
some of the major obstacles of conducting
these tests. It also takes a lot of time.

Spiral in reverse

Bech suggested reverse spiral testing as an

alternative to spiral manoeuvres. With one
major exception, this is quite similar to the
direct spiral move. The ship is now required
to turn at a consistent rate of rotation (yaw
rate). This is accomplished by adjusting the
rudder as needed. As a result, this is the polar
opposite of the direct spiral manoeuvre
(where the yaw rate was varied for a specific
rudder deflection)!

This is done at a variety of yaw speeds,

ranging from +0.5 degrees per second to -0.5
degrees per second to port. As seen in the
diagram, this is plotted against the rudder
deflection.

Figure 6: Reverse Spiral

The slope of the curve at the origin gives a
measure of the degree of directional stability.
In figure 6(a), the slope at the origin (r-δ at
δ=0) is negative, hence the ship is said to be
directionally stable.

On the contrary in figure 6(b), a kind of

hysteresis is formed in the form of an S-shape
similar to direct spiral (except it is an open
loop in this case). The slope of the tangent at
the origin is positive and the ship is said to be
directionally unstable.

The aspect of rudder deflection versus yaw

rate, in this case, is somewhat analogous to
the righting lever (GZ) versus heel angle (φ)
in the case of static transverse stability
problem.

Pull-Out Test
This test is a relatively simpler to determine
the stability of the ship on a straight course.

The steps taken to conduct this trial are:

· The ship is made to turn in both port

and starboard directions for sometime.
· After a steady rate of yaw in the
particular direction is achieved, the
rudder is brought back to its mean
 position.
· The rate of turn exhibited over the
entire span of time is recorded for both
port and starboard turn.
· The nature of the rate of turn is
characterised by plotting against time.
Theoretically, for ideal conditions the rate of
heading must revert back to zero after the
rudder is brought back to zero. But
practically, this is rarely the case as there is
always some nonzero value of heading in
either direction (port or starboard). However,
as long as this is similar in both directions, it
is still considered stable. But if it is different
in both port and starboard, it is unstable. In
most of the ships, there is always this
‘residual rate’ of heading due to the
asymmetry of flow across the hull and
sometimes due to propeller influence (in the
case of single screw ships).
Figure 7. Analysis of Pull-out Manoeuvre

Stopping Ability
Accelerations, stopping, and backing are not
included in manoeuvring exercises, but they
are performed in conjunction with the above
manoeuvres to ensure the vessel's safe
stopping distance and motion efficiency.
Consider a crucial situation in which a ship
must stop or reduce speed due to a barrier
ahead at a short distance.

As a result, stopping trials like "Crash Stop"

are critical for gauging the vessel's capability
under these conditions.
The “track reach” and “head reach” achieved
in a stop engine-full astern manoeuvre done
after a steady approach at the test speed until
the ahead speed in ship coordinates changes
sign are used to determine stopping ability
(i.e., vessel starts going backwards).

· Track Reach is defined as the

distance traversed by the ship in its own
path after the “astern command” is given
(engine reversed) until the vessel starts
heading backwards.
· Head Reach is the perpendicular
distance (displacement) that is measured
from the point of execute (reverse order
given) to the point where the ship starts
coming backwards (after stopping).
Figure 8. Representation of Head Reach and
Track Reach

The ship designer, the engine maker, and the

seafarer are all concerned about Head Reach
and Track Reach, as well as the time it takes
to attain them. The safest designs are those
that need the least amount of distance and
time to decelerate and stop. However,
propeller performance, sea conditions, vessel
displacement, and an effective control
hierarchy on board are all essential elements.

As previously said, the motion and control of

a vessel, as well as their trials, play a critical
part in both the design and the post-launch
stages. While performing each of the above
trials, the IMO has its own set of criteria,
which we'll leave up to you to discover if
you're interested. Modern model testing, such
as Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) or
Boundary Element Methods (BEM) with
software, have greatly simplified
manoeuvring and seakeeping analysis.
Nonetheless, full-scale trials are still
considered the most comprehensive
approaches and are still carried out for each
and every vessel.
Welding Methods
And Weld Defects In
Shipbuilding
In the shipbuilding industry, welding is one
of the most extensively employed hot-work
techniques. Welding technology has
advanced to the point where the industry can
now build fully waterproof and oiltight
junctions. Welded joints are more easier to
manufacture than riveted ones, and therefore
reduce project cycle time. In comparison to
rivet joints, welded connectors have lower
steel weight and require little to no
maintenance. Welding technology's most
significant contribution to the shipbuilding
industry is the ability to produce smooth hull
surfaces, lowering bare hull resistance and
power requirements significantly.

Welded joints are more easier to manufacture

than riveted ones, and therefore reduce
project cycle time. In comparison to rivet
joints, welded connectors have lower steel
weight and require little to no maintenance.
Welding technology's most significant
contribution to the shipbuilding industry is
the ability to produce smooth hull surfaces,
lowering bare hull resistance and power
requirements significantly.

The three main welding techniques that are

used in a shipyard are as follows:

· Arc Welding
· Gas Welding
· Resistance Welding
Arc Welding:
Arc welding's basic premise is to link a metal
electrode to an electrical power supply,
establishing a closed circuit when the
electrode touches the plate. When the
electrode is lifted a few millimetres above the
plate, the electric current leaps the gap,
resulting in a high-temperature electrical arc.
The parent metal and the metal in the
electrode melt as a result, allowing both
metals to fuse.

Figure 1: Circuit diagram of arc welding

process.
Arc shielding is a critical component of all
arc welding procedures. The arc is insulated
from the ambient air and contact with oxygen
and water vapour is shut off to prevent
oxidation of the fused metal. The following
are the two most common shielding strategies
employed by shipyards:

· Slag Shielded Arc Welding

· Inert Gas Shielded Arc Welding
Slag Shielded Arc Welding:
After the parent metals and the electrode
metal have fused, slag is the residue left
behind. It generates a coating that protects the
arc and the welded joint from oxidation. Slag
helps to stabilise the arc, resulting in higher
weld quality. In shipyards, there are three
basic Slag Shielded Arc Welding processes:

• Shielded Metal Arc Welding: Mild steel is

employed as the filler metal in most
electrodes used in the shipbuilding sector.
Mild steel rods are coated with a liquefied
binder and a mixture of mineral oxides,
fluorides, silicates, hydrocarbons, and a
liquefied binder to produce a solid envelope
around the fuller metal. This layer creates
slag, stabilises the arc, and prevents the joint
from oxidising. Panels, grillages, tank units,
and other items are fabricated using shielded
metal arc welding. They're employed in
manual arc welding operations and can help
with welding in a variety of locations,
including:

· Down hand welding.

· Overhead welding.
· Vertical welding.
Positional flexibility with this welding
process makes it the only welding process
used to weld the underside of overhead deck
plates.

• Submerged Arc Welding: In this welding

process, the arc is sparked and maintained
under a blanket of granulated flux which is
laid on the weld joint before the arc strikes
the joint. Follow the figure to understand it
further.
Figure 2: Submerged Arc Welding.
A hopper containing granulated flux runs
along the length of the weld joint. It deposits
a blanket of flux on the joint. The hopper is
followed by a trolley which holds the filler
metal electrode. The electrode is continuously
fed by rollers driven by a drive motor, and the
feed rate of the electrode is set to such a value
so that the electrode tip is always submerged
within the flux. The arc is hence generated
within the layer of flux, allowing complete
insulation from the environment.
Figure 3: Submerged arc welding with a
hopper leading three arc nozzles.
The speed of movement of the trolley, the
feed rate of electrode and amount of flux on
the joint are very important parameters that
are pre-decided depending on the thickness of
the plates, the material of the parent metal,
and quality of weld joint to be achieved.

Submerged arc welding is the most

commonly used downhand welding method
in the shipbuilding industry, owing to its arc
stability and quality of joint. Since most of
the joints are welded on one side, a backing
strip made of ceramic material is placed
under the joint, to prevent the flow of weld
bead from the other side.
Gas Shielded Arc
Welding Processes:
Instead of flux, gas shielded arc welding
systems use a gas blanket to offer arc
insulation from the surrounding environment.
They're commonly employed in shipyards to
fuse the lighter constructions together.

• Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding: The arc

is formed between the parent metal plates and
a non-consumable tungsten electrode in this
welding technique. A nozzle surrounds the
tungsten electrode, maintaining a constant
flow of inert gas around the arc. This inert
gas shelters the arc from oxygen, keeping it
stable and prevents the weld pool from
oxidising. In the arc, a filler rod is injected to
aid in the fusion of the two metals. Argon is
commonly employed as an inert gas in this
technique. For plates with a thickness of less
than 6 to 8 mm, TIG welding is
recommended.
• Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG): Metal
inert gas welding is, in a way, an
advancement on tungsten inert gas welding,
where the electrode is a consumable metal
wire.

Figure 6: Metal Inert Gas Welding.

An electrical contact tube links the electrode

wire to the power supply in the welding
torch. A pair of driver rollers continually feed
electrode wire into the nozzle. It goes through
the electrical contact tube and out the other
side. A separate tube running into the welding
torch maintains the flow of an inert gas into
the burner. It surrounds the stabilised arc with
a blanket of inert gas.

The most commonly employed inert gas for

this purpose is carbon dioxide. In liquefied
gas carriers, MIG welding is commonly used
to weld aluminium deckhouses and spherical
membrane tanks.

We'll also go over some of the other

specialised welding procedures utilised in the
shipbuilding industry:

• Plasma Welding: Plasma welding is

identical to TIG welding, with the exception
that the tungsten electrode is not in touch
with the plasma. Plasma is injected into the
weld joint, raising the temperature and
creating a shielding effect. This welding
procedure is typically utilised in sheet-metal
workshops at a shipyard for thinner metal
sheets.
• Laser Welding: Laser welding
technologies are utilised in advanced
shipyards, and because they require less heat
input, the welding distortions (which we shall
cover in further detail later) are minimised.
Carbon dioxide or Nd:YAG (neodymium
yttrium aluminium garnet) crystals are used
as the laser source in this technique.

• Thermit Welding: Thermit welding is a

common fusion procedure that is used to join
huge steel sections or forgings, such as the
heavy parts of a ship's stern structure. This
welding procedure uses a combination of
aluminium and iron oxide to heat the metal.

• Friction Stir Welding: This is a common

shipbuilding procedure in which heat is
generated by friction between the rotating pin
and the parent metal plates. This welding
procedure has the advantage of being able to
weld in the vertical direction, making it
possible to friction weld side shell joints
between ship blocks.
Welding Practices in
the Shipbuilding
Industry:
• Multiple Passes: When welding thick
plates (often greater than 5 to 6 mm), many
welding passes are required to fill the gap
between the plates and achieve full
penetration. Multiple passes are required
when a fillet weld is performed with high
deep bevels between the plates.

The cross section of an eight-pass multi-pass

butt weld joint is shown in the diagram
below. It's worth noting that the first pass isn't
enough to get all the way to the joint's root. A
back run is provided to help overcome this.
Before the primary passes are laid, an
additional welding pass is carried out from
the opposite side of the weld joint. To
achieve smoothness and finish, the extra
material is gouged out.
Figure 7: Multi-run weld containing eight
runs and a back run.

• Tack Welds: Two plates are tack welded

together at regular intervals along the length
of the weld joint before being welded
together. This is done to keep the plates in
place during the main welding pass and
prevent them from opening up due to heat
gradients. Tack welds are small weld runs
produced at irregular intervals, and the
electrodes used in tack welds are the same as
in main runs.
Figure 8: Tack welds before welding of two
plates.

• Welding Sequences: Welding sequences

are planned, taking into account any
aberrations that may occur. When a weld run
is finished, the cooling is not consistent along
the weld's length. As a result, strains occur
that draw the plates closer together at one end
and apart at the other. Shrinkages occur along
the weld length in some circumstances,
particularly with long butt welds, resulting in
warping of the welded plates. To reduce
these, the sequence and direction of each
weld are pre-determined and listed on the
appropriate structure's welding sequence
record. From the manufacturing of panels,
units, and blocks to the erection of the
fabricated structures on the berth, they are
prepared for welding at every stage.
Weld Defects and
Weld Quality
Testing:
A team of qualified inspectors inspects each
weld joint for weld faults. Welding flaws can
occur as a result of a welder's lack of
competence, the use of wrong materials, or
faulty welding processes and environmental
circumstances.

The most common weld defects are as

follows:

1. Lamellar tearing.

2. Crater cracks.

3. Inadequate cross section or insufficient

penetration of weld pool.

4. Underbead cutting.

5. Gas entrapment within the weld pool.

6. Slag inclusions within the weld joint.

7. Overlaps.

8. Undercuts.

9. Lack of reinforcement.

10. Excessive reinforcement or extra

deposition.

11. Lack of fusion within the weld pool.

The most commonly used non-destructive

methods of weld quality inspection are
discussed below.

• Visual Inspection: Visual inspection is

carried out by a trained inspector, in which
any surface defect is detected by the aid of a
naked eye. Surface slag deposition, the
incorrect shape of weld beads, incorrect
alignment of plates and excessive
reinforcement on the surface can be detected
by visual inspection. However, all the
undersurface defects require other methods of
inspection that are discussed further.
• Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI): Surface
cracks are most commonly detected by the
dye penetrant method. First, the weld joint is
cleaned so as to remove any slag or unwanted
material on the surface of the welded joint. A
layer of developer is sprayed over the weld
joint. This is white in colour and aids the eye
in the further steps. The dye is then sprayed
over the weld joint. The colour of this dye is
usually bright red because it is most
noticeable to the human eye. After a
sufficient waiting time, the weld joint surface
is cleaned. The cleaning removes all the dye
from the surface, however, the layer of
developer remains. In the case of presence of
any surface crack, the dye seeps in, hence
after cleaning of the surface, the crack clearly
appears red. It is in order to notice this with
clarity that the developer is applied. The
presence of any red lines indicate surface
cracks, and corrective measures are hence
taken.
Figure 9: Dye penetrant inspection.

• Magnetic Particle Testing: Smaller cracks

are not noticeable in DPI tests. However,
magnetic particle inspection reveals them
clearly, due to the change in magnetic field at
the cracks. In this test, the magnetic powder
is spread on the weld joint to be tested. The
alteration in magnetic field at a crack on a
ferrous material, the magnetic particles
accumulate along the length of the cracks,
forming clusters at their vicinity. This
provides a clear indication of surface cracks.
The image below shows two regions of
clusters of small cracks on a pipe.
Figure 10:Cracks detected during magnetic
particle testing on a metal pipe.

• Radiographic Testing: The method of

radiographic testing is based on a
fundamental principle of subjecting the test
piece to a beam of radiation from one side,
and capturing or recording the emitted
radiation on a photographic plate on the other
side of the test piece. This is where
radiographic testing comes of great use in
detection of subsurface weld defects. Any
obstacle within the weld joint would change
the radiation density in that area, which
would be reflected on a photographic plate.
Hence radiography is basically used to test
the consistency of the weld metal. The
following figure shows the detection of a
surface and subsurface discontinuity on a
photographic film.

Figure 11: Schematic diagram of radiography

test.

Both X-Rays and Gamma rays are used in

radiography tests. Reading and interpreting
weld defects from radiographic plates
required skilled and experienced personnel
who are specialised for the job.

• Ultrasonic Testing: Ultrasonic testing uses

the same principle as that of radiographic
testing, but with two major differences. First,
use of ultrasonic radiations eradicates the
health hazards related to harmful X-Rays and
Gamma rays used in radiographic tests.
Secondly, the recordings need not be
processed as much as that of radiographic
tests, because they are obtained in graphical
format as discussed below.

A probe sends a beam of ultrasonic waves

into the weld joint. The reflected waves are
obtained on a graph on a computer screen.
The first spike in the graph would be due to
the reflection from the upper surface of the
weld. The second spike (usually of lesser
amplitude from the first) represents the wave
reflected from the back (other) side of the
plates. A presence of an obstruction within
the welded area would also reflect some
waves back to the probe, therefore cause the
third spike of reduced amplitude than the
spike caused due to the back side. This spike,
however, appears before the spike from the
back side appears. Added to that, since a
number of waves now reaching the back side
of the plates is reduced, the presence of a
third spike due to a weld defect would also
cause a reduction in the amplitude of the
second wave, as shown in the schematic
diagram below.

Figure 12: Schematic diagram of an

ultrasonic test for weld defects.

The above illustration also helps us

understand how ultrasonic testing can not
only be used to detect the presence of a weld
defect, but also detect the location of the
defect. If the thickness of the plate is ‘E’, the
distance between the spikes due to the front
side and back side of a weld joint without
defect would be ‘E’ on the linear distance
scale on the graph. Similarly, the distance
between the spike due to the upper surface
and the spike due to the weld defect would
reflect the depth from the surface at which the
defect is located.
It is this property of ultrasonic testing that
makes it the most widely used non-
destructive

testing method for major welded structures in

shipyards.

Today, classification societies have laid out

norms not only on methods of welding but
also on the standards of electrodes to be used
for each type of joint, depending on its
location on the ship. Major research works
are being undertaken to predict the nature of
weld distortions so as to develop welding
methods to prevent rectification of structures
due to welding induced stresses. It is this vast
scope of research that makes welding an
interesting field of study for researchers.

Ship’s Bottom
Structure
The ship's bottom structure is one of its most
important components. It is designed not only
to provide the hull with the necessary
strength to bear the cargo's weight, but also to
withstand the external hydrostatic loads
acting on the hull's bottom.

The hull of a ship is built up of bent plates

that are welded together. If these plates are
not stiffened, the bending moments caused by
the loads may exceed the amount of stress
that the material can withstand, resulting in
failure. As a result, stiffeners are added to the
plates to stiffen them (or increase their
section modulus).

Now, there are two basic ways to stiffen a

ship –

· Transverse Stiffening
· Longitudinal Stiffening
Transverse Stiffening or Transverse
Framing: This is carried out in ships less
than 120 meter in length. In transverse
stiffening, the stiffeners run along the breadth
of the ship. We would be discussing this with
interesting details a little later.

Longitudinal Stiffening or Longitudinal

Framing: This type of framing employs
stiffeners that run longitudinally, that is along
the length of the ship, and is used in all sea
going ships having a length more than 120
meter. The details would be touched upon in
the later section of this article.

Now that we have an idea of the two types of

framing, we need to acquaint ourselves with
another categorisation of bottom structure
framing in ships:

· Single Bottom
· Double Bottom
Single Bottom
Smaller ships usually have a single bottom
since the cargo load does not necessitate a
double bottom. The plate floors of these ships
serve as stiffening components for the bottom
shell plating (see illustration for a better
understanding of the word "Floors" in
shipbuilding). Plate flooring (as shown in the
photographs) consists of transversely running
plates at each frame spacing.

Figure 1: Single Bottom (transversely

framed)
Note how each plate's upper edge is flanged
to strengthen the plate floor's bending
strength. For a moment, get back to the
basics. When the hydrostatic pressure beneath
the bottom shell causes a bending moment in
the bottom shell, the bending stress is
transferred to the plate floor. As a result,
designers treat all bending-stress-bearing
elements as beams. According to empirical
evidence, the bending moment in a beam
increases as the span grows. So, what if we
could shorten the plate floor's span to
enhance its stress capacity even more?

Intercostal girders are utilised for this reason

(see the image). The number of intercostal
girders would, however, grow as the ship's
beam rose, as this would result in a longer
plate floor.

To provide cargo storage, a similar wood

ceiling is constructed on top of all the plate
floors. However, because the wood would not
absorb any pressures applied to the bottom
structure, it is not a double bottom
construction.
Double Bottom
All ships at sea have a double bottom. A tank
top is provided atop the plate and bracket
floors in such a structural design. Bracket
floors differ from plate floors in that they do
not have a single plate running parallel to the
ship, but instead have brackets at the port and
starboard ends, with struts connecting the
tank top to the bottom shell.

Bracket floors are often placed every three to

four frame spaces, while plate floors are
typically placed every three to four frame
spaces. Ballast, fuel oil, filthy oil, fresh water,
and other consumables are carried within the
double bottom (that is, between the tank top
and outer bottom shell).
Choosing the height of the double bottom is
one of the most significant aspects of
building a ship's double bottom. How does a
designer determine what height is most
practical for a ship of a given length? The
height of the keel that the ship requires
determines this. So, while estimating the
scantlings of a ship, the designer first
determines the height of the centre girder,
which must always be housed within the
double bottom (following the rules provided
by the authorised Classification Society). As
a result, the double bottom height is now
determined by this component.

Engine room ways frequently have double

bottom heights, as they must withstand larger
loads due to heavy gear in those areas. All of
the frames in the engine room have plate
floors, and no bracket floors are employed.
However, there is another consideration that a
designer must consider when offering a
higher double bottom height in high-stress
areas. The height should not be increased
abruptly because this would cause a
discontinuity, which will lead to stress
concentration and, finally, structural failure.
As a result, the height gain should be
progressively tapered up and down. To allow
good stress flow or structural continuity, the
taper should begin a few frames forward of
the engine room bulkhead and extend up to
three or four frames aft of the engine room.

After understanding the preceding concepts,

the construction of a bottom structure
becomes more complicated. We've seen two
different classifications for double bottoms.
The first addressed the stiffening utilised,
while the second addressed single and double
bottoms. When designing a ship's bottom
structure, both categories are combined to
create the final structure. Most aspiring naval
architects find this section perplexing at first,
which is why we'll go over the four types of
feasible bottom constructions first:

· Transversely Framed, Single Bottom

· Transversely Framed, Double Bottom
· Longitudinally Framed, Single
Bottom
 · Longitudinally Framed, Double
Bottom
Out of these four types, three are used, and
one is not. While it is easy for experienced
designers to point out that one type, it may
not be easy for everyone. Because there is an
underlying concept to it, which we shall
understand now.

Why is longitudinal framing used when we

could easily have provided transverse
framing in longer ships too? The answer lies
in the fact that ships longer than 120 meter
are subjected to high global longitudinal
bending stresses like hogging and sagging in
different load conditions, unlike smaller
ships. So if longer ships would be stiffened
transversely, the transverse stiffeners would
have no role in taking up the longitudinal
bending stresses of the hull girder, and
therefore lead to more chances of failure.
Hence, stiffeners are aligned longitudinally in
longer ships.

It should be very clear now, that since longer

ships have longitudinal stiffening, and since
they are also designed to carry higher amount
of cargo, a double bottom is necessary.
Hence, longitudinally framed single bottom
structures (3rd in the above list) do not exist.

Since we are now done with the basics of a

bottom structure, it would be easy to visualise
each type henceforth.

TYPE 1: SINGLE BOTTOM,

TRANSVERSELY FRAMED (Refer to the
Figure 1)

· The plate floors act as transverse

stiffeners, and their spans are reduced by
the use of intercostal side girders that
run longitudinally.
· Most single bottom ships are provided
with bar keel that extends along the
length of the ship up to a certain
waterline at the stem. The bar is slightly
protruded outside the outer bottom shell.
· The outer bottom shell plating just
adjacent to the bar keel is called
Garboard strake, and its thickness is
 more than the thickness of the remaining
bottom shell.
· All the plate floors are flanged at their
tops, so as to increase their bending
strength.
· Manholes are provided in the plate
floors for crew access. These holes are
flange too, so as to reduce stress
concentration.
TYPE 2: DOUBLE BOTTOM,
TRANSVERSELY FRAMED (Refer to the
Figure 2)

· This is used in ships of length less

than 120 meters. (See how the length
factor dominates over the type of
framing used)
· The bracket floors form the transverse
stiffeners at every frame, and plate floors
are used at every 3 to 4 frame spaces, or
1.8 meters intervals.
· Similar to the single bottom, to reduce
the span of the plates, intercostal side
girders of keelsons are used that run
 longitudinally. An important thing to
note, is that the side girders are
continuous members, that is, where there
is an intersection between a plate floor
and a side girder, the plate floor is cut
and welded on both the sides of the
girder, and not the other way round.
Why? Remember, we needed to reduce
the span of the plate floors, hence the
girders will act as supporting members
to the plate floors.
· Flat plate keels are used in these
structures. The keel plating thickness is a
very important decision maker in the
strength of the ship. This is to be
calculated from the formula dedicated to
this purpose, provided by the relevant
classification society.
· Intercostal girders or side girders, and
plate floors will have lightening holes at
regular intervals to reduce the structural
weight, and will have manholes
(flanged) to provide access.
· Drain holes will be provided in the
 plate floors to help drainage of liquids.
Plate floors are further stiffened by flat
bar stiffeners (see image below), and
bracket floors, by angle struts to prevent
warping.

Figure 2: Double Bottom, Transversely

Framed (Perspective view and Transverse
view)
TYPE 3: DOUBLE BOTTOM,
LONGITUDINALLY FRAMED (Refer to
image)

· The prime stiffening members are

longitudinally running bulb sections or
angle sections. The stiffeners on the
bottom plating are called outer bottom
longitudinals, and those that stiffen the
tank top plating are called tank top
longitudinals.
· The span of each longitudinal is equal
to three of four frame spaces. That is, at
each three or four frame, there would be
a plate floor to support the longitudinal.
A bracker floor is places at almost every
frame, but it does not support the
longitudinals.
· Intercostal girders are used, as usual,
to reduce the span of the plate floors.
· If you notice carefully, the
longitudinals run across plate floors
through holes called scallops. So in a
 frame, where it is required to support the
span of a longitudinal using a plate floor,
the longitudinal is welded with a small
plate to the plate floor, therefore
rendering the scallop as a support end.
· In bracket floors, tank top and bottom
shell longitudinals are supported to each
other by means of angle struts.
· In plate floors, the longitudinals of the
tank top and bottom shell are supported
to each other by flat bar stiffeners, to
restrict bending, torsion, and buckling.
· As usual, drain holes are used for
fluid drainage and air holes are used for
passage of air. Note their positions in the
images, to visualise the exact layout.
· Margin plates are used in some
designs, to lead the flow of waste fluids
(bilge) towards the bilge wells on either
sides of the ship.
· A continuous centre girders runs
through the length of the ship,
supporting the entire bottom structure,
 the keel plate, and the garboard strake.

Figure 3: Longitudinally Framed Double

Bottom (Perspective View and Transverse
View)
In modern analyses of bottom structure of
ships, designers take a lot of care for various
modes of failure. A disastrous mode of failure
other than bending, is buckling, which a
bottom structure can be often subjected to.
For example, consider a ship to be hogging.
The outer bottom shell undergoes a
compression that leads to buckling of the
bottom plate, and associated structure.
Torsion can also be a mode of failure in cases
of container ships.

So, as a ship designer, when one analyses the

feasibility of a bottom structure, it is
important to test for all possible modes and
types of failure. Because, for example, if a
designer certifies a bottom structure only on
the basis of bending stress, without taking
into consideration buckling or torsion. What
could happen? In a situation, when buckling
occurs, the structure might fail due to
buckling (if it’s buckling strength is lesser
than its bending strength), even when the
bending stresses have not reached the failure
limits!

Hence, the principle design criteria must be

decided base on all possible modes of failure,
at various load cases, analysed by efficient
and certified FEM tools, so as to attain a safe
and economical factor of safety for the
structure, from all possibilities of failures at
sea.
Longitudinal
framing
Longitudinal framing (also known as the
Isherwood system, after British naval
architect Sir Joseph Isherwood, who invented
it in 1906) is a shipbuilding technique that
employs massive, widely separated transverse
frames and light, tightly spaced longitudinal
components. This method, according to
Isherwood, gave a ship significantly more
longitudinal strength than the old method,
which involved fitting a succession of
transverse frames together closely from the
keel upwards.
Before Isherwood, longitudinal framing was a
well-known shipbuilding technique. J. Scott
Russell, for example, was a naval engineer
who designed and built several longitudinally
framed ships, notably the SS Great Eastern.
However, no one had made the method
commercially viable, which was Isherwood's
accomplishment. Other shipbuilders and
owners studied the first commercial vessel
built with the Isherwood system, the oil-tank
steamer Paul Paix, which weighed in at 6,600
tonnes deadweight in 1908. The Gascony, the
first general cargo liner built on the
"Isherwood" design, was built in early 1909,
and its success led builders in a number of
countries to utilise longitudinal frame as well.

Traditional versus longitudina

Transverse frames are joined at right angles
to the keel and spaced between 2 and 3 feet
(610 and 910 mm) apart in traditional
framing. The keel or centre keelson is secured
at the lower end, while the deck beams are
secured at the top end. They're made up of
two parts: floors and side frames, and while
they're necessary, they take up cargo room
inside the ship. The keel, keelson, intercostals
(also known as longitudinals), tank top, and
decks provide longitudinal strength to
counteract stress induced by the sea's rolling
forces. Much of this stress is also absorbed by
the side plating. The hull would bow and
finally "break its back" if longitudinal
strength was insufficient. This was apparently
the only possible technique to build a ship
before steel ship building since the inner and
deck planking had to be laid lengthwise, with
the deck planking laid upon transverse beams
attached to the timber heads. This technology
provided for simplicity in construction and
transverse strength in short vessels even after
the introduction of iron construction.
Longitudinal strength, on the other hand,
became increasingly crucial as ships grew in
length. [2]
Very heavy transverse frames are spaced
significantly wider apart in longitudinal
framing than in standard framing—about 12
feet apart (3,700 mm) The shell plating is
then held in place by a huge number of
longitudinal frames. The longitudinal frames
on the sides fit into notches cut into the
transverse frames, whereas those towards the
ship's bottom are occasionally made
continuous between transverse bulkheads.
The transverses are attached to the shell
plating at steep angles and are cut at the
margin plate with a tank top. Strong tie bars
run from the transverses' face angle to the
tank top plating. Except for slots made for the
bottom and tank top longitudinals, the
transverses under the tank top seem like
regular floor plates. Even when huge hatch
openings must be accommodated, the deck
longitudinals provide enough strength.
Definitions of hull
elements
● Keel: The keel is a member, or series of
members, running longitudinally that
forms the structural base of a ship. The
keel always corresponds to a ship's
centreline. It is a major component in
providing longitudinal strength and
efficiently distributes local stresses when
the ship is dry docked. There are two
types of keels used to build ships of a
certain size, the flat keel and the duct keel.
Flat keel

Duct keel
 ● Girders: A girder is a longitudinal
member used in the construction of the
bottom of a ship. They can be solid or not
and can be placed above the keel (centre
girder) or spaced equal distances from it
(side girders). They can be continuous or
divided by floor sections (intercostal side
girders). The centre girder is always one
continuous piece and must be fastened to
the keel with a continuous weld. Girders
must extend as far as possible from the
forward to the aft end of a ship.
● Floors: These are made up of cross
members that are mounted perpendicular
to the keel and girders. There are three
main types of floor: solid, plate and
bracket.
Plate floor
Solid floor

Bracket or open floor

● Frames: These are vertical members that

make up the framing of the vertical part of
the hull. Frame type and spacing vary
considerably depending on the ship's
construction.
Shell framing
● Deck beams: These are transverse
members that connect the top ends of the
frames, forming the transverse framing for
the deck.
Longitudinal
framing, deck and
shell

● Deck girders: These are longitudinal

members that combine with the beams to
form the longitudinal framing of the deck.
● Longitudinals: A very general term to
identify any small longitudinal member
that can be used for several purposes. This
term is used more specifically in
longitudinal framing.
● Web frames: Oversized members that
replace a frame at certain locations on a
ship.
● Bracket: A general term that identifies
any part used to connect two members.
● Beam knee: Bracket located at the end of
deck beams that connect the beam and
frame to the shell plating.
● Pillar: Vertical member inside a ship that
connects the deck to the ship's bottom,
where it is installed between two
tweendecks, especially around hatches.
They are quite bulky and complicate cargo
handling inside holds.
● Plating: The plating of a hull is the series
of plates that form the watertight shell of
the hull. There is bottom plating, deck
plating and side shell plating.
● Bilge plating: Longitudinal plating that
connects the side shell plating to the
bottom plating.
● Tank top: Watertight series of plates
attached to a ship's bottom framework.
● Double bottom: The double bottom is the
watertight space between the bottom
plating and the tank top. Its height varies
according to the size and type of ship, but
it is generally between 0.75 and 1.5
metres. A double bottom is divided into
several watertight compartments by
watertight floors and girders. These
 compartments can be used to store fuel,
oil and ballast water. They are often used
to adjust a ship's list and trim.
A double bottom maintains a ship's watertight
integrity when the bottom is damaged. The
tank top greatly increases a ship's longitudinal
strength and forms a platform to carry the
ship's cargo and machinery.
Transversely framed double bottom

Longitudinally framed double bottom

Types of construction
Framing in the other direction
Transverse framing is usually utilised on
ships that are less than 120 metres long. The
circles formed by the flooring, frames, and
beams are closely spaced. The keel, centre
girder, side girders, deck girders, the entire
bottom, deck and side shell plating, and the
tank top give longitudinal strength. To
withstand overall stresses, vertical loads,
rolling, and dry docking, transverse frame
ensures adequate cross sectional strength.
However, shear forces can create
deformations between the rings on
particularly long ships.
Longitudinal framing is a term that refers
to how something is framed through time
Very large ships, oil tankers, and bulk-ore
haulers all require longitudinal frame. Floors,
deck beams, and web frames that replace the
frames make up the rings. In contrast to
transverse framing, these rings are spaced
more apart. Deck girders, girders, the keel,
and a vast number of deck, bottom, and side
longitudinals are the longitudinal reinforcing
members. Although the longitudinals are
little, there are a lot of them.
Framing that is a mix
Longitudinal and transverse framing are
combined in mixed framing. In one portion of
the ship, one sort of frame is employed, while
the other is used in another. Longitudinal
framing for the bottoms and deck, and
transverse framing for the sides, is the most
typical combination.
Stresses and
constraints on ship
structure
Static stresses and constraints
When the ship is not in motion, these stresses
are measured. A poor longitudinal
distribution of mass is frequently the cause.
Even though the overall force of buoyancy
balances the ship's total weight, these forces
may not be distributed uniformly along the
length of the ship.
● Hogging: If the forces of buoyancy are
concentrated around the section amidships
and the ends are loaded, the ship will tend
to move downwards at the bow and stern
while the section amidships will tend to
move upwards. In this situation, the deck's
structural members are being subjected to
tensile stress while the bottom structure is
under compressive stress. This
 phenomenon can be compared to a beam
supported in the centre and loaded with
weights on the ends.
Hogging

● Sagging: If the forces of buoyancy are

concentrated under the bow and stern of
the ship and the section amidships is
loaded, the ship will tend to move
upwards at the ends and trough amidships.
In this situation, the deck's structural
members are under compressive stress
while the bottom structure is being
subjected to tensile stress. This
phenomenon can be compared to a beam
that is supported at both ends and loaded
with weights in the middle.
Hogging and sagging can be amplified by the
movement of waves passing along the hull. A
crest of waves at each end of a ship combined
with a trough amidships will amplify sagging,
while a crest amidships combined with a
trough at both ends will amplify hogging.
The stresses caused by these situations can be
calculated using the load curves table, the
stress and sheer curves table, and the bending
moments table. Manual or electronic
calculators also exist to find the value of the
stresses on the hull. The maximum
permissible stress values can be found in the
ship's stability book.

Dynamic stresses and constraints

When a ship is under way, some situations
create additional stresses. They are caused
primarily by the effect of waves on the hull in
rough seas. Two of these are pounding and
panting.
● Pounding: When a ship sails in heavy
seas, it pitches. It can happen that the bow
rises over the crest of a wave and emerges
completely out of the water. When the
bow comes back down on the water, it can
be subjected to a major impact, which is
pounding. The hull plating at the bow end
of the ship must be reinforced to avoid
bending of the plating. This stress can also
occur at the ship's stern, but to a lesser
degree.
● Panting: When waves hit the bow and
stern of a ship, they create variations in
pressure that tend to push the plating in
and out. This is panting. The framing at
the ship's ends must be reinforced to
prevent exaggerated movement of the hull
plating.
Watertight
bulkheads
A watertight bulkhead is a transverse
bulkhead mounted on the tank top and it must
extend right to the uppermost continuous
deck.
Watertight bulkheads are installed to:
● Divide the ship into watertight
compartments and thereby limit flooding
if the hull plating is damaged;
● Improve the transverse strength of the
structure;
● Prevent distortion of the hull plating;
● Support the deck girders and
longitudinals;
● Rigidly attach the tank top to the upper
deck;
● Greatly slow the spread of fire.
The number and location of watertight
bulkheads on a ship are determined by the
ship's length and type, as well as the
machinery space's location. The number and
location of these bulkheads are determined by
the SOLAS Convention. However, there
should be a watertight bulkhead (collision
bulkhead) at the bow that is between 0.05L
and 0.075L (L = length between
perpendiculars of a ship), a watertight
bulkhead at the stern that forms a watertight
aft compartment (after peak) that encloses the
stern tube, and a watertight bulkhead at each
end of the machinery space (where the aft
bulkhead may be the after-peak bulkhead).
All parts that pass through a watertight
bulkhead, such as ventilation ducts, piping,
and electric wire, must be mounted in order
to keep the bulkhead watertight. That's why
certain pipelines that travel through
watertight bulkheads usually have remote
operated stopcocks.
Watertight doors
In some cases, piercing bulkheads is
necessary to allow crew or passengers to pass
through. A sliding watertight door is installed
in this scenario. The watertight door between
the machinery area and the shaft tunnel found
on some ships is an example of this
circumstance. Many of these doors may be
found aboard cruise ships, allowing
passengers to travel between different
portions of the ship. Hydraulics are
commonly used to actuate these waterproof
doors. On either side of the entrance, local
control stations must be installed. A remote
control station (usually in the wheelhouse)
must also be located outside both
compartments separated by the watertight
bulkhead.
Chapter II-1, Regulation 15 of the SOLAS
Convention governs the installation and
operating requirements for these doors.
Extract, Regulation 15,
[A watertight door] shall be provided with an
audible alarm, distinct from any other alarm
in the area, which will sound whenever the
door is closed remotely by power and which
shall sound for at least 5 s but no more than
10 s before the door begins to move and shall
continue sounding until the door is
completely closed. In the case of remote hand
operation it is sufficient for the audible alarm
to sound only when the door is moving.
Additionally, in passenger areas and areas of
high ambient noise the Administration may
require the audible alarm to be supplemented
by an intermittent visual signal at the door;
and
shall have an approximately uniform rate of
closure under power. The closure time, from
the time the door begins to move to the time
it reaches the completely closed position,
shall in no case be less than 20 s or more than
40 s with the ship in the upright position.
Watertight bulkhead
Watertight door operating mechanism
Shell and Deck
Plating
Plating on the shell and the deck
The ship's waterproof skin is formed by shell
plating, which also contributes to longitudinal
strength and resists vertical shear stresses.
Internal shell plating can be strengthened in
both transverse and longitudinal directions.
A sequence of flat and curved steel plates are
butt welded together to form the bottom and
side shell plating. The vertical welded joints
are known as "butts," whereas the horizontal
welded joints are known as "seams." The
longitudinal and transverse stiffening
components are usually soldered to the shell.
Shell plating on the bottom
Where a flat plate keel is used, the width and
thickness of the keel plate stay unchanged
along the length of the ship. Its thickness is
always equal to or greater than that of the
adjacent bottom plating. The keel strake is
parallel to the centre line.
Over the 40 percent of the ship's length
amidships, where the bending strains are
greatest, the bottom plate to the bilges has the
thickest strakes. Apart from increasing
thickness requirements in the manner of the
pounding zone, the bottom plating then tapers
to a reduced thickness at the ship's ends.
Shell plating on the sides
The larger thickness of the side shell plating
is maintained within 40 percent of the vessel's
midship length, then tapers to the rule
thickness at the extremities, just as the bottom
shell plating. On areas where large vertical
shear stresses occur, such as transverse
bulkheads in a vessel allowed to transport
hefty cargoes with certain holds vacant, the
thickness may be raised. There is also a
thickening at the stern frame connection, any
shaft brackets, and in the path of the hawse
pipes, where there is a lot of chafing. At the
panting region, the thickness of the shell plate
increases even further.
Sheer strake refers to the topmost strake of
plating adjacent to the main deck. Because
the sheer strake is so far away from the
neutral axis, it is thicker than the other side
shell plating strakes. The upper edge is
smoothed off, and bulwarks are not allowed
to be welded to the sheer strake's edge.
When the plating is heavy, the connection
between the sheer strake and main deck can
be a difficulty, hence a rounded gunwale may
be used to remedy the problem. This is
frequently the case when huge tankers and
bulk carriers pass through the midship
section. A circular gunwale's radius must be
sufficient (not less than 15 times the
thickness).
At the ship's ends, a seamless transition from
rounded gunwale to angled sheer strake/deck
stringer connection is required.
All apertures in the side shell have rounded
corners, and sea inlets and other openings are
kept as far away from the bilge radius as
practicable. Where this is not possible,
elliptical apertures on or near the bilge are
created.
Bilge keel
The primary function of a bilge keel on most
ships is to help dampen the rolling motion of
the vessel. Protection for the bilge on
grounding and enhanced longitudinal strength
at the bilge are two other minor advantages of
the bilge keel.
The bilge keel's dampening function is tiny
but effective, and it comes at no expense once
the ship is built. When the ship is in motion,
it is carefully positioned on the ship to avoid
excessive drag. The bilge keel then extends
over the midship portion of the hull, often
extending further aft than front of amidships
and almost perpendicular to the bilge turn.

Decks
Ships' weather decks are cambered to aid in
the drainage of water from the decks during
bad weather. The camber can be parabolic or
straight, with the latter being preferred in
many circumstances to allow for the usage of
panel lines in the deck panel manufacture.
Horizontal decks may have advantages in
some ships, especially if containers are
carried and consistent cross-sections are
sought. Internal decks or flats with short
lengths are usually horizontal.
Plate panels with transverse or longitudinal
stiffening, as well as local stiffening in the
direction of any openings, are used to
organise the decks. Longitudinal deck girders
can support the longitudinal framing whereas
deep transverses can support the transverse
framing.

Deck plating
The heaviest deck plating will be found near
the strength deck's hatch apertures. Plating
that runs parallel to the hatch openings
contributes little to the deck's longitudinal
strength and is thus noticeably lighter.
Because the highest longitudinal bending
strains will occur in the midship region, the
maximum deck plate thickness is maintained
over 40% of the length amidships, tapering to
the smallest thickness allowable at the ship's
extremities. Where larger stresses exist due to
discontinuities in the structure or
concentrated loads, the plating thickness may
be raised locally.
Hull of a Ship
The hull of a ship is the ship's most visible
structural element. To define the hull, it is the
ship's waterproof enclosure that protects the
ship's cargo, machinery, and accommodation
spaces from the elements, flooding, and
structural damage. However, this is
insufficient to meet our needs of
comprehending all aspects of a ship's hull.

In this article, we'll look at how a ship's hull

is designed for numerous aspects that are
taken into account during the ship's lifetime,
and how the hull design is the most
significant aspect of the overall ship design
and shipbuilding endeavour.

Hull Related Nomenclature

Figure 1: Hull Nomenclature.

The above figure shows the schematic profile

of a conventional ship’s hull. Understanding
the meaning and applications of the
nomenclatures related to it forms the basics
of understanding ship design and
shipbuilding technology.

Bow and Stern: The forward most contour of

the ship’s hull is called the bow, and the aft-
most, its stern. The stem is the forward most
contour part of the bow.

Forward Perpendicular: If a perpendicular

is drawn at the point where the bow intersects
the waterline, this imaginary perpendicular
line is called the forward perpendicular. For
most of the hydrostatic calculations, the
forward perpendicular is used as the forward
reference of the hull.

Aft Perpendicular: Depending on the

designer, the aft perpendicular can be the
perpendicular drawn through the aft side of
the rudder post or through the center-line of
the rudder pintles. The aft perpendicular is
the aft reference line for all hydrostatic
calculations.

Length between Perpendiculars: The length

between the forward and aft perpendiculars is
the length between perpendiculars. The LBP
is a very important parameter in all stability
calculations, hence calculation of the LBP at
various drafts becomes an important step in
carrying out stability analyses.

Sheer: The upward curve formed by the main

deck with reference to the level of the deck at
the midship, is called sheer. It is usually
given to allow flow of green water from the
forward and aft ends to the midship and allow
drainage to the bilges. The forward sheer is
usually more than the aft sheer to protect the
forward anchoring machinery from the
waves.

Summer Load Line: The summer load line

is the waterline of the ship at sea water when
it is at its design weight and ballast
conditions. It is also called the design draft;
this forms the reference for all other load
lines of the ship.

Length of Waterline: The length of the

ship’s hull at the summer load line is the
length of waterline for the ship. This length
plays an important role in the calculation of
hydrostatics of the ship, as well as propeller
design calculations.

Length Overall: The length between the

forward-most and aft-most point of the ship’s
hull is its overall length. This length plays a
major role in designing the docking and
undocking plans of the ship. In shipyards
where multiple building docks are available,
the overall length, beam, and depth of the
ship is a deciding factor in choosing a
suitable building block for the ship.

Hull Lines and Shape

The shape and form of a ship's hull is the
initial step in its design. Various form
coefficients are used to determine the shape
of the ship's hull, as follows:

Block Coefficient: Block coefficient is the

ratio of the ship’s underwater volume to the
volume of the imaginary rectangle enclosing
the underwater portion of the hull. Since the
length, breadth, and height of this enclosing
rectangle would be the length between
perpendiculars, Maximum Beam, and Draft
of the ship, the block coefficient is expressed
as follows:

The value of block coefficient is one for a

ship with the rectangular cross-section.
Hence, for a typical ship’s hull form, it would
be less than one. The higher the block
coefficient, the fuller is the hull form (e.g. oil
tankers, bulk carriers). Finer hull-forms have
lower block coefficients (e.g. container ships,
warships).

Midship Coefficient: The midship coefficient

is the ratio of the submerged area of the
midship section to the enclosing rectangle. It
is hence expressed as:

There are a number of other form coefficients

like prismatic Coefficient, Volumetric
Coefficient, etc. which are basically the
parameters used to define the volumetric
distribution of the ship’s hull along its length.
Once these coefficients are arrived at, from
statistical studies, the hull lines are
developed.

The lines plan of a ship’s hull comprises of

three views. To understand the lines plan, we
first need to know what are buttocks and
waterlines.

When the hull of a ship is cut into multiple

sections longitudinally, that is, if you slice the
ship’s hull at every two meters starting from
port to starboard, you would produce
longitudinal sections at every two meters.
The contour of each longitudinal section is
called a buttock line, and this is exactly what
is represented in the profile plan, as shown
below. The reference lines for the profile
view are the stations (vertical grid lines,
which denote the longitudinal position) and
waterlines (horizontal lines, which denote
vertical positions).

Figure 2: Buttock Lines.

If the ship’s hull is sliced along each

waterline, then every waterline produces a
distinct curve. Since a ship’s hull is
symmetric about the centerline, a common
practice prevails in which the curve is drawn
on either side of the centerline, and this view
is called the body plan or the half breadth
plan of the ship.

Figure 3: Half breadth plan.

Important Tip: The shape of the waterlines

(in the half breadth plan) play a deciding role
in the shape of the stern and the efficiency of
the propeller. In the above figure, the
waterlines move away from the ship’s
centerline with the increase in height above
baseline. That is, the innermost curve is the
lowermost waterline. Take note of how the
waterlines straighten at the aft as we move
upward from the keel. This shows that the
ship has a transom stern. So why is transom
stern preferred? The answer lies in the shape
of the waterlines at the stern. The
longitudinal direction was taken by the
waterlines at the stern ensure the flow of
water at the stern in a direction almost
perpendicular to the propeller disc. This
ensures minimum crossflow at the propeller,
therefore ensuring maximum propeller
efficiency.

If the ship’s hull is sliced to form a section at

every station, we obtain the body plan, as
shown below. The typical practice of drawing
the body plan is to denote all the half sections
(due to the hull’s symmetricity). The sections
forward of the midship are drawn on the right
side of the center line, and all the sections
from the midship to the stern are drawn on
the left side.
Figure 4: Body Plan.

The body plan is the most useful

representation of the ship’s hull lines. The
reference lines in the body plan are the
buttocks (vertical grid-lines), and the
waterlines (horizontal grid lines). The body
plan, along with the reference lines can be
self sufficiently used to develop the profile
plan and half breadth plan of the ship. It is
also useful in developing the sectional area
curve, and bonjean curves of the ship.

The complete lines plan of a ship is arranged

by placing the profile view on top, with the
half breadth plan just below it, and the body
plan to its right, as shown below. The lines
plan provides for the foundation of
developing not only the three-dimensional
hull model, but also developing frame-wise
structural drawings, general arrangement, and
loft drawings at the shipyard.
Figure 5: Lines plan of a ship.
Watertight
Bulkheads In Ships
The strength and integrity of a ship's
watertight bulkheads are crucial to its safety
in a damaged state. There are several criteria
that go into selecting where watertight
bulkheads should be placed in a ship and how
they should be designed physically.

Watertight bulkheads are vertically built

watertight divisions/walls within the ship's
construction that prevent water from
infiltrating the compartment if the next
compartment floods due to hull damage.

The location of the bulkheads throughout the

ship's length is mostly determined by the
findings of flood-able length calculations
performed during the ship's damaged stability
assessment. Once their placements are
determined, a variety of criteria come into
play, such as the types of watertight
bulkheads, their uniqueness in relation to
their location, structural design, and so on.
Collision Bulkhead
A collision bulkhead is the ship's most
forward bulkhead. The position of a forward
collision bulkhead is determined by two
criteria. The final position of the collision
bulkhead is determined by taking into
account both of the following factors:

Factor 1: Position based on flood-able length

calculations.

Factor 2: Position based on the classification

society code books. Most of the classification
society rules have an allowable range of
distance at which the collision bulkhead can
be placed from the forward-most point of the
ship’s hull. This distance is usually a function
of the length of the ship and factors related to
the shape of its bow.

Factor 3: Position based on SOLAS rule,

which states that the collision bulkhead
should be located aft of the forward
perpendicular at a distance not less than 5
percent of the ship’s length of the ship or 10
meters (whichever is less). The distance must
also not exceed 8 percent of the ship’s length.

However, the position of the collision

bulkhead should be such that maximum cargo
storage volume is achieved.

The collision bulkhead is a heavily

strengthened structure, its main purpose being
limiting the damage of a head-on collision to
the part of the bow forward to it. To limit the
damage to its forward region also means that
the collision bulkhead is watertight bulkhead.
It is usually vertically stiffened with sections
of scantlings higher than those on the
surrounding structures. It is also stiffened by
triangular stringers of higher scantling, called
panting stringers. Panting stringers are
usually provided at every 2 meters from the
bottom, forward of the collision bulkhead.
Figure 1: Collision Bulkhead (profile and
transverse view).

As per SOLAS rules,

· The collision bulkhead must be

watertight upto the bulkhead deck. A
bulkhead deck is basically the deck level
upto which all the watertight bulkheads
are extended.
· For providing access to chain locker
room and the forward part of the
bulkhead, steps may be provided on the
collision bulkhead. However, this must
not violate Factor 3.
· There must be no doors, manholes,
access hatches, ventilation ducts or any
openings on the collision bulkhead
below the bulkhead deck. However, the
bulkhead can be allowed to have only
one piercing below the bulkhead deck
for the passage of one pipe to cater to the
fluid flow to the forepeak ballast tank.
The passage of the pipe must be flanged
and must be fitted with a screw-down
valve which can be remotely operated
from above the bulkhead deck. This
valve is usually located forward of the
collision bulkhead. However, the
classification society certifying the ship
may authorise a valve aft of the
bulkhead provided it is easily
serviceable at any condition, and is not
located in the cargo area.
· In case of ships having
superstructures at the forward region, the
collision bulkhead is not terminated at
the bulkhead deck. It must be extended
to the deck level next to the weather
deck. This would ensure sufficient
 structural continuity and keep the shear
forces within safe limits.
· If the collision bulkhead is extended
above the freeboard deck, the number of
openings on the bulkhead should be
restricted to a minimum in order to
ensure sufficient buckling strength. All
the openings should be watertight.
Construction of
Watertight
Bulkheads
Watertight bulkheads' main purpose is to
separate a ship into several watertight
sections. Despite the fact that most watertight
bulkheads are transverse in orientation, some
ships include longitudinal watertight
bulkheads within compartments for
longitudinal compartmentalization. The
transverse bulkheads contribute to the ship's
transverse strength in addition to being
watertight. We'll take a closer look at that
later.

A transverse bulkhead can be built from a

single plate in small ships. The plating of a
transverse bulkhead on bigger ships, on the
other hand, is normally made up of a
succession of horizontal strakes welded
together. What's notable is that the thickness
of these strakes increases with depth,
presumably to strengthen the bulkhead
against maximum hydrostatic pressure in the
event that the compartment is entirely
inundated. As a result, two-dimensional
strakes are initially cut out of plates of
various thicknesses prior to erection.

The bulkhead plate is insufficiently resistant

to large-scale transverse forces, such as shear
forces. As a result, they are stiffened
vertically or horizontally. However, we
normally choose vertical rigidity over
horizontal stiffening. Why? Because
horizontal stiffening on ships with a high
beam would necessitate long-span stiffeners,
which would increase the stiffener's scantling
and weight, reducing the amount of usable
cargo volume. The span (and hence the
scantling) of the stiffener can be kept low
with vertical stiffening by introducing a
stringer at mid-depth (a stringer acts as a
fixed end, therefore reducing the span).
Figure 2: Vertical stiffening of a transverse
watertight bulkhead.

Flat bars, angles, or bulb bars are commonly

employed to stiffen the bulkheads, depending
on the needed section modulus. Meeting the
end circumstances is a key part of bulkhead
stiffener design. End supports must be built to
meet the boundary conditions so that the
stiffeners respond as predicted by the
theoretical calculations. They are bracketed to
the underside of the deck plating at the higher
end, creating a hinged boundary condition.
They are welded directly to the deck plate
and stringer to provide permanent ends.

To attain the requisite strength of bulkhead

plates, most modern ships employ innovative
technologies. Instead of strengthened
bulkheads, they use corrugated bulkheads.
Except when the width of the bulkhead is
greatly reduced, the corrugations run
vertically. There is, however, one trade-off
that must be made. Corrugated bulkheads are
formed of plates of consistent thickness
because the corrugations are applied to the
bulkhead plate early in the construction
process (which is, the thickness equal to the
lower most strake in case of a conventional
bulkhead). When compared to a normally
stiffened bulkhead, this increases the
bulkhead's weight. Despite this, corrugated
bulkheads are useful because they are easy to
fabricate and reduce the number of welded
joints on the bulkhead.

Figure 3: Elevation of a corrugated bulkhead.

The above figure shows the elevation of a
corrugated bulkhead from the side. In case of
bulk carriers, in order to prevent
accumulation of cargo at the base of the
corrugations, the lower end of the bulkheads
are provided with angular plates called
shredder plates, which help in shredding the
dry cargo to the tank top. The bulkhead is
connected to the tank top by a bulkhead stool,
which is fillet welded to the tank top plate.
The two forward and aft ends of the stool is
to be in line with the transverse plate floors.
This ensures proper stress flow from the
bulkhead to the plate floors.

Figure 5: Corner plates in a transverse watertight bulkhead).

As shown above, the corners, where the
bulkhead plate is welded to the side shell and
the deck plate, or the tank top, separate corner
plates are welded to complete the joint after
welding the remaining bulkhead plate to the
hull. These corner plates are provided for the
following reasons:

1. Fitting the entire bulkhead panel

(with the corners) would be difficult
from a production point of view since
every structure is first fabricated with
certain amount of green material. Before
final installation, the green material is
removed, and structures as huge as
bulkheads require repeated checks for
proper dimensional adherence.
Eliminating the corners from this stage
would reduce the complexity of
maintaining dimensional precision at the
corners.

2. Stress concentration occurs at corners

due to discontinuity of structure. In
order to prevent this, corner plates are
provided with additional thickness
than the adjacent bulkhead plating.
Pressure Testing of
Watertight
Bulkheads
The bulkheads must be inspected for their
integrity and water tightness once they have
been installed. Because it is not possible to
fill all of the cargo holds or compartments
with water for this test, a pressure hose is
used instead. The bulkhead is subjected to a
specific amount of water pressure from a
hose throughout this operation, following
which the structural integrity of the bulkhead
is tested (checks are done for buckling and
other deformations). Leak testing can also be
performed by pressurising one compartment
and checking for air leaking into the other.

Watertight Doors
The basic goal of a watertight bulkhead is to
keep things intact. However, on most ships,
there are times when moving from one
compartment to another is unavoidable. In the
case of passenger ships, an under-deck access
from one cargo hold to another or from one
compartment to another is an example.
Access to the shaft tunnel is required on most
ships, particularly to monitor shaft oil
temperatures or for maintenance in the
region. Watertight doors are used to achieve
this goal.

A rectangular bulkhead panel is frequently

carved out to accommodate a watertight door.
Special considerations are made in the
structural design of the area surrounding the
door opening, however:

· The dimensions of the opening are

kept to the minimum.
· An opening results in a major
structural discontinuity, resulting in
stress concentration around the opening.
To maintain stress levels below safety
limits, the opening is strengthened by
doubler plates to increase the thickness
of the bulkhead plate around the
opening.
 · If a vertical bulkhead stiffener comes
in the way of the opening, it is
terminated at the upper and lower edges
of the opening. However, designers
might choose to increase the stiffener
spacing to avoid this. In that case, the
scantling of the stiffeners adjacent to the
opening are increased from the
remaining stiffeners.

Figure 6: Opening for watertight door on a

bulkhead plate.

Watertight doors are either horizontally or

vertically movable and are usually
hydraulically or electrically actuated. The
lack of swinging doors in watertight
bulkheads is due to the fact that they would
be impossible to close in the event of
flooding. It must be easily movable even
when the ship is listed 15 degrees to one side
or the other, and the control system must be
constructed so that the door can be managed
both locally and remotely, i.e. from above the
bulkhead deck. To indicate whether the door
is open or closed, visual indicators are
provided at the remote control point on all
ships.

After installation, watertight doors are

pressure tested to ensure structural integrity at
design hydrostatic pressure in the event of
complete flooding up to the bulkhead deck.
SOLAS Rules
Pertaining to
Watertight
Bulkheads
SOLAS is one of the most significant
requirements to follow while designing
watertight bulkheads and doors, and some of
the most critical ones are listed below:

· The number of openings for pipes and

access should be kept to minimum in
order to retain the strength of the
bulkhead. In case such openings are
provided, proper reinforcement must be
provided so as to prevent stress
concentration, and retain water tightness
of the structure. Proper flanging must be
incorporated in openings for pipelines
and cables.
· Not more than one watertight door is
allowed per watertight bulkhead.
 However, in case of ships having twin
shafts, there may be two watertight
doors, each providing access to the two
shaft tunnels on either side. The
mechanical gears required for manual
operation of these doors must be located
outside the machinery spaces.
· The time required to close or open
any watertight door when triggered from
the control room or navigation deck
should not exceed 60 seconds when the
ship is in upright condition.
· The transverse location of the
watertight doors should be such that they
must be easily operable even when the
damage to the ship is within one fifth of
the ship’s breadth from its side shell.
· Every watertight door should be
equipped with an audible alarm distinct
from all other alarms in the area. In case
the door is being operated remotely, the
alarm should start sounding at least 5
seconds before the door begins to slide
either way, and must continue till it has
 completely opened or closed. However,
if operated in situ, the alarm must sound
only when the door is sliding. In case of
passenger ships, the audible alarm must
be accompanied by a visual alarm.
· All watertight doors that are
accessible during voyage must be locked
via an authorised unlocking system.
· Access doors and hatches on
watertight bulkheads must remain closed
when the ship is at sea. Visual indicators
must be provided for every access hatch
to indicate their status at the location and
the navigation bridge.
Fire Class of
Bulkheads
All watertight bulkheads are also equipped
with fire-resistant panelling to prevent fire
from spreading from one compartment to
another. Bulkheads are classed into three
categories based on how well they can keep
fire and smoke from spreading to the afflicted
side:

Panel of Class A: Class-A bulkheads are all

watertight. Class A bulkheads must be made
of steel or an equivalent material and must
pass a standard fire test, preventing fire or
smoke from spreading to the unaffected side
for at least one hour. The average temperature
on the unaffected side of Class A bulkheads
must not exceed 120 degrees Celsius. In
addition, there are three types of Class A
panels, each with a different time limit for
when the temperature at any point on the
bulkhead must not exceed 160 degrees
Celsius:
A-60 Panel: 60 minutes.

A-30 Panel: 30 minutes.

A-15 Panel: 15 minutes.

A-0 panel: 0 minutes.

Class-B Panel: Class B bulkheads are made

of materials that have been approved as
incombustible by SOLAS and classification
societies. And it should pass a basic fire test,
preventing the spread of fire or smoke for at
least thirty minutes on the unaffected side.
The average temperature on the unaffected
side of Class B bulkheads must not exceed
120 degrees Celsius. There are two types of
Class B panels, depending on how long the
temperature must not increase beyond 206
degrees Celsius at any place on the bulkhead:

B-15 Panel: 15 minutes.

B-0 panel: 0 minutes.

Class-C Panel: Class C bulkheads and decks

are made of materials that have been
approved as incombustible by SOLAS and
classification bodies, but they are not
required to meet any temperature or smoke
and flame transit standards to the unaffected
side.

Most enclosed locations on board the ship,

such as cargo holds, control stations,
stairways, lifeboat embarkation stations,
galleys, mechanical rooms, tanks, public
spaces, and lodging areas, are protected by
Class A and B panels. Class C panels are
commonly found on open decks and
promenades where fire safety is not a
concern. They can also be used between two
comparable compartments if a watertight
bulkhead is not present, in which case a Class
A panel is required.
SHIP DESIGN
What is a Ship's
Stern Tube?
Everyone is aware that a ship is driven by a
propeller placed at the ship's aft end. They
may, however, be unaware of how the
propeller is related to the ship's engine. A
stern tube, located aft of the ship, aids in this
endeavour.

Apart from the rudder, the propeller is the

only portion of the ship's equipment that is
located outside the engine room. Have you
ever observed a ship's propeller and
wondered how it is connected to the ship's
interior? Have you ever wondered where the
propeller shaft goes as it disappears into the
ship's hull? If that's the case, you've arrived to
the correct place.

The propeller, which is part of the ship's

propulsion system, requires electricity to
rotate. The propeller is powered by a marine
diesel engine installed inside the ship.
Because the diesel engine and propeller are
both very heavy, placing them in the same
location inside the ship would cause the ship's
stability to be compromised. A stern tube
with a propeller shaft is utilised as a result of
this.

What is a Stern Tube?

The stern tube is a hollow tube-like structure

at the ship's stern or back end, as the name
implies. A propeller is required to propel a
ship forward against the waves. The propeller
must be connected to the engine in the ship's
engine room, which is located outside the
ship.

The propeller shaft is a lengthy shaft that

connects the ship's engine to the propeller.
The stern tube is a tiny opening in the hull
structure at the ship's back end (aft peak)
through which the propeller shaft joins the
engine and propeller.

Inside the Stern Tube

The propeller shaft is carried by a ship's stern

tube, which has a unique shape and
arrangement. There is relatively limited space
to fit the propeller shaft configuration
because the ship's design is streamlined at the
aft end. The stern tube is located at the aft
peak of the ship's hull, and the propeller shaft
is likewise located at this level. The stern
tube's front end is supported by the aft peak
bulkhead, while the stern tube's aft end is
supported by the ship's stern frame. The shaft
is sustained along its length by specially
constructed brackets and narrow floors within
the stern tube.

Stern tube Bearings and Glands

The bearings known as the stern tube support
the entire weight of the propeller shaft inside
the stern tube. The stern frame and internal
framing of the ship's hull structure at the aft
peak area support the weight of the total stern
tube system, as well as the bearings.
Furthermore, at each ends of the stern tube,
there are usually two bearings for supporting
the shaft. The main purpose of stern tube
bearings is to allow the propeller shaft to
rotate freely and smoothly.

Apart from stern bearings, the stern tube also

houses stern glands, which are water and oil
sealing glands. The stern tube is a vulnerable
area of the ship, where seawater can readily
leak in. The region between the stern tube
and the propeller shaft is therefore sealed by
the stern glands. The glands are linked to the
stern tube's aft end and prevent seawater from
entering the ship. The glands help prevent oil
from escaping into the sea from the stern
bearings.

Seawater Lubricated Stern Tube Bearings

Thordon Bearings, Inc. contacted us to
suggest that we include information on
Seawater Lubricated, a procedure that the
EPA recommends. They gladly offered the
following text and graphic to augment our
post because we were unfamiliar with this
strategy.

Prior to the 1950s, propeller shafts were

encased in water-lubricated lignum vitae (a
dense wood) bearings and hull penetrations
were sealed with stuffing boxes. The
bearings, on the other hand, needed to be
replaced on a regular basis, and the stuffing
box packings available at the time were not
optimal.

There has been a comeback to seawater

lubricated stern tube bearing systems as a
result of growing environmental awareness
and new legislation. Improvements in water-
lubricated material technology have resulted
in a wider range of materials that can now
provide enhanced bearing wear life with no
concern of oil pollution from the stern tube.

The lubricating medium in a seawater

lubricated open system is seawater rather than
oil. Seawater is drawn from the sea, pumped
through non-metallic shaft bearings, and then
returned to it. There is no requirement for
stern tube oil. Only a forward seal prevents
seawater from entering the engine room;
there is no aft seal. Non-metallic bearings
now have performance comparable to metal
shaft bearings because to proven materials
and novel designs.
Types of Ships by
Silhouette
Every ship has its own silhouette, which is
often the best way to distinguish one type of
ship from another. Here are some ship
silhouettes that indicate their class, as well as
some tips on how to identify them apart. Such
swift identification at sea can be quite useful.

Types of Ships Based on Their

Shapes
The planet's oceans are home to an
astounding variety of ships. With vessels
ranging in size from aircraft carriers and
supertankers to small fishing trawlers,
ensuring that accidents are kept to a
minimum in an environment characterised by
boundless waterways and unpredictable
weather is no easy task. When two ships
collide at sea, the first step in deciding what
to do is to figure out what the opposing crews
are up against. Identifying whether a ship on
the horizon is a fishing boat or a cargo ship is
critical in determining the proper attitude
toward it; while a large cargo ship is likely to
be difficult to manoeuvre and thus can be
expected to maintain a fairly predictable
course, a smaller ship could turn
unexpectedly, posing a collision hazard.

However, distinguishing between ships, even

large and small, is not always easy at sea.
Size can be deceiving, especially if the
distance between you and the object is
unclear. It's easy to underestimate or
exaggerate the size of ships approaching on
the horizon at sea because there are no
landmarks or sizing indicators to work with.
During WWII, it was typical for scout ships
and planes to report seeing fleets of massive
battleships, only to later discover that they
had seen a squadron of smaller destroyers.

Typing ships by silhouettes has been a

standard approach for reliably distinguishing
ship kinds. The physical properties of
different types of vessels differ dramatically
and may be seen with the naked eye.
Silhouettes distinguish a navy cruiser from a
cargo ship, from the shape of the deck to the
pattern of the superstructure.

Supercarriers

Supercarriers are among the world's largest

and most visually stunning ships. There are
only eleven of them in existence, all of which
are operated by the US Navy and are
immediately identified by their flat deck
profile, which is broken up only by the
aircraft parked around them. These 1,000+
foot, 100,000+ tonne behemoths only travel
when surrounded by smaller ships and
covered by planes and helicopters, which is
fortunate for anyone at sea. Passing ships will
be alerted to its presence and will be directed
a safe distance away in no time—no one
wants to damage a supercarrier.
Aircraft Carriers

Not ever carrier is a supercarrier - that title is

reserved for the biggest aircraft carriers
afloat. Many other nations operate fixed wing
jet aircraft off smaller carriers whose physical
profile fits the slang term "flattop" which is
often applied to carriers. One or two boxy
conning/flight operations towers set off to
one side are pretty much the only feature
above the level of the flight deck, which may
also be broken up by the silhouetted of
numerous helicopters and jets around the
deck, a scene befitting what is essentially a
mobile airfield.

Tankers

Surprisingly, aircraft carriers are rivaled,

within the realm of things meant to float, in
size and weight only by supertankers. These
nondescript, ubiquitous vessels make modern
society possible by moving oil and fuel
between production fields and refineries
which are often separated by thousands of
miles. Identifying supertankers is fairly
simple - if it’s big, sits high in the water, has
a substantial superstructure located far
forward or aft, and doesn't seem to have
distinct shapes above the main deck then it
may well be a tanker. The lower in the water
it appears to be the more heavily laden with
liquid it probably is.

Cargo Ship

Tankers may carry society's lifeblood- fuel-

but cargo ships carry everything else of value
that is heavy and shipped in bulk. While
airplanes get there faster, cargo ships carry
far, far more and remain the most economical
means of moving goods over long distances.
When loaded, cargo ships are easily
identified by the towers of shipping
containers stacked on their deck. Their profile
sits high even as their hull sinks low in the
water. What superstructure they have is
minimal and set to the front or rear of the
ship.

The problem, as far as identification goes,

comes when they aren't loaded. When it
comes to telling the types of ships by
silhouette, an empty cargo vessel and tanker
look very much alike. Fortunately, it isn't
profitable to send empty cargo ships out to
sea. In most cases, even if they've just
offloaded a massive number of shipping
containers from a distant port, they're getting
ready to load some more for transport to their
next destination. And in truth, both tankers
and cargo ships are so large, loaded or not,
that it is best to keep clear.

Cruise Liners
Cruise liners are found all over the world, but
especially in places where tourists like to
visit. They frequently travel up and down
coastlines and can be a problem when coming
into a major port. Fortunately they are usually
large and quite tall, being effectively floating
hotels. Look for a continuous superstructure
as the most telling feature.

Battleships

Battleships are an unlikely sight at sea, since

only four remain in existence (save for
museum pieces) and only two, owned by the
United States, could be made seaworthy in a
crisis. But just in case, battleships can be told
apart from other vessels by their sheer size
(rivaling carriers, tankers, and cargo ships)
and above all by the big cylindrical tubes that
stretch out from the main body of the ship. As
the above image aptly demonstrates, even
when a battleship is as close to looking like a
solid mass against the horizon as it can get,
some of those gun barrels stick out. They're
almost a foot and a half in diameter and in
better viewing conditions can be seen to be
attached to massive turrets located along the
vessel's central axis.

Battlecruisers

The battlecruiser is mostly a forgotten breed,

but several ships that could ostensibly be
claimed to be battlecruisers are operated by
Russia. These revamped members of the
Kirov class are nuclear powered and house
twenty massive cruise missiles plus a couple
hundred surface to air missiles forward of
their superstructure. The relatively
streamlined superstructure, small guns and
helicopter pad aft, sharply rising bow, and
long flat area forward of the superstructure is
the dead giveaway that this is a Kirov.

Cruisers

Only the United States Navy and Russian

Navy still operate cruisers in significant
numbers, and they look quite a bit different.
The US operates many more than even
Russia though, and while Russia's look a lot
like smaller Kirov class battlecruisers or
oversized destroyers, US cruisers of the later
variants of the Ticonderoga class are
distinctive due to their long superstructure
bookended by large boxy sections fore and
aft and featuring an old-school tripod mast in
between. This shape allows them to mount
vertical launch systems for missiles fore and
aft and the Aegis defense system to control
them. This system is characterized by the
hexagonal panels located on flat surfaces of
the superstructure. This system incorporates
long range radar and an automated combat
control system.

Guided Missile Destroyers

Guided missile destroyers (often abbreviated

DDG) are used by many navies as their
primary surface combatant: they are powerful
vessels capable of controlling air and sea in
the service of the navies that operate them.
American and Japanese DDGs are distinctive
in that they look a lot like
Ticonderoga/Bunker Hill type cruisers, and
have boxy superstructures that house the
Aegis system. Other navies follow a pattern
more like the silhouette above, with a couple
mid-caliber guns located fore and aft and a
surface to air missile launcher or two set up
very close to the long superstructure. They
often have a helicopter pad aft as well, and a
fairly streamlined appearance.
Anti-Submarine Destroyers

Many destroyers are specialized submarine

hunters, and dispense with the Aegis-type
systems and surface to air missile launchers
in exchange for a hidden punch: high tech
sonar systems and enlarged helicopter
facilities. Often they have only self-defense
weapons to ward off aircraft and ships, but as
sub-hunters they are second to none. Indeed,
a pair of anti-submarine destroyers operating
in tandem, especially if backed up by a pair
of helicopters, is every submariner's worst
nightmare.

They are particularly distinctive due to their

clean lines - the Udaloy class destroyer
pictured above is a bit cluttered relative to
other modern designs. The Spruance class of
the United States, for example, was criticized
for not looking dangerous or well-armed
enough even though the members of this
class were among the best sub-hunters of all
time.

Replenishment Ships

The warships may attract all the attention, but

without the aid of dedicated replenishment
ships, they rapidly run out of beans, bullets,
and gas on long cruises. Navies with global
reach only maintain that reach by deploying a
fleet of replenishment vessels that carry
needed essentials to the warships.

These vessels are quite easy to distinguish

when silhouetted against the horizon because
of their busy decks. They have any number of
protruding hawsers, hoses, and cranes along
the edge of their decks and it is not
uncommon to see larger bulk items stored
above the deck as well. Even if these features
were not enough to set them apart from cargo
ships, many are equipped with a helicopter
pad as well- not a common sight on civilian
cargo decks.

Helicopter Carriers

More nations operate small carriers capable

of handling only helicopters or VTOL jets
than deploy full-on aircraft carriers. Many
nations even don't call them aircraft carriers
to avoid negative associations, an example
being the Hyuga above which is called a
"helicopter destroyer" by the Japanese
authorities, much like Russian carriers during
the Cold War were called "aircraft carrying
cruisers" to avoid legal restrictions set around
transiting the Bosporus region.

They are set apart from the larger full-deck

carriers as well as similarly sized amphibious
warfare ships because they lack a well deck
(so sit lower in the water relative to amphibs)
and have a superstructure that takes up
relatively more deck space than true aircraft
carriers. In addition, their helicopters are a
dead giveaway if no fixed wing aircraft are
seen as well.

Amphibious Warfare Ships

Many nations are turning to ships reminiscent

of aircraft carriers for transporting troops.
The old style amphibious assault is probably
obsolete due to the lethality of modern
weapons, so navies that wish to send troops
to hostile shores are likely to use helicopters
and hovercraft to get the job done.
Amphibious warfare ships like the Mistral
above are identifiable by how far above the
water their flat flight deck is located. This is
because their cargo deck and well deck (wet
deck for loading/unloading smaller cargo
craft) take up a lot of space, and so demand
that the ship's profile be far higher. Also note
the presence of cranes- even similarly sized
helicopter carriers don't usually have such
prominent cranes.

Frigates and Other Small Warships

Warships smaller than destroyers, such as

frigates, corvettes, patrol boats, etc. are fairly
difficult to identify. They are some of the
hardest types of ships, by silhouette alone, to
distinguish from one another. However their
sizes and functions remain fairly constant
across the navies that use them- and most do.
Their profiles are functional and relatively
streamlined, which sets them apart as
warships. Most have one or two larger guns
mounted in turrets, and most also have
identifiable missile launchers as well. Many
have helicopter decks aft, and lack obvious
cranes, cargo spaces, or other deck clutter.

They are small and quick, and fairly

maneuverable. They can be some of the more
common ships to be involved in collisions,
simply because there are a relatively large
number in operation and with varying levels
of crew competency. They are also intended
to maneuver freely, and can be hard to
predict. Best bet is to get in touch via radio
and stay in touch; they want to avoid running
into you as much as you want to avoid hitting
them. At-sea collisions have ended the career
of more than one ambitious officer.

Coastal Patrol and Law Enforcement

Vessels

Patrol vessels like this Coast Guard Cutter

above are even more common around the
world than small warships, and have a similar
profile. However, they are usually set apart
by their paint scheme and willingness to
remain in contact with nearby ships. If
warships are like unmarked black cars, these
patrol ships are more akin to a police cruiser.
They usually want to be seen, and are there to
ensure that everyone follows the rules. And
when accidents happen, they'll move to
render assistance.

In general, a vessel with clean lines, guns,

and a bright paint job is probably the marine
version of the local highway patrol.

Oceanographic Research Vessels

The term "oceanographic research vessel" is a

bit of a catch-all, but then again the varied
jobs performed by ships that fall under this
classification are fairly diverse as well. They
are at sea to gather scientific data on some
aspect of the ecosystem, and are visually
identifiable primarily because they look like
fishing trawlers but replace the nets and
booms and related gear with antennae,
electronic equipment, and very possibly some
people aboard who don't know much about
rules at sea. They are one of the few civilian
vessels that may well have a helicopter deck,
as some samples are sent back to shore as
quickly as possible.

Trawlers

No vessel is more representative of human-

oceanic interaction than the fishing trawlers.
They come in innumerable shapes and sizes,
from one-man boats to entire processing
centers for whale kills. But all have a few
common visual characteristics: They are
cluttered with gear and look like a cross
between a cargo ship and a yacht. Space
counts on one of these vessels, and crews are
often at sea for a long stretch of time,
working until the hold is full. Some stick to
bays and harvest lobsters; others head out to
the major fisheries with nets that may span a
kilometer.

The varied tools employed by these vessels

means that passerby should be cautious. A
drifting net can foul on a passing vessel, and
there are plenty of stories of fishing trawlers
lost in the North Atlantic because a warship
or submerged sub caught on a net and
dragged the trawler to its doom. So if the ship
on the horizon seems to have a lot of rigging
headed out over the side, be wary.

Yachts

Yachts, like fishing trawlers, come in all

shapes and sized. Rich types who own yachts
often want them to be unique, and builders
comply. But compared to vessels that are
meant to go to sea to do a job, be it moving
cargo or sending cruise missiles at an enemy,
yachts have ridiculously clean lines. They're
meant to be showy and luxurious, and let
those who can afford them enjoy a maritime
lifestyle without being encumbered by tools
and gear.

Not to say that scientific researchers wouldn't

adapt a yacht to their needs, or a fishing crew
that somehow ended up owning one wouldn't
make modifications, but in general yachts are
run by people who are on the water for
pleasure, not business.

Sailing Craft

Sailing craft have been around for centuries,

and all have at least this in common: masts,
rigging, and sails. If a vessel on the horizon
appears to have very, very tall masts relative
to its size, it is likely to be a sailing vessel.

Attack Submarine

Few sailors will see an attack submarine

during their travels, because this kind of ship
is meant to disappear as soon as it is out of
port and in deep enough water. If one is
spotted on the surface, it will be difficult to
see due to its very low profile. At sufficiently
close distances, submarines are obvious due
to their rounded deck and small conning
tower (called the sail by submariners). The
periscopes tend to be a dead giveaway, too.

Ballistic Missile Submarines

A ballistic missile submarine is much rarer to

observe at sea than an attack submarine, and
not simply because there are fewer of them.
These ships can transport up to two dozen
missiles with a payload of a dozen or more
warheads. The fact that these are nuclear
warheads is the cherry on top. The sole
purpose of ballistic missile submarines is to
unleash a genuine hell on an adversary in
reprisal for launching its own nuclear assault.

In navy parlance, their role is deterrent

patrols, which are designed to be a simple,
devastating insurance policy: if you strike
their homeland, no matter how effective you
are, a submarine will retaliate by destroying a
hundred or so of your largest cities with
nuclear missiles. No one would dare to
launch a first strike because of this danger,
according to logic.

A sail that is relatively far forward or aft

relative to the length of the submarine proper,
as well as any disproportionalities in the
profile of the vessel, are the strongest
indicators that you're dealing with a "boomer"
(as they're sometimes known) if you spot one
at sea. For example, the Delta-class boomer
above appears to have a parking structure
attached to it. Basically, if a submarine
appears awkward or as if it is carrying a big
load, it is most likely a submarine.

And if you do happen to see one, at least if

it's in the open ocean, you should act as if you
didn't. The locations of Boomer patrol
regions are definitely a highly guarded secret.
Congratulations if you come across one!
You've just jeopardised the national security
of someone.
Captain's Quarters
in English Ships
Because the Captain holds the most
prominent position on the ship, the Master's
house must be a master-place in the literal
meaning of the word. We'll look at how the
quarters of English ship captains have
changed over time.

Introduction
Because the captain is the ultimate authority
on each vessel, he is entitled to the best
accommodations on most seagoing vessels.
Captains with second or third-best
accommodations are uncommon, especially
on cargo ships. However, the tendency is
shifting on cruise ships, as more passengers
demand luxurious rooms while on board. On
cargo marine boats, the captain has a
comfortable cabin that is designed to suit
English sailing ship captain quarters,
European, American, and oriental styles that
take Asian lifestyles into account.
Captain's Quarters Location
As ships grew larger, the location of the
captain's quarters altered; on classic wooden
sail ships, the captain's quarters were at the
stern. Before the industrial revolution, the
stern of many long-distance ships served as
the captain's quarters, with competent
builders adding the majority of the comforts a
captain would require. A bed, dressing table,
shelves, cupboards, and a desk would be put
in a traditional English sailing ship captain
quarter, from which he would register his
daily advances before sealing them into
airtight bottles. There was also a private toilet
and bathroom in the quarters, but the space
was the limiting factor in what the quarters
could have. Unlike the rest of the crew, who
slept in bunks or hammocks, the captain's bed
was usually modest but independent. He kept
an hourglass, a quill, ink, and paper on his
workdesk to keep track of time and
happenings on a daily basis.

The Shift
The captain's quarters began to move when
the industrial revolution delivered bigger
ships. The main reason was the availability of
greater space; the introduction of steel in ship
construction made them larger, allowing for
the addition of items that were not possible
on wooden vessels. The ships had expanded
in length, height, and weight by a factor of
four. Bridges were built at a higher elevation
towards the stern of the ship, and the captain's
apartments were built behind the bridge
during the planning phase. This was done to
make it easier for the captain to get to his
quarters and the bridge while sailing.

The captain's quarters have remained behind

or near the bridge in modern shipbuilding,
with the majority of the alterations occurring
within the quarters itself. The English sailing
ship captain quarter was not adopted by other
ship builders since several countries built
their own ships. Each shipbuilding nation has
its own distinct way of life that they intended
to reflect in the captain's quarters and other
areas of the ship. Modern captain's quarters
serve the same purpose as living quarters,
with most captains having a separate cabin
(office) in which to perform official business.
The Captain's quarters have been expanded,
and numerous new conveniences have been
added for his comfort.

Ships designed for European countries, as

well as the United States and Australia, keep
the English sailing ship captain quarter style,
but add modern elements, whilst ships built
for Asia keep the same basic principles but
have variances within the quarters. This has
been prompted by Asian and Middle Eastern
people's strong religious beliefs and lifestyles.
This has prompted certain changes to captain
quarters on ships in the region, including the
addition of a small room or space dedicated
to prayer and religious faith, which is a
typical sighting on most Asian ships. Both
Hinduism and Buddhism predominate in the
region, and each has its own set of faith and
worship practises. Vessels from Europe, the
United States, and Australia do not
experience this change because all members
visit a common place of prayer. The
commonality of grace at a shared site is also
popular in Asian society, but many Asians
have their own particular religious space.

Vessels of the Present

The style of the quarters on most ships stays
the same, with only minor differences
distinguishing the English sailing ship captain
quarters from the other captain quarters, but
most are still comfortable to live in. On most
maritime boats, they are known as the best
quarters, but this is not the case on luxury
cruise ships. On these ships, tradition has
been broken as demand for amenities
demanded by holiday travellers has increased,
making the captain's quarter appear to be an
average chamber. Unlike cargo ships, cruise
ships have the bridge in the front of the ship,
although the captain's quarters are still close
to the bridge.

With the universalization of many products in

today's society, the captain's quarters has
found itself adapting to universal patterns that
assist minimise the time and expense of
construction and upkeep. This universal
approach to creating captain's quarters has
given birth to new styles that are increasingly
replacing the English sailing ship captain
quarter style with styles appropriate for
captains available in the modern world's
multicultural civilization.

Captains Quarters
Designs and
Components of
Sailing Ships
A sailing ship is a wind-powered vessel, and
this article explains the design, function, and
nomenclature of the ship's primary
components.
Design and Components of Sailing Ships

Sailing is largely done for fun these days, and

sailors want the greatest boat possible to
spend the day with their friends and family.
Please keep in mind that the term "sailor"
does not relate to commercial sailors or
seamen, but rather to the recreational boater.
So, what are the most crucial parts of a
sailing ship, and why? This will be explained
further down to give you a better idea of what
you should think about when buying or
building a sailboat. It is critical to
comprehend their significance in order to
ensure your safety and avoid any
unintentional accidents while having fun.

For the sailor's enjoyment, it is critical to

employ the best materials and practises to
ensure safety and longevity. To accomplish
so as successfully as feasible, the design must
be focused on the following elements:

The wind is used to propel sail ships. By

rigging sails across the wind's course, the
wind pushes against them, creating a force
that propels the ship forward. This means that
the design must include the following
elements:

A sturdy hull- Many boats' hulls are

engineered to withstand the intense force of
the waves. In the case of a sail ship, there is
additional component that adds to the hull's
strain: the masts. They keep the sails in place,
exerting enormous stress on the hull. The hull
must be reinforced around the mast area in
order for it to be sturdy and not rupture while
sailing.

The mast, which may be responsible for

supporting up to three sails at once, must be
extremely strong and flexible. Because the
mast is the component of the vessel that
provides power, it must be sturdy to avoid
fracture. The sailors would very probably be
stuck until a rescue party discovered them if
the mast was weak and broke in the open sea.

Winds exert force against the sails, and as a

result, the major source of propulsion is
produced. As a result, only the highest-
quality materials are used to construct a good
sail. As a means of propulsion, both the main
sail and the jib sail are critical. Aside from
the sail material, there are the rope attaching
hooks and rings, which must be securely
stitched to avoid any inconvenience.

The centre board is crucial in preventing the

boat from being turned over by the force of
the sail. It is an essential component of
smaller sailboats, and the majority of them
will have it. It is available as permanent or
temporary fittings that can be modified
according to wind pressure. The centre board
is an important component of smaller and
lighter vessels because it helps to counteract
the wind force on the sails, preventing the
vessel from tipping over and sinking.

With the wind constantly pushing against the

sailboat, some type of steering is required.
This feature was not available on older ships,
but it is now available on newer ships. The
ship would simply drift with the wind if it
didn't have a rudder; rudders aid in the
control of the vessel as it moves. Extensions
for rudders that reach near the mast can be
added. Tiller extension is what they're called.
It comes in handy when the sailor is working
near the sail and has to keep control of the
ship.

Unlike in the past, when sailboats were made

of wood, today's hulls can be formed of a
variety of artificial materials. The two most
significant criteria in today's hull construction
are light weight and strength. People desire to
travel quicker without causing damage to
their vessel, therefore fibreglass has mostly
replaced steel, which is now rarely used in
recreational ships.

These are some crucial aspects to consider

when building or purchasing a sailboat. The
anchoring hooks for the Forestay and the
sails, as well as the Jib sheet, a rope that
supports the mast, are just a few of the tiny
components that make up a good sailing ship.
So, with these few recommendations, I hope
you've learnt what the most significant
aspects of a sailing ship are, and that the next
time you go sailboat shopping, you'll think
about taking a good look at these items before
making a decision.
Estimating Costs for
Ship Building and
Repairs
Men with knowledge in hull construction and
engine manufacturing worked in a specialty
section to estimate costs for shipbuilding and
maintenance. Today, most shipyards
throughout the world operate in a similar
manner.
Britain was once one of the world's most
renowned shipbuilders, producing ships for
both the Merchant and Royal Navies. This
business has since shifted to Far Eastern
yards, which can build huge ships more
effectively and at a lower cost in half the time
it used to take. Despite the fact that
construction methods and materials have
changed, the estimate procedure will remain
the same as it was in my day.
Construction and Ship Repair Overview
I left Harland and Wolff in 1966 to join the
Merchant Navy, and I didn't return for
another thirty years. When we built the
topsides for the Schiehallion, a Floating,
Production, Storage, and Offloading vessel
(FPSO), I was working as a Project Engineer
at Kellogg, Brown, and Root's construction
yard in the Highlands of Scotland, and
Harland's had the contract for the hull. I
travelled across the Irish Sea to Belfast with
our completed topside processing modules,
and what a difference I witnessed when I
arrived at Harland & Wolff's yard!
The first thing I noticed were the two massive
cranes, Samson and Goliath, which could be
seen for kilometres around the big dry-dock.
These are depicted in the image below by
Wilson Adams from Wiki Commons. (To
enlarge the image, please click on it.)
This combination has revolutionised hull
construction: fabrication factories produce
vast sections of fully welded hull sections,
which are delivered by cranes to the dry-base,
dock's where they are welded together to
make the hull quickly and efficiently. To
alleviate tensions, the majority of the welding
is done automatically before being heat
treated.

Mild carbon steel plates were traditionally

used for the hull and decks, while high tensile
steel was employed a few years ago to lower
plate thickness and therefore save weight.
However, for a variety of reasons, this proved
unsatisfactory, and we are again back to mild
carbon steel and alloy plates. To boost
corrosion resistance, alloys are introduced at
the casting step before rolling. This is nearly
universally employed for double-skinned
hulls where corrosion in the spaces between
the hulls has previously been an issue.

Most tanker ships nowadays are twin-hulled,

with two hulls separated by vertical and
transverse beams and stiffeners. This is to
ensure that, in the case of a collision or
grounding on rocks, pollution legislation is
followed and that no oil spills occur. Anti-
corrosion coatings can be applied to these
areas, and they can be employed as double
bottom and wing ballast tanks. PA2 Dan
Tremper used a photo from Wiki Commons
to create this image of a supertanker with
double hulls.

Internal plumbing is put in the hull section

during fabrication, and pup-pieces, short
lengths of pipe, are used to connect the hull
sections once they are assembled and welded
in the dock.
Bulkheads are produced in the workshop and
sent fully welded within the hull sections to
the dock.

Accommodation and air conditioning can be

installed in either the stores or the dock. Due
to the risk of fire, my own experience in
offshore construction accommodation
suggests that all major welding be done
before fitting out the cabins.

Overhead cranes lower engines into the

engine room; in some cases, this can be done
in one piece. We used to build the engines in
the engine plant, then test them before
dismantling them and transporting them to
the outfitting berth.

When I returned to Harland's, I took a trip

around the old engine-works, where I had
learned all about the Burmeister and Wain
diesels so many years before.

All of the bays where the components were

machined and assembled were empty, and the
testing area was reduced to steel bedplates
and exhaust ducting suspended from the
shop's roof.

To continue from my ramblings, the driving

gear is constructed, the thrust block and prop
bearings are adjusted, and the shaft is
dropped in parts and bolted together. In my
day, piano wire was utilised for alignment,
but nowadays laser alignment is the norm.
The final prop shaft is pushed through the
stern gland and stern tube, after which the
propeller is installed on its tapered, keyed
shaft and secured with a fine threaded hex
nut, followed by the threaded cone.

We can now flood the dock and begin

commissioning the different systems, as well
as the main and auxiliary engines.

Estimating Costs and Preparing the Bid

for a New Build
Although my responsibility was estimating
piping fabrication and mechanical equipment
installation and commissioning, I also did
some hull construction utilising welded plates
while working in the estimating offices of
numerous Offshore Construction Companies.

Repairs are calculated based on the ship

owner's description, which will include the
timeframe, pertinent parameters, and a set of
drawings.

Basic estimate strategies for the key

components will be covered in the next
section.

○ The hull

○ The engine room

○ Piping and HVAC

○ Electrical equipment

○ Commissioning

○ Labor
The costs associated with producing
structural and piping drawings from the
client’s design drawings along with the cost
to produce the final bid and dry-dock
use/launching are an overall cost added to the
construction costs.

The Hull

This requires a Material Take Off (MTO) for

all the materials used in the hull construction.
The estimators are each allocated their own
section of the hull, usually by frame numbers,
to produce this MTO and include everything
from the main plates, longitudinal main
girders, and bulkheads right down to the
smallest stiffener.

Blasting, painting, and any insulation or

fireproofing is added, and the cost of the total
steel plate and steel section is then estimated.

○ Welding and NDT (Non

Destructive Testing)
In welding plates and structural members,
there are two basic welds: fillet and full
penetration welding, as well as a variety of
alternative welding procedures depending on
the client's preferences and demands.
Consumables such as stick rods, wire rolls,
and shielding gas all have their own
expenses.

The length of these welds is calculated, as

well as the man-hours required for
manual/automated welding, stress-relieving
heat treatment, and NDT, including
radiography, where complete penetration
welds are x-rayed.

All of the fabricated components will be

assembled at the dry dock or on slipways, and
there will be standard expenses calculated per
tonnage of materials for these procedures,
such as crane use and dock gate opening and
closing. Flooding and emptying a dry dock
can cost up to $600,000 by the time the silt is
removed and the water seals are replaced
before the dock is closed again.

The Engine Room

Manufacturers of major diesel engines for

modern ships, such as Wartsila and MAN-
B&W, have licenced numerous shipyards
throughout the world to build and install
these engines in their hulls. The expenses of
manufacturing and installing the engines, as
well as the auxiliary engines and
accompanying pumps and coolers, will be
rather consistent.

The cost of installation will be determined by

whether the engines can be lifted into the
engine room when testing is completed, or
whether they must be installed in portions, as
in my case.

The cylinder heads of a modern MAN B&W

2 stroke are depicted here, courtesy of Wiki
Commons and xtreme machine.

Piping Fabrication and Installation

The isometrics for piping fabrication are
obtained from the design drawing and
fabricated according to them. The lengths of
pipe, number of gaskets and bolts, as well as
the number of fittings and welds, are all
estimated from the drawings. Because ship
piping is typically made of cuni-
copper/nickel, stainless steel, and carbon
steel, different NDT is necessary, including
radiography if the pipes are used for high-
pressure oil or gas.

The cheapest approach for inspecting carbon

steel fillet welds is magnetic particle
inspection (MPI), and only a small
percentage of welds are checked unless a
problem is discovered.

The overall length and type of materials, as

well as the number of welds and fittings, are
used to determine the cost. Fabrication, shot
blasting, painting, and installation of pipe
supports, as well as the accompanying hydro-
testing required for completed runs, are also
estimated.
HVAC Fabrication, Installation and
Testing

Fabrication drawings are made from the

clients design drawings, and from these the
material required to fabricate the HVAC
ducting spools is estimated.

Components such as fans, dampers, and

filters are shown on the drawings and costed.

Some HVAC ducting is fabricated from

stainless steel, particularly for use in the
accommodation and galley, but the majority
is from carbon steel sheet.

Once fabricated the carbon steel spools are

hot-dipped galvanized before being installed
along with the different components and
pressure tested for leaks.

Electrical Equipment

The motors for pumps and fans are included

with the driven components and normally
bought as sets, i.e. "pumpsets."
The installation of all the other electrical
equipment such as switchboards,
transformers, control panels, including the
electrical cable used to connect them, also
need to be estimated.

Labor – Man-hours

There are several methods of working out the

man-hours (MHR) required for all the above
operations. One method is to use the weight
of materials, but most shipyard estimating
departments have what is known as “norms"
to achieve this very important component of
estimating the fabrication of ships.

Commissioning

HVAC, pipelines and pumps, electrical and

mechanical equipment, as well as main and
auxiliary engines, are all included in this
category.

This can be done by shipyard workers, but it

requires a high level of expertise. We
generally brought the equipment and systems
up to a pre-commissioning stage at the
offshore construction yard. Pressure and leak
testing, electrical circuit testing and
certification, and lubricating oil supply for
the different mechanical pumps and engines
were all part of the job. These were then
given over to a subcontracting
commissioning engineering business, who
would create their own estimating for these
components and then add it to the main bid,
usually by systems.

Notes:

1. I have included procurement of the various

components and pieces of equipment to add
to the estimate, however it is quite normal for
the client to procure the equipment and
transport it to the shipyard that they have
chosen to build their ship.

2. There is often a long lead-in time between

receiving equipment before it is required to
be installed, so most yards used to have a
Preservation of Equipment Procedure. By the
amount of queries I have had to several
articles I have written on the subject,
especially from Engineers looking after
stored equipment in high humidity conditions
of the Far East Shipyards, this is still the case.
This should also form part of the estimation
including man-hours, materials used, and
warehouse costs in heating and
dehumidification.

3. The estimation of ships repair follows

along the lines of the construction operations
given above. The shipowner normally gives a
scope of work with a set of drawings, and
from this information it will be decided if any
hull repairs will require a dry-docking.
Engine repairs are normally carried out at the
quayside where cranes and services such as
water and power are available.
Pressure Regulatory
Mechanism in Inert
Gas (IG) Systems on
Ships
The pressure in the Inert Gas (IG) system
must be kept within a certain range - not too
high or too low. Learn why this is important
and how it is accomplished on board ships.

Introduction

On the IG systems used on ships, we saw the

design considerations required for the piping
and valves. The pressure regulating
mechanisms included in the IG system and
their applications will be discussed in this
article.

The requirement for a pressure-regulating

mechanism

You could think that because the inert gas

distribution system does not operate at high
pressures, there is no need for all of this extra
equipment. The answer to this query is that,
while the IG system may not be managing
extremely high pressures, the inclusion of
these devices is required for safety reasons. In
the IG system, these gadgets must primarily
serve two duties. To begin, they must ensure
that the flow of gases from the IG plant to the
IG distribution system is only one way across
the cargo gas barriers (click here if you have
forgotten the layout of the IG system). If the
deck water seal breaks or the IG plant
encounters a technical issue, a blowback
could occur. Second, even if all systems are
operating normally, there may be a
requirement to regulate the pace at which
inert gases are delivered to the tanks.

What is the Process of Regulation?

The pressure in the distribution system can be

controlled in two different ways. It can be
done in two ways: with variable speed inert
gas blowers, which is a rudimentary method,
or with pressure adjusting valves, which is a
more sophisticated one. The latter is depicted
in the diagram below, which depicts a
pressure regulation system that includes
automatic valves and a recirculating line.

The system's operation is straightforward.

The pressure transmitter detects and transmits
the pressure signal to the regulator, which
then regulates one or both of the regulating
valves on the main inflow and recirculation
lines, ensuring that any pressure differences
in the desired direction are handled. In
simpler systems, the automatic pressure
regulating valves may not have the high-tech
control mechanism depicted below and
instead rely on weight to work. This method
is similar to the one used to keep the pressure
in a pressure cooker in the kitchen at a safe
level. When the pressure is too low, the valve
closes and retains it inside, but when it
increases over a particular value set by the
weight on the outlet, the excess pressure is
released, leaving only the ideal pressure
inside the vessel. Similarly, in the case of IG
systems on ships, it is assured that there is a
positive pressure with regard to the
atmosphere under ideal conditions so that no
air infiltration occurs, potentially leading to a
zone within the flammable triangle on the
flammability graph. Any pressure greater
than that positive pressure is potentially
hazardous and must be released to the
atmosphere via safety valves.
Components of Inert
Gas (IG) Plant used
on Ships – Deck
Water Seal
In this topic, we'll look at a critical
component called the deck water seal, which
serves as a one-way valve, enabling inert
gases to pass through while preventing cargo
gases from entering the ship's Inert Gas (IG)
system.

Introduction

In the previous post, we looked at inert gas

blowers, which transport inert gas from the
scrubber and demister tower to the IG
system's distribution piping. The gas is now
ready to travel from the safe zone to the
dangerous zone on the deck, if you recall the
article with the overall diagram of the IG
system. As a result, a system must be in place
to prevent any cargo gas backflow into the
safe zone, and this is where the deck water
seal comes into play.

The Water Seal for the Deck

Before we go into the deck water seal, it's

worth noting that there's an IG pressure
regulating valve that returns any surplus inert
gas to the scrubber, and then the gas passes
through the vent valve to the deck water seal.
When the main IG plant is turned off, the
vent valve should be opened to prevent any
backflow or pressure buildup in the pipelines.

The principal precaution against the reverse

flow of gases from the distribution system to
the IG plant is the deck water seal. Wet type
seals, semi-wet type seals, and dry type seals
are the three types of deck water seals. This
distinction is made based on how they
accomplish their goals, and a brief
description of each is given below.

Dry Water Seal (Wet Type)

The image below depicts the construction and
operation of a wet type deck water seal. It
comprises of a chamber half-filled with water
and two pipes for flue gas inlet and outflow,
as well as two small pipes for sealing water
inlet and exit. A demister pad is provided to
remove water droplets from the gas. The
water seal prevents cargo gases from entering
the IG system. The two pictures represent
scenarios where inert gas is flowing from the
plant to the distribution area, and the right
hand side shows a condition where back
pressure tends to drive cargo gases into the
IG system.

Wet Type Dry Water Seal

The picture below shows the construction of

a wet type deck water seal and its
functioning. Basically it consists of a
chamber semi-filled with water and two pipes
for inlet and outlet of flue gases while another
two small pipes denote inlet and outlet for
sealing water. There is a demister pad to
remove water droplets from gas. The
operation of this device is pretty simple and
the two diagrams shows conditions where the
inert gas is flowing from the plant to the
distribution area and the right hand side
showing a condition where back pressure
tends to push cargo gases into the IG system
and is prevented by the water seal.

Semi Dry Type Deck Water Seal

The construction of this type of seal as well

as the functioning under both conditions is
shown in the diagram below. The main
difference with the previous type of seal is
that it uses venture action to draw water when
there are chances of backflow of the gases
thus reducing if not completely eliminating
water carry over to the cargo tanks.
Dry Type Deck Water Seal

This seal totally eliminates any water carry

over and uses automated valve control to
deliver water to the seal in case there is any
back flow but the only disadvantage is that if
automation system fails then there is a danger
of blow back of cargo gases.

Just keep in mind that only one of these seals

is used, and in addition to this deck seal there
is a mechanical non return valve for extra
safety in the pipeline as well.
Non Return Devices
in Inert Gas (IG)
Plant used on Ships –
Design
Considerations
The non-return devices in the Inert Gas (IG)
system handle sensitive backflow prevention
operations, so they should be designed to
provide the highest level of safety possible
for the ship and its crew.

Introduction

We looked at the three main types of deck

water seals and how they work, as well as the
non-return valve, in the previous topic.
Before looking into the IG setup's distribution
system, we'll look at the design
considerations for these components.

Design Points to Think About

The first and most important consideration is

the corrosion and fire resistance of the
materials utilised in the manufacture of these
devices. This is critical because if the
material breaks in the face of a fire or
corrosive attack, the non-return device's
entire purpose will be defeated. There are a
variety of materials that could be used for
this, including low carbon steel with a
protective rubber lining, and so on.

○ Water is a crucial component of all forms

of deck seals, including dry type seals,
because it inhibits backflow of cargo gases
into the IG system's safe zone, as you may
have noted from the previous article's study.
As a result, enough provisions must be made
to ensure that a sufficient quantity of water is
available at all times, as well as the ability to
observe that quantity of water using sight
glasses.

Because the deck seal's main purpose is to

prevent backflow, it must be able to
withstand a certain amount of back pressure
before giving in. This capacity is determined
by the ship's exact operating conditions, and
the seal should be capable of handling the
worst-case scenario.

After looking at the non-return device design

concerns, we'll look at the element of the IG
system that is responsible for actually
delivering the inert gas to the needed
locations, which is the IG distribution system.
If you've forgotten about it, I recommend
reading this article about the IG system's two
primary subsystems, the IG plant and the IG
distribution system (Just keep in mind though
that even the deck water seal forms a part of
the IG distribution system).

Essentially, the distribution system's purpose

is to deliver inert gas to required locations,
protect cargo tanks from developing too
much or too little pressure, isolate tanks from
other tanks when necessary, and provide for
tank venting when necessary.
Inert Gas System on
Ships – Design
Considerations
Pipelines, isolating valves, and pressure relief
arrangements are all part of the ship's IG
system, thus they must be maintained with
care to ensure that they function properly.
Introduction
We learned about design considerations for
deck water seals and non-return mechanical
valves in the preceding Topic. In this post,
we'll look at which factors should be taken
into account while constructing the overall IG
system in respect to the various pipes and
isolating valves.
Considerations for the IG System
Pipelines and isolating valves, whether in the
IG plant or the IG distribution system, are
critical components of the overall IG system.
As a result, there are various considerations
to make when designing and installing these
components. The following are some of the
most crucial points.
When it comes to flue gases, the first thing
that comes to mind is temperature and
corrosiveness, thus the material used to make
valves that handle these gases should be able
to endure both of these aspects. Normally, we
would utilise Cast Iron, but only up to a
temperature of a few degrees above 200
degrees Celsius. Also, these valves should be
designed in such a way that soot does not
easily collect on their seats, otherwise they
will leak.
The scrubber tower receives exhaust gases
from the boiler, and the point of reception of
these gases must be carefully arranged. If the
uptake point is not carefully chosen, excess
hot gases may enter the scrubber, increasing
its load and perhaps destroying it. If the
absorption point is too close to the outlet, air
may be inhaled together with the flue gases,
increasing the oxygen content of the flue
gases to levels near 8%, rendering them
worthless for inerting reasons.
Pipelines are an integral part of the total setup
in both the IG plant and the distribution
system. Because different sections of the
pipeline deal with different types of flue
gases under varied conditions, they should be
constructed properly. The segment of the
pipeline from the uptake to the scrubber
intake, for example, handles extremely hot
and corrosive gases in their natural form,
therefore it should be made of strong gauge
steel; however, the exit pipes could be lighter
but with adequate inside coating to prevent
damage. Soot should not get lodged in the
pipeline and cause corrosion, hence there
should be as few curves and bends as
possible. The pipeline on the deck should be
resistant to all sorts of movement caused by
thermal stresses as well as relative movement
of the ship structure caused by external forces
such as wind, sea, and other factors. The size
of the IG valve and pipelines should be
calculated based on the IG system's
maximum operational capacity as well as the
necessary SOLAS standards. The same is true
for pressure/vacuum valves, which are
required to have a flame screen for safety
reasons.
Modern Efficient
Ships Engines and
Engine Rooms
Since I was a young engineer at sea in the
1960s, marine diesel engines and engine
rooms have evolved. Modern engines are
built to be more fuel efficient and to release
fewer hazardous exhaust gas pollutants.

Because ships' main engines are a major

source of pollution, legislation has been
enacted to decrease ship exhaust gas
emissions. Ship designers responded by
building modern, efficient engines and engine
rooms in response to ship owners' demands.

The sections that follow analyse these

changes, beginning with a summary of the
strategies used to reduce emissions.

Reduction of Sulfur from Fuel Oil and

Exhaust Gasses
The two main pollutants are sulfur oxides
(SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), and
several methods are being used reduce these
emissions.

Reduction of Sulfur Content in Heavy Fuel

Oil (HFO)

Heavy fuel oil is a by-product of the process

of the refining of crude oil

and is supplied to the industry from the

residue of the distilling columns, known as
“bottoms." This is in fact the bottom of the
barrel and contains a few nasty contaminants,
among which is sulfur.
So, this HFO can be reformulated to reduce
the sulfur content before we load it as ships
bunkers- but at a cost.

This increase in price, along with the general

rise in fuel prices, is too much for some of the
shipping companies. However there is
another method of removing the sulfur, by
post combustion treatment through scrubbing
the exhaust gas fumes explained below.

Use of Scrubbers to Reduce Sulfur Oxides

from Exhaust Gasses

Scrubbing the exhaust gasses does not come

cheap either, but once the plant is installed
the ship's engines can be run on the normal,
cheaper HFO.

The scrubber is a vertical pressure vessel that

is normally located in the funnel as there is
usually space to fit it there, as well as being
convenient to the exhaust piping to the
silencer before exit to atmosphere.
There are several types of gas water
scrubbers suitable for use in ships.

○ Seawater Washed

○ Fresh Water Washed

Both systems use the same principle of
spraying water onto the outgoing exhaust gas
streams as they pass up through the scrubber
perforated plates, with the resulting gasses
being up to 99% sulfur free, regardless of the
sulfur content in the fuel being combusted.

○ Seawater Scrubber
The seawater scrubber works on the principle
that seawater is alkaline from containing
insoluble calcium salts. It is these salts that
react with the sulfur dioxide in the exhaust
gasses, neutralizing them before falling down
into a storage tank. Modern plants supply
more seawater to this solution, with the added
alkali further reducing the SOx levels in the
water contained in the tank.

There is an added bonus when scrubbing to

remove SOx as the particulates in the gas are
also removed. These are collected by
seawater spray, before these too fall into the
storage tank.

An efficient wash-water plant removes most

of the solids before returning the solution to
the sea; the remaining solids are pumped
ashore for disposal while in port.

○ Freshwater Scrubber
The freshwater scrubber works in a similar
manner, only this time sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) is added to the freshwater in a
mixing/holding tank. The resultant solution is
then sprayed into the exhaust gasses as they
pass up through the scrubber, once again
neutralizing the SOx in the gasses.

The resultant solution is then subjected to

water wash treatment, with the clean water
being pumped overboard with the
effluent/solids mix going to a sludge tank for
disposal ashore.

A typical fresh water gas scrubber is shown

below. (Please click on the image to enlarge.)
Reduction of Nitrogen Oxides (NOX's)
from the Exhaust Gasses
Nitrogen oxides are a product of the
combustion of HFO in air, and between 5%
and 8% of these are removed by the
scrubbers. One way to reduce this further is
to raise the thermal efficiency of the engine
by using common rail fuel injection and
running the engine at a more economical
speed, reducing the fuel consumption.

However, the latest method of reducing NOx

in the exhaust gasses is to inject CO2 into the
combustion air inlet system, thus lowering
the temperature of combustion. High
temperature combustion is the cause of the
NOx’s.

Engine Room Efficiency Improvement

Components
○ Exhaust Gas Waste Heat
Boilers
Exhaust gas waste heat boilers are nothing
new; we had them in the engine rooms in the
1960’s. What is new though is that modern
exhaust gas boilers have been designed to
produce superheated steam as well as
saturated steam. The saturated steam is used
for accommodation utilities and numerous
engine room heaters.

○ Steam Turbine Generator

The superheated steam is piped to a steam
turbine coupled to a power generator that can
have an output up to 8MW.

Because of the more efficient main engine,

about 10% of the exhaust gasses can be
diverted before the turbo blowers. These
gasses are redirected to an exhaust gas
turbine connected to the steam turbine drive
shaft. A clutch allows the exhaust turbine to
be connected or disconnected from the main
drive as required.

The condensed steam from the turbine is

reheated by being passed through the jacket
water and lube-oil coolers before returning to
the boiler.
 ○ Electric Drive
The last innovation of the efficient engine
room is the coupling of one or two electric
motors to the main engine prop shaft. These
can be supplied by the steam turbo generator
or one of the auxiliary diesel generators.

My depiction of a typically efficient and

environmentally friendly engine room is
shown below..

MAN/B&W and Sulzer/Wartsila, the

remaining major engine manufacturers, have
spent a lot of time in research and
development of these engines and their
engine rooms. Having sailed as engineer on
ships powered by both of these large two
stroke, low revving beasts, it is good to see
them still about in the market.

So there we have it – the modern efficient

engine and engine room- a far cry from when
I was at sea. Although I reckon I could still
stand a watch or two in these engine rooms.
Now where did I put that Merchant Navy
Officers Discharge Book? I definitely had
one in 1973!
Functions of Ships
Main Engine Thrust
Block, Prop Shaft,
and Stern Tube
The thrust block, propeller shaft, and stern
tube all play a role in a marine engine,
ensuring that the engine's power is efficiently
transmitted to the propeller and that torque
and propeller shaft alignment are maintained
from the thrust block to the stern tube.

After its inventor Anthony Michell, an

Australian mining engineer, the thrust block
is also known as the "Tilting Pad Bearing" or
the "Michell Bearing."

Ship engines were constantly breaking down

due to overheating thrust blocks before these
were invented. Multiple thrust collars were
machined into the propeller shaft in those
days (even before this old Irish Engineer's
time), and slots were precisely carved into the
thrust block to match these. A pump provided
lubrication, but it was nearly hard to provide
equal load on all of the components, resulting
in breakdowns.

Returning to the present, the thrust block is

located just aft of the main engine and is
responsible for transmitting the torque
generated by the revolving propeller and shaft
into the ship's structure.

The propeller shaft is supported by a set of

shaft bearings that run the length of the shaft
between the thrust block and the stern tube.
The propeller shaft runs through the ship's
stern and into the stern tube, where it is
supported and sealed before being connected
to the propeller.

The thrust block, propeller shaft, and stern

tube are all discussed in the following
sections. We'll begin by looking at the thrust
block's construction and operation.

The Function and Use of Thrust Blocks

I recall questioning an old Aussie chief
engineer about the use of a thrust block when
I was at sea as a first tripper Junior Engineer.
He pondered for a time before responding
that if there was no thrust block, the propeller
and shaft would attempt to drive the engine
into the foc's'le head. That was about 45 years
ago, and it wasn't a horrible analogy at the
time.

The aim of a thrust block on a large marine

engine is to transmit the torque produced by
the revolving propeller through the housing
hold-down bolts onto the ship's structure,
according to a more technical response.
(Keep this definition in mind when studying
for your marine engineer exams.)

Steel plates and I-beams above and inside the

twin bottom tanks or cofferdams reinforce the
structure beneath the thrust block.

The thrust block is made up of a housing that

houses a number of wedge-shaped white
metalized pads with extensive helical oil
grooves. The pads are organised and attached
around a steel support, which holds them
against the drive shaft's machined collar.

A fluid film of oil between the pads and the

collar prevents overheating and early wear,
with the oil supply being hydrodynamic (self-
pressurized) due to the rotation of the drive
shaft.

In the bottom of the housing, there is an oil

reservoir that may contain an oil-cooling coil
that circulates seawater.

I've included a drawing of a Mitchell style

thrust block similar to the ones I used as a
youngster at sea. However, it is unlikely that
anything has changed, with the exception that
the pads may now be PTFE lined.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=xNLE8G3pC0k
Purpose and Operation of the Propeller
Drive Shaft
The propeller shaft is bolted to the main
engine flywheel, passing through the thrust
block then along the shaft tunnel. Here it is
supported by the shaft bearings before
passing through the stern tube to drive the
ship's propeller.

The shaft is manufactured from forged steel,

complete with coupling flanges. It is
machined leaving a larger diameter at the
location of the shaft bearings; this section has
to have a fine finish to run within the white
metal bearing.

The shaft coupling flange faces are accurately

machined and the bolt holes reamed to accept
fitted bolts. They are bolted together using
high tension bolting, which is tightened using
hydraulic tensioning gear.

The supporting bearings are cast in two

halves and are usually white metal lined.
These have oil scrolls cut into them to
distribute the splash lubrication. Nowadays
ball bearing shaft supports are being used, but
they have been reported as being quite noisy
with a tendency to run hot.

A typical prop shaft white metal bearing with

splash lubrication is shown here.

Purpose and Operation of Stern Tube

The propeller shaft penetrates through the aft
hull and is supported and sealed by the stern
tube. It's made up of a cast iron tube that's
been soldered into the stern frame. The shaft
inside the tube used to be bronze coated and
ran against a longitudinal bearing, which was
constructed of narrow strips of a very hard
wearing wood known as "lignum vitae" when
I worked at Harland & Wolff Belfast.

The propeller shaft, however, now has a

CUNI (copper nickel alloy) lining shrunk
onto it. The bearing surface between the cast
iron stern tube and the propeller shaft is
provided by Babbitt metal, which is applied
and subsequently machined. Lube oil is fed
from a gravity tank beneath the aft peak,
which keeps it lubricated and cold. To keep
oil out of the sea and the aft bilge well, the
propeller shaft incorporates mechanical
and/or adjustable gland seals fore and aft.

Note:

There are several different arrangements of

stern tube bearings. Some are similar to the
one described, and some having additional
water-cooled strut bearings fixed to the
outside hull of the vessel, supporting the shaft
right up to the propeller. (Notably on RN &
US Warships.)

A typical stern tube arrangement is shown

below.
Role of Flammability
Graph in Safe Cargo
Operations
The flammability triangle can be a very
valuable tool for planning safe cargo
operations on a ship, but simply looking at
the flammability chart isn't enough unless you
know what the various lines on the graph
indicate. This article will tell you more about
it.

Introduction

We learned about the flammability triangle in

respect to inert gas systems on board ships in
the previous topic. In this post, we'll take a
closer look at the chart to see how the
attributes change in response to changes in
hydrocarbon concentrations.
The Graph: An Overview

Despite the fact that you may have seen the

graphic in the previous article, I recommend
that you review it and refresh your memory
before moving on to this article so that you
do not have any difficulties comprehending
it.

The line AB depicts the situation in which

there is no inert gas present in the mixture
and only air and hydrocarbon gas vapours
(arising out of the oil stored in the tank). In
this circumstance, the combustible range is
the straight line between C and D on the line
A and B, with anything above and below that
being safe.

The situation changes substantially when

inert gas is put into the tanks, and the region
to the left of the line AB depicts inert gas
addition. The oxygen level decreases as the
inert gas content rises, and the flammable
range decreases in proportion. The lower
flammable limit increases down the line CE,
while the upper flammable limit drops rapidly
along the line DE (as indicated by the slope
of the line in the graph). Finally, at point E,
both of these lines converge.

The dashed lines AF, AG, AH, and FH reflect

changes in any component of the mixture,
where point A represents a condition of pure
air presence without any hydrocarbon or inert
gas in the mixture, and point B represents a
condition of hydrocarbon or inert gas in the
mixture.

Safe Transition Between Two Points on the

Graph
You can draw one important observation
from the graph that if the condition inside the
tank is at point F it means the mixture is
totally safe and is filled with inert gas. So
once this gas is freed or released and the
mixture progresses towards the point A along
the line FA it will pass through the deadly
black shaded portion which is dangerous.
Hence the safe method is to reach F to A via
H and not directly. This means adding
additional inert gas along the process so that
the black shaded region is bypassed and this
is known as purging.

Hence you see that a simple operation of

filling and emptying a cargo tank full of
crude oil or any similar cargo could be
dangerous if one is not familiar with the
science of flammability.
Fire Triangle - The
Region to be avoided
during Cargo
Operations
If you're just familiar with the love triangle,
read on to learn more about the flammable
fire triangle in connection to inert gas
systems on board ships. After all, both have
chemistry that is symbolic of fire!!!

Introduction

Ships have large tanks that hold cargo, and if

the cargo is crude oil or another combustible
substance, a correct environment must be
maintained inside those tanks. Otherwise, the
tank could easily be mistaken for a bomb. As
a result, these ships have inert gas systems in
place to prevent this from happening. In this
post, you'll learn about some of the
fundamental principles of IG systems.
The Explosive Triangle

The flammable range is the concentration of a

gas in air at which a mixture of that
hydrocarbon gas and air can ignite. You are
partially correct if you believe that there is
only a certain amount of hydrocarbon gas
below which the combination will not ignite.
The truth is that the combination will not
burn as well above a certain threshold. The
lower and upper flammable limits are
logically referred to as the lower and upper
flammable limits, respectively. Though a full
investigation of the maximum and lower
limits for each type of gas would be
impossible, a reasonable estimate would
place these figures between 1% and 10% by
volume of the hydrocarbon gas in air.

If you're not sure where the triangle concept

fits in, take a closer look at the image below
to have a better understanding. The image
depicts a graph depicting the percentage of
oxygen by volume vs the percentage of
hydrocarbon gas by volume within a ship's
tank. The lethal triangle is the black coloured
triangle near the right hand side of the graph.

If you're perplexed by the numerous dotted

lines depicting various conditions, don't
worry about it. As our research into inert gas
systems on ships progresses, we will learn
more about this. For the time being, just
remember to stay out of the danger zone
shown by the black coloured flammable
triangle if you want to keep your tanks and
ship safe.

Also keep in mind that the line AB

(somewhat vertical line on the right hand
side) shows points C and D and those are the
lower and upper flammable limits for the
mixture as we had mentioned before. If you
are not clear about the area or the flammable
range to be triangle rather than a straight line
just read next topic which explains this
concept in little more detail.
Types of Sailing
Ships - Oil Tanker
Ships
Have you ever wondered who delivered the
oil to your neighbourhood gas station if you
live in a country or location where oil is
scarce? Apart from pipelines and trucks, the
majority of the transportation is handled by
oil tankers, which are ships that specialise in
transporting liquids in bulk.

Introduction

It was impossible to envisage transporting

liquids in bulk across great distances in the
days when ships were made of wood
(imagine the courage of sailors who sailed on
them). Even if liquids were to be transported,
they were kept in casks and stored like dry
cargo. With the advancement of technology
and the use of iron and steel in shipbuilding,
cargo holds could be made both water and
airtight if necessary, making it easier to
transport liquids in bulk while collecting the
liquid cargo in tanks. A tankship, sometimes
known as an oil tanker ship, is one such
vessel.

Read about cruise ships, containers, reefers,

FPSOs, and barges for more information
about different types of ships.

Ships that transport oil

The challenge of transporting large amounts

of liquids was not simply making the cargo
holds watertight and airtight. The free surface
effect refers to the tendency of liquids to act
in reaction to external motion stimuli such as
sea waves, operator movements, and so on.
Even if you don't get it, imagine holding a
large bucket of water on your head and
shaking your hands for no apparent reason.
Although you may become stable after a few
seconds, the motion imparted to the liquid in
the bucket will keep you unstable for a much
longer period of time. This may be acceptable
for a bucket on your head, but it is not
practical for a ship in the middle of an ocean
being blown around by ferocious waves.

Of course, the solution to this difficulty was

to compartmentalise the cargo holds, dividing
the bulk mass of the liquid into many distinct
tanks (an outstanding application of the
divide and rule – or – divide and float policy).

Another issue in dealing with liquids is that

they must be efficiently pumped and moved
over pipelines, which was not always the case
in the past. However, all of these obstacles
and challenges have already been solved, and
the tanker trade is thriving.

Tankers come in a variety of shapes and

sizes, and they are meant to transport specific
liquids (rather than fluids) such as LPG,
chemicals, or even gases (just imagine that).
As a result, these ships have unique
designations as LPG carriers, Chemical
carriers, Gas carriers, Oil Tankers, and so on.

Another classification can be based on their

cargo carrying capacity and can be divided
into

○ Seawaymax

○ Panamax

○ Aframax

○ Suezmax

○ VLCC

○ ULCC
in increasing order of their cargo carrying
capacities. It would not be feasible to give
details about all these and this topic might be
taken up elsewhere in a different article but
just to give you an idea a ULCC could carry
even more than five hundred thousand tons of
cargo.
Last but not least the pictures of a tanker
should give you a better idea about how the
vessel looks in general. The right hand side
shows a chemical tanker while the left hand
image is that of an oil tanker ship.
What is a Cruise
Liner or a Passenger
Ship?
The sorts of ships we've looked at so far have
been classed according to the cargo they
transport. So, what do we call a ship that
transports passengers rather than cargo?
Ships for passengers!! Cruise liners and
cruise ships are the terms used to describe
them. In this section, you may learn more
about these ships.

Introduction

The ships we've looked at thus far primarily

transport goods in some form or another, such
as bulk cargo, containers, refrigerated
products, DP Ships, Oil Tankers, FPSOs, and
Ro-Ro carriers. In this post, we'll discuss
ships that transport people rather than goods,
also known as passenger ships or cruise
liners. If the term "cruise ship" is unfamiliar
to you, think of the movie Titanic and you'll
understand what a cruise ship is all about in a
moment, but I still urge that you read the
entire essay.

A Cruise Liner

A cruise ship can be compared to a floating

5-star restaurant with all of the services and
amenities that a vacationer might desire.
Unlike other kinds of transportation, the
primary motivation for individuals to embark
on a cruise is to enjoy the ocean adventure.
Of course, this is frequently combined with
visits to attractive locations, but the fun and
pleasure gained on a cruise ship can not
compare to the travel in a jet plane, when the
distance may be covered in a matter of hours
at most. Hundreds, if not thousands, of
passengers can be accommodated on most
modern cruise lines at any given time. A
cruise ship requires a lot more crew to
provide to the entertainment and other wants
of the passengers on board, in addition to the
staff found on other types of commercial
boats such as engineering, deck, and kitchen.
Cruise Liners
The Engineering Aspect
We'll use the former in terms of a cruise liner
because this channel focuses on the
engineering side of the marine sector and not
on hospitality or tourism. The machines and
necessary equipment found on a cruise ship
are essentially the same as those found on
other commercial boats, however the quantity
may differ. A cruise ship's lifeboats and other
safety equipment, for example, would be far
more numerous than those found on a typical
vessel with a complement of roughly two
dozen people.

Yes, I'd like to reassure you that cruise lines

are extremely safe, and the Titanic disaster
was an unlucky occurrence. Standards require
cruise ships (indeed, all types of ships) to
have the necessary firefighting equipment,
lifeboats, liferafts, and distress signalling
equipment, among other things, in
compliance with local and international
regulations. The images above depict
magnificent cruise liners gliding across the
ocean, carrying thousands of people who are
likely enjoying the time of their life. The
image on the far right depicts a futuristic
concept known as Project Genesis, and it
depicts an interior view of the projected ship.
Types of Ships –
Barge
The marine industry encompasses both
extremes of vessel types. On one hand, there
are very advanced ships with cutting-edge
technology, while on the other, there are
powerless barges. Learn more about barges
and their uses in this article.

Introduction

To say that a barge is a type of ship is a

misnomer in the literal sense of the word.
Types of Marine Vessels - Barge might be a
more appropriate title. The reason for this is
fairly straightforward, as you will see as you
read through the article and notice how this
differs from the various other types of ships
discussed here, such as bulk carriers,
container carriers, RORO ships, Reefer ships,
Tankers, Cruise Ships, Dynamic Position
Vessels, and FPSOs.
What exactly is a barge?

A barge is a big boat with a flat bottom that is

pulled by other machine-propelled boats or
tugs. It usually does not have its own
propelling mechanism (but it may have one).
You could think that if it doesn't have a
propelling mechanism, it isn't very useful and
must be old, but this isn't the case.

Let me use a basic analogy to clarify what I'm

trying to express. It may not be completely
accurate, but it should suffice. Assume you
go to the supermarket and purchase a large
quantity of items, which you then place in
hand-carried bags. You'll either need a car or
a hand-driven cart to transfer these luggage at
least up to your car if you don't have one
(most stores do not allow trolleys to be taken
home). So, despite the fact that the trolley
(barge in our example) is far less complicated
than a car (ship in our case) in that it lacks an
engine or steering wheel and instead consists
of a set of wheels and a braking mechanism,
it is nevertheless quite helpful for temporary
short-term transportation.
I hope you got the idea and now see how
handy a barge may be. Just look at the
diagram below, which depicts the structure of
a normal barge. As you can see, it's exactly
like a supermarket trolley that transports
products without any complicated machinery.
The various elements of the barge are clearly
indicated on the diagram, and you can see
things like bulkheads, frames, and stanchions.
Barges are used to convey heavy cargoes or
cargoes with low relative value, and because
of their shape and features, barges are best
suited for river and canal transportation as a
less expensive alternative to smaller ships.

Barges can also be classed into different

varieties, including hopper barges, log barges,
pleasure barges, and so on. It would be
impossible to cover all of these boats here,
although they are all built in a similar
manner. A car float barge, for example, is
used to move vehicles over a river, but a
pleasure barge is utilised for entertainment
rather than moving freight.

Typical Barge
What are FPSO
Ships and their use?
Although this may not appear to be the name
of a ship type, FPSOs are quite valuable,
particularly in the offshore oil and gas
business. Simply read this article FPSO -
What is it? to understand more about FPSO.

We investigated many ship types, including

bulk cargo carriers, container ships,
refrigerated product ships, DP Ships,
Tankers, Ro-Ro carriers, and cruise liners.
Now we'll take a look at a ship type that
many of you may not be familiar with,
namely an FPSO ship.

An FPSO stands for Floating Production

Storage and Offloading, and before diving
into the study of FPSO, you should have a
basic understanding of oil production. Inside
the sea, oil is extracted utilising production
platforms that are a safe distance from the
land. The oil extracted there must be
transported to refineries for processing or
sold elsewhere, depending on the situation.
So either we need to build pipelines from the
production platforms to the shore or we need
to ship crude oil from the platforms to the
shore on a regular basis.

For a variety of reasons, the initial alternative

of laying pipes may not be very appealing.
Pipeline laying is a hard and expensive
process, so the economics of installing
pipelines may not be a viable option for
short-term oil reserves that will be depleted
quickly. If genuine tanker ships are used to
deliver oil from the platform to the coast, it
will be a more expensive option because the
ship will be idle much of the time waiting for
the tanks to fill.

As a result, a middle ground approach is

taken, in which neither pipelines nor
operating ships are utilised. Instead, an old
tanker (technically known as a
decommissioned tanker) is used for the
purpose, which is accomplished by stripping
it down and just having enough equipment to
dock it. So, in essence, you have a floating
tank where oil is held until it is replenished.
The oil can then be offloaded from the FPSO
unit and transported to the desired location
using a regular functioning tanker ship.

Some FPSOs are equipped with partial

separation equipment, whereas others are not.
FPSOs can also be classified as FSOs or
FSRUs. The former is an FPSO with no
processing capability, whilst the latter can be
used for liquefied LPG storage.

It is not necessary though that only old ships

are converted into FPSOs but they can be
specifically built for the purpose as well.

The image in the picture below shows the

design proposed by this team for the
conventional ship shape type FPSO while the
other one below it shows the square shape
proposed for the FPSO.
What is a Container
Ship and its Uses?
It is quite simple to carry well-packaged
boxes from one country to another, and
transitioning between different modes of
transportation, such as trucks, trains, and
ships, is very simple. Containers accomplish
exactly that, and ships intended to transport
containers are known as container carriers.

Introduction

The term "container" usually refers to an

enclosed box of any shape that contains some
substance in general usage. I realise this is a
broad description, so let's narrow it down a
little to meet the shipping sector. Container
carriers, often known as container ships, are
ships that transport containers or boxes of a
specific size that contain cargo. Apart from
the numerous types of ships described here,
such as ROROs, Reefers, Tankers, Cruise
Ships, FPSOs, and DP Ships, this is another
relevant category of ships.

Ships that transport containers

Bulk cargo was transported in ships with vast

cargo holds in the early days of the shipping
industry, and these ships were known as bulk
carriers. This is a good way for moving vast
amounts of cargo like ore, grains, and so on,
but dry cargo occasionally needs to be
separated into smaller units, each with its
own owner and local destination.

Consider a hundred merchants placing an

order for, say, textiles from another country.
Each businessperson has a distinct order and
type of cloth. It would be difficult to load all
of this material into a single cargo hold and
separate it.

at the other end of the spectrum Putting the

goods of one merchant into a container and
labelling it as such would be a better option.
This would greatly simplify transportation
and other associated activities.

This is the notion utilised in container

shipping, where all of the containers are the
same size and are arranged in a neat and
ordered manner on the ship. Simply looking
at a photograph of a container ship will give
you an understanding of how the container
ship is designed. You'll notice that, unlike
bulk carriers and tanker ships, which carry
cargo inside their hatches (although some,
like log carriers, can carry cargo on top),
container ships carry cargo above deck level
as well, aside from the containers in the
hatches, which may or may not be covered
with hatch covers.

Another distinguishing aspect of these ships

is that smaller container ships typically have
their own arrangements for loading and
unloading containers, whilst larger ships
typically rely on shore facilities.

TEU Explanation
The Twenty Foot Equivalent, or TEU, is a
word you should be familiar with in this
regard. It refers to the capacity of a
conventional container, which is 20 feet long,
8 feet wide, and 8.5 feet high, albeit the
dimensions aren't defined and can differ from
company to company.

The goal of TEU is to make it easier to locate

equivalents for other regularly used container
sizes. A container with a capacity of 2 TEU,
for example, is 40 feet long, 8 feet wide, and
8.5 feet height. Can you figure out how many
TEUs a container with dimensions of 48 feet
long, 8 feet wide, and 8.5 feet height has?
(The correct answer is 2.4.)

The chart below depicts the typical TEU of

container ships over time, and as you can see,
the TEU virtually quadrupled every decade,
and the fifth generation of container ships has
a huge TEU compared to previous
generations.
A Reefer Ship and its
uses
Have you ever tried a fruit that doesn't grow
near your town or city, nor in your country,
but instead grows across the seven seas?
Then simply thank the reefer carriers, who
not only satisfy your hunger but also
transport other necessary items. Continue
reading to learn more about reefer ships.

Introduction

Transportation of goods is not restricted to

non-perishable products; perishable
commodities must also be carried, and if
correct temperature control is not maintained,
they may spoil during transit. Vegetables,
fruits, dairy products, and other items are
examples of such products. Reefer ships are
ships that are used to transport perishable
goods under controlled temperature
conditions, and they are a different class of
ship than the ones we've already discussed,
such as bulk carriers, container carriers,
RORO Carriers, Tankers, Cruise Ships,
Dynamic Position Vessels, and FPSOs.

Take a look at these two photos of

spectacular Reefer Carriers with distinct
structures, one with the most usually used
structure with accommodation and bridge aft,
and the other with a different layout with
accommodation and bridge in front.

Reefer Ships
Reefer Ships
Reefers ships not only transport eatables but
sometimes they are also can be used to carry
very precious cargoes which cannot be
compensated for by money such as blood to a
war zone. Obviously the need to carry such
cargoes at their proper temperature range is
of utmost importance.

The arrangement used for refrigerating such

bulk quantities of cargo could be having a
refrigerated cargo hatch but this type of
system is quite inefficient and is used lesser
these days.

The more popular method of refrigerating

cargo is to use reefer containers which have
their independent refrigeration systems and
just need a power input which is supplied
from the ship generators.

Another concept which is gaining popularity

these days is the use of liquid carbon dioxide
to produce ultra low temperatures for several
weeks at a stretch. This offers the benefit of
saving fuel costs though the cost of liquid
carbon dioxide isn’t low either but then just
imagine the benefits of transporting without
any need for electric power for the reefer
containers. Also this method is environmental
friendly and literally maintenance free as
compared to the conventional refrigeration
systems which have moving components
such as compressors which need regular
maintenance and repair.

The picture shows such reefer containers of

MAERSK Company stacked in a series. You
can clearly see the refrigeration equipment on
one end of these containers which is used to
control the temperature inside the container.

In some of the ships a water cooling system is

used to cool the hatches which store cargo.
The water has already been cooled to a preset
value and helps to keep the hatches at a
controlled temperature. This system is useful
since the heat generated in the hatches is
enormous and conventional compressor based
refrigeration systems have a hard time
cooling them.

In the end it can be said that due to reefer

carriers, people in one part of the world can
really savour and enjoy the delicacies of
foodstuff which grow in other parts of the
world. Also the use of reefer in transporting
live saving fluids such as blood helps a great
deal in the humanitarian aspects of a war.
Rogue Wave - The
Deadly Sea Monster
The occurrence of gigantic waves reaching
heights of 80 to 100 feet or more has been
reported by sailors in the past. They were
once supposed to be a myth, but they have
since been confirmed to be true. They were
once assumed to be a once-in-a-lifetime
occurrence, but they have now been proven to
be a weekly occurrence.
Introduction

The Perfect Storm is a movie based on the

book of the same name by Sebastian Junger.

It is the true story of the Andrea Gail, a

commercial fishing ship that left port from
Gloucester Maine late October 1991, heading
for the North Atlantic. Its captain was Billy
Tyne, and he had a crew of five hardy men.
While they are in the process of pursuing
their livelihood, they are unexpectedly caught
in a very intense storm pattern. Their tragic
demise has been attributed to a disastrous
encounter with a rogue wave.

What Are Rogue Waves?

Rogue waves are also referred to as freak
waves or killer waves by sailors, and as
extreme storm waves by researchers. Unlike
tsunamis, which are considered shallow water
waves, they are deep water wind waves,
because they are generated by the wind, and
have a restoring gravitational force.

Rogue waves have heights that are more than

double the size of the waves around them,
and they go in opposite directions to the wind
and other neighbouring waves. They're also
uncommon in that they can reach incredible
heights. Even during hurricanes, normal
ocean waves rarely exceed 12 to 15 metres
(39 to 49 feet) in height. Rogue waves, on the
other hand, can be significantly larger,
reaching heights of 80 to 100 feet. Despite
being noticed by sailors over the years, they
were regarded to be myths for a long time.

They were also once assumed to be rare,

happening just occasionally in thousands of
years, although this has now been disproved.
It was recently hypothesised that there were
approximately ten rogue waves per year.
However, eleven of them were once
discovered in a three-week span, defying this
theory. More crucially, satellites have
recently demonstrated that they are a
common, natural occurrence that occurs not
only during violent storms but also in calm
waters, and that they can arrive without
notice.

Rogue waves have been reported in the North

Atlantic, the South Atlantic, the Pacific, the
Antarctic, and the South Indian Ocean,
among other places. They're most common in
the latter, especially in the South African
region.

In the second half, we'll examine at rogue

wave tragedies on land and at sea.

Oasis of the Sea: The

World's Largest
Cruise Ship
A cruise ship with a length of 1181 feet that
is almost ready to sail. It is currently under
construction and will be the world's largest
and most expensive ship. People are
clamouring to get a look of it, and bookings
are already open. Titanic's Resurrection?
Let's have a look.
Introduction

Would you trust me if I told you there was a

new Titanic in the works? On the contrary, I
should suggest a new Titanic, which has
nearly double the passenger capacity of the
original Titanic. Not only that, but its length
is double that of the original. Friends, the
largest cruise ship is called Oasis of the Seas,
not Titanic. It would be the world's largest
passenger ship, as well as the most expensive.

The Royal Caribbean Cruises, the industry's

pioneer cruise company, has made this bold
step. The ship is now being built and will be
ready to sail in three to four months. It is a
ship that has been thoroughly modernised and
equipped with all of the most cutting-edge
technologies available. It also features several
novel entertainment concepts that have never
been tried before in the cruise industry.

The ship is being created as part of the

Genesis project. The ship has already made
waves in the shipping sector, and it appears
that it is deserving of all the attention. Let's
take a look at everything this ship has to offer
that will give other cruise lines a run for their
money.

Some Facts

The passenger capacity of the Oasis of the

Sea will be 6,400 persons. The ship will be
roughly 1181 feet long and weigh 2,20,000
tonnes. Looking at the artistically rendered
images, it appears to be a mini-city rather
than a ship. There are lamppost-lined streets,
parks, little lakes, and even movie theatres. It
will have 16 massive decks, each of which
will be adorned with the greatest in
hospitality amenities.

The ship's total construction cost is estimated

to be around $1.24 billion. The ship is being
built in one of Finland's most prestigious
shipyards. All of these figures should
convince you that it is, in fact, the world's
largest cruise ship.
A City in the Sea
If you look closely at the aesthetically created
images, you'll see that the ship's interiors
exactly mirror the elements of an urban city,
such as restaurants, cafeterias, and nightclubs,
creating a sense of home away from home.
The ship will travel to some of the world's
most interesting and attractive locations. The
ship's management has made every effort to
ensure that the ship does not miss any of the
world's major ports.

Following the successful debut of this ship,

Royal Caribbean intends to launch a sister
ship that will be larger. The ship, Oasis of the
Seas, is in the works, with distinct pieces
being built in 13 different ports across
Norway at the same time.

According to reports, the ship's shopping mall

will be the world's largest shopping mall,
both on land and at sea.

It will be equipped with an amphitheatre the

size of a football field. It will also have rock
climbing walls and a micro temperature
control system on board.

This ship will not only be a paradise for

guests, but it will also be a fantastic
opportunity for individuals with the necessary
talents who wish to work on a cruise ship.