Waves

What is a wave?
⚫ A wave is s disturbance that propagates through space and time, with
transference of energy.
⚫ For example: -Consider the sound of the horn; this sound reaches our
ear because of sound waves.
⚫ There is transfer of energy from one point to another with the help of
particles in the medium.
⚫ These particles don’t move they just move around their mean position,
but the energy is getting transferred from one particle to another and it
keeps on transferring till it reaches the destination.
⚫ The movement of a particle is initiated by the disturbance. And this
disturbance is transferred from one point to another through space and
time.
⚫ Note:-Energy and not the matter is transferred from one point to
another.
⚫ When a source of energy causes vibration to travel through the medium
a wave is created.
Types of Waves
⚫ Mechanical waves
⚫ Electromagnetic waves
⚫ Matter waves
⚫ Mechanical waves: -
⚫ The mechanical waves are governed by all the
Newton’s laws of motion.
⚫ Medium is needed for propagation of the wave.
⚫ For Example: - Water Waves, Sound Waves
Electromagnetic waves:-
⚫Electromagnetic waves are
related to electric and
magnetic fields.
⚫An electromagnetic wave,
does not need a medium
to propagate, it carries no
mass, does carry energy.
⚫Examples: - Satellite
system, mobile phones,
radio, music player, x-rays
and microwave.
 Matter waves:-
⚫ Waves related to matter.
Matter consists of small
particles.
⚫ Matter waves are associated
with moving electrons,
protons, neutrons & other
fundamental particles etc.
⚫ Examples: - pencil, sun,
moon, earth, ball, atoms.
 Transverse Waves
⚫The transverse waves are those in which direction of
disturbance or displacement in the medium is
perpendicular to that of the propagation of wave.
⚫The direction in which a wave propagates is perpendicular
to the direction of disturbance.
⚫Crest and trough are produce .
⚫Travel can through solids and on the liquids surface.
⚫These wave can travel only through medium hch have
rigidity.
⚫Density of medium does not change
⚫For example:-
⚫ Consider a man holding one end of a
thread and other end of the thread is
fixed to wall.
⚫ When a little jerk is given to the thread
in the upward direction. The entire
thread moves in a wavy manner.
⚫ The jerk propagated along the entire
length of the thread.
⚫ The small disturbance which came
from the source at one end, that
disturbance getting propagated and
that is known as direction of
propagation.
⚫ Disturbance is vertically upward and
wave is horizontal. They are A single pulse is sent along a
perpendicular to each other. stretched string. A typical element
⚫ This type of wave is known as of the string (such as that marked
transverse wave. with a dot) moves up and then
down as the pulse passes through.
The element’s motion is
perpendicular to the direction in
which the wave travels.
 How are transverse waves caused?
⚫ When we pull a thread in upward direction the formation and
propagation of the waves are possible because entire thread is under
tension.
⚫ This tension is the small disturbance which is given at one end and it
gets transferred to its neighboring molecules.
⚫ This will keep on continuing. So this small pulse will get propagated
along the length of the thread.
⚫ The movement of the particles is perpendicular to the propagation of
the wave and the wave will propagate horizontally.
⚫ It is a transverse wave.
⚫ A sinusoidal wave is sent along the string. A typical element of the
string moves up and down continuously as the wave passes.
Conclusion: -
⚫ Transverse waves are those waves which propagates
perpendicular to the direction of the disturbance.
⚫ Direction of disturbance is the direction of motion of
particles of the medium.
Longitudinal Waves
⚫ Longitudinal means something related to length.
⚫ In longitudinal waves direction of disturbance or displacement in the medium
is along the propagation of the wave.
⚫ For example: - Sound waves. Particles and wave moving along the horizontal
direction. So both are in the same direction.
⚫ In a Longitudinal wave there are regions where particles are very close to
each other. These regions are known as compressions.
⚫ In some regions the particles are far apart. Those regions are known as
rarefactions.
⚫ These wave can travel through sold , liquid and gas.
⚫ Density of medium change .
Sound:
Sound is a form of energy produced by vibrations. When an item vibrates, the surrounding
air molecules move. These molecules collide with molecules nearby, forcing them to vibrate
as well. This causes them to collide with additional surrounding air molecules.

This "chain reaction" movement, known as sound waves, continues indefinitely until the
molecules run out of energy.

Types of sound:
Sonic Waves:
The human ear is susceptible to sound waves with frequencies ranging from 20Hz to 20kHz
This range is referred to as the audible range, and these waves are referred to as audible
waves.
Example: Vibrating sitar, guitar, organ pipes, flutes, shehnai, and other instruments
generate waves.
Ultrasonic waves:
An ultrasonic wave is a longitudinal wave with a frequency greater than the top limit of
hearing range, i.e. 20kHz. It is produced by extremely modest sources.
Example: Quartz crystal

Infrasonic waves:
An infrasonic wave is a longitudinal elastic wave with a frequency less than the hearing
range, i.e. 20Hz. It is often produced by a huge source.
Elephants use Infrasonic sounds to interact with herds hundreds of km away.
Example: Earthquake.
Wave Pulses and Periodic Waves

A Slinky is
ideal for
studying
simple
waves.
❖ If a Slinky is laid out on a smooth table with one end held
motionless, you can easily produce a single traveling
pulse:
● With the Slinky slightly stretched, move the free end back and
forth once along the axis of the Slinky.
● You will see a disturbance (the wave pulse) move from the free
end of the Slinky to the fixed end.
❖ What is actually moving?
● The pulse moves through the Slinky, and portions of the Slinky
move as the pulse passes through it.
● After the pulse dies out, the Slinky is exactly where it was before
the pulse began.
❖ The pulse we have been discussing is a
longitudinal wave: the displacement or
disturbance in the medium is parallel to the direction
of travel of the wave or pulse.
❖ Sound waves are longitudinal.
❖ By moving your hand up and down, you could also
produce a transverse wave, in which the displacement or
disturbance is perpendicular to the direction the wave is
traveling.
❖ Waves on a rope and
electromagnetic waves
are transverse.
❖ Polarization effects are
associated with
transverse waves but
not longitudinal waves.
❖ Water waves have
both longitudinal and
transverse properties.
● If equal time intervals separate the pulses, you produce a periodic
wave.
● The time between pulses is the period T of the wave.
● The number of pulses or cycles per unit of time is the frequency
● f = 1/T.
● The distance between the same points on successive pulses is the
wavelength λ.
● A pulse travels a distance of one wavelength in a time of one
period.
● The speed is then the wavelength divided by the period:
A longitudinal wave traveling on a Slinky has a
period of 0.25 s and a wavelength of 30 cm.
What is the frequency of the wave?
a) 0.25 Hz
b) 0.30 Hz
c) 0.83 Hz
e) .
d) 1.2 Hz
e) 4 Hz
A longitudinal wave traveling on a Slinky has a
period of 0.25 s and a wavelength of 30 cm.
What is the speed of the wave?
a) 0.25 cm/s
b) 0.30 cm/s .
c) 1 cm/s
d)7.5 cm/s
e) 120 cm/s
⚫ Displacement relation for a progressive harmonic:-
⚫ A wave which travels continuously in a medium in the
same direction without a change in its amplitude is called a
travelling wave or a progressive wave .
⚫ let us consider a progressive wave on a string. the relation of
displacement of any element on the string as a function of time and
the vibration of the elements of the string along the length at a given
instant of time.
⚫ Let y(x , t) be the displacement of an element at a position x and time t
about the y-axis.
⚫ Considering the wave to be periodic and sinusoidal, the displacement
of the element at a position x and time t from the y-axis can be given
as,
⚫ y (x, t ) = a sin (kx – ωt + φ ) …………………………………..(a)
⚫ We can write the above equation as a linear combination of sine and
cosine functions as,
⚫ y (x, t) =A sin (k x – ω t ) + B cos (k x – ω t ), …………(b)
the equations (a) and (b) represent the transverse wave moving
along the X-axis, where y(x,t) gives the displacement of the
elements of the string at a position x at any time t. Hence, the
shape of the wave can be determined at any given time.
⚫ y(x, t) = a sin (kx + ωt + φ ),
⚫ The parameters that describe a harmonic wave entirely are ‘a’,
‘φ’, ‘k’, and ‘ω’, where a is the amplitude, φ is the initial phase
change, k is the angular wavenumber, and ω is the angular
frequency.
⚫ The above equation represents a transverse wave moving along the
negative direction of the X-axis.
⚫
⚫ Amplitude
⚫ Amplitude is the magnitude of maximum
displacement of a particle in a wave from the
equilibrium position.
⚫ Phase
⚫ The argument (kx – ωt + φ) of the oscillatory term sin (kx
– ωt + φ) is defined as the phase of the function. It
describes the state of motion of the wave.
⚫ Points on a wave which travel in the same direction,
rising a falling together, are said to be in phase with each
other. Points on a wave which travel in opposite
directions to each other, such that one is rising while the
other is falling, are said to be in anti-phase with each
other.
⚫ Wavelength
⚫ Wavelength (λ) is the distance between two
identical points, such as a crest or a trough on a
wave parallel to the wave’s propagation direction. It
can also be defined as the distance over which the
wave shape repeats itself. It is measured in meters
(m).
⚫ T= 1/ ν, k = 2π/λ ,
⚫ Angular wave number (k)
⚫ The wave number is the spatial frequency of a wave in
terms of cycles per unit distance. It can also be defined as
the number of waves that exist over a specified distance,
analogous to the concept of frequency. Measured
using rad/m , k is the propagation constant. k = 2π/λ ,
λ=2π/k , T= 1/ ν
⚫ ωT= 2π, ω = 2π/T , V= 1/T , V= ω/ 2π
⚫ Angular frequency
⚫ Angular frequency is defined as the angular displacement
per unit time of the rate of change of phase of a waveform.
⚫ Mathematically we can represent it as,
⚫ where T is the time period of the sinusoidal function
representing the wave and f is the frequency.SI unit
rad./sec.
 The Speed of a Traveling wave
⚫ Traveling wave: - A traveling wave is a wave that moves in space.
⚫ Wave velocity or Phase Velocity
⚫ The distance covered by a wave in the direction of its propagation
per unit time is called the wave velocity. Suppose, y = A sin (kx – ωt)
represents our traveling wave
⚫ Here, A is the amplitude, and k is the propagation constant.
⚫ kx – ωt= constant
⚫ As the time change , it retains its displacement as it moves. For a
fixed phase point on the waveform,
⚫ kx – ωt = k(x+ Δ x)- ω(t+ Δ t)
⚫ k Δx- ωΔt=o , kdx=ωdt
⚫ Δx , Δt are very small
⚫ dx/dt = ω/k = v
⚫ V = 2π f/ 2π/λ
⚫ V= λ f or V= λ /T
⚫ Speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string :-

⚫ In the case of a stretched string, the speed of the wave

depends upon two factors – linear mass density per unit
length and tension of the string. Linear mass density (μ)
per unit length is defined as the mass per unit length for
the string. Assuming that the tension in the wave is “T”.
Then, the speed of the wave is given by,

⚫ v= C√T/ μ where T is tension in string

⚫ Where c is constant , and c= 1
⚫ v= C√T/ μ
⚫ Dimension = [ML T- 2]/ [M L- 1 ]= [L2 T- 2 ]
⚫ Linear density μ = mass of string/length of string = m/L
⚫ Speed of the sound wave in the air

⚫ It is known that sound travels in the form of compressions and rarefactions

in the air. The property which determines the extent of compression and
rarefactions in any medium is called Bulk Modulus(B). It is given by,
⚫ B=- ΔP/ΔV/V , B=-γP
⚫ change is volume , there on changing pressure at a finite value.
The represents the fractional change in the volume on changing the
pressure.
⚫ v= c √ γ×p/ ρ (c is constant )
⚫ v= √ B/ ρ
⚫ Therefore, the speed of the sound while travelling in a medium is given by,
⚫ v= √ B/ ρ
⚫ Where( ρ )rho, represents the density of the medium.
⚫ v= √ Y/ ρ
⚫ Dimension = [M L- 1T- 2]/ [M L- 3]= [L2 T- 2 ]
Hgh to low density

low to hgh density

According to Newton, velocity of sound in any medium is given by
v=√E / ρ
where, E is the modulus of elasticity and ρ is the density of the
medium. For gases E=B, bulk modulus
∴v=√B/ ρ ....(1)

When sound waves travel through a gas alternate compressions and

rarefactions are produced. At the compression region pressure
increases and volume decreases and at the rerefaction region
pressure decreases and volume increases.

Newton assumed that these changes take place under isothermal

conditions i.e., at a constant temperature.
PV= nRT or PV= CONSTANT
independent Differentatng both side
P dv + V dp =0
P dv= - V dp
or P=-V dp/dv
P = - V dp/V / dv/V
P = - dp / dv/v
P = volumetric stress / volumetric strain
Under isothermal condition, B=P, pressure of the gas.
∴ In (1) v=√P / ρ....(2)
This is Newton's formula for velocity of sound in gas.

For air at Normal Temperature and Pressure,

P=101.3 kPa and ρ=1.293 kg/m3

Substituting the values of P and ρ in equation (2)

we get v=280 m/s. This is much lower than the experimental

value of 332 m/s.
Thus Newton's formula is discarded.
Laplace's correction
Laplace's correction:

According to Laplace, in a compressed region temperature increases and in

a rarefied region it decreases and these changes take place rapidly.
Note: - Since air is an insulator, there is no conduction of heat. Thus
changes are not isothermal but adiabatic.

Under adiabatic condition, B = γ P, where γ is the ratio of specific heats of

the gas.
Substituting in equation (1) v=√γ P/ ρ

The above equation is called Newton - Laplace's equation .

Substituting the values of P, ρ and γ in the above equation,

For air at Normal Temperature and Pressure, P=101.3 kPa and ρ=1.293
kg/m3
give the velocity of sound in air at Normal Temperature and Pressure to be
about 331 m/s. close agreement with the experimental value.
⚫ principle of superposition :-
⚫ According to the principle of superposition, the resultant
displacement of a number of waves in a medium at a particular point
is the vector sum of the individual displacements produced by each
of the waves at that point.
Let us say two waves are travelling alone, and the displacements of any
element of these two waves can be represented by y1(x, t) and y2(x, t).
When these two waves overlap, the resultant displacement can be
given as y(x,t).
. Mathematically, y (x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t).
as per the principle of superposition, we can add the overlapped waves
algebraically to produce a resultant wave
Let us say the wave functions of the moving waves are
y1 = f1(x–vt),
y2 = f2(x–vt)
………. y(x , t) = A sin [ ( 2π/λ) x - (2πf) t + φ]
yn = fn (x–vt) = A sin [ ( 2π/λ)(x - λft) + φ]
or, using λf = v and 2π/λ = k,
Then, the wave function describing
y(x , t) = A sin [k(x - v t) + φ].
the disturbance in the medium can This wave travels into the positive x
be described as, direction. Let φ = 0.
y = f1(x – vt)+ f2(x – vt)+ …+ fn(x – vt)
or, y=∑ i=1 to n = fi (x−vt)

Let us consider a wave travelling along a stretched string given by,

y1(x, t) = A sin (kx – ωt) and another wave, shifted from the first by a phase φ,
given as y2(x, t) = A sin (kx – ωt + φ)

y(x,t) = A sin (kx – ωt) + A sin (kx – ωt +φ)

y(x,t) = A [2sin[(kx – ωt) + sin (kx – ωt +φ)/2] cos ϕ/2]

From the equations, we can see that both the waves have the same angular
frequency, the same angular wave number k, and hence the same Wavelength
and the same amplitude A.
Now, applying the superposition principle, the resultant wave is the
algebraic sum of the two constituent waves and has displacement
y(x, t) = A sin (kx – ωt) + A sin (kx – ωt + φ).
The above equation can be written as,
y(x, t) = 2A cos (ϕ/2). sin (kx − ωt + ϕ/2)

Hence, the superposition of waves can lead to the following three

effects:
Whenever two waves having the same frequency travel with the
same speed along the same direction in a specific medium, then they
superpose and create an effect known as the interference of waves.

In a situation where two waves having similar frequencies move

with the same speed along opposite directions in a specific medium,
then they superpose to produce stationary waves.

 when two waves having slightly varying frequencies travel with the
same speed along the same direction in a specific medium, they
superpose to produce beats.
Types of Superposition of Waves:-
the superposition of waves is two types
Constructive Interference
Destructive Interference
Constructive Interference
When two waves in the same phase superimpose their resultant amplitude is
equal to the sum of the individual amplitude of the wave. This phenomenon is
called Constructive Interference. In this case, their amplitude increases the
most.
Let us consider two waves that are travelling at the same velocity. Since
these two waves travel at the same velocity and meet at a particular point.
suming that the equations for displacement produced by both the waves are
the same and are given by,
y1 = acos(ωt)
y2 = acos(ωt)
Now using the principle of superposition to find the resultant displacement
(y).
y = y1 + y2
y = acos(ωt) + acos(ωt)
y = 2acos(ωt)
⚫ It’s known that the intensity is proportional to
the square of the amplitude. Since amplitude, in
this case, becomes twice the original amplitude.
Destructive Interference
1. When two waves in the opposite phase superimpose their resultant
amplitude is equal to the sum of the individual amplitude of the wave.
This phenomenon is called Destructive Interference. In this case, their
amplitude decreases the most.
Let us consider two waves that are travelling at the same velocity. Since
these two waves travel at the same velocity and meet at a particular point. Let’s
analyze the resultant amplitude of the wave which originates after the
superposition of these waves. Assuming that the equations for displacement
produced by both the waves are the opposite this time and are given by,

y1 = acos(ωt)
y2 = acos(ωt + 3π)
y = y1 + y2
y = acos(ωt) + acos(ωt + 3π)
y = acos(ωt) – acos(ωt)
y=0

So, this time two displacements in opposite directions resulted in zero

amplitude and zero intensity. This is called destructive interference.
 Reflection Of Waves
When waves meet a boundary, they may be reflected. Reflection of waves
is defined as the change of direction of propagation of a wave when it
meets a boundary. All types of waves follow the law of reflection, which
states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

we can see what happens when a pulse or a travelling wave encounters a rigid
boundary. We see how under such a situation the pulse or the wave gets
reflected.
Mathematically, if the incident wave is represented as yi(x, t) = a
sin (kx – ωt), then, for reflection at a rigid boundary, the reflected
wave is represented by
yr (x, t) = a sin (kx + ωt + π). = – a sin (kx + ωt)
And when the wave gets reflected at an open boundary, the
reflected wave is represented by
yr (x, t) = a sin (kx + ωt).

Refraction of waves
when a wave is an incident on any surface, a part of the incident
wave is reflected and a part is transmitted into the second medium. If
the wave is incident obliquely on the boundary, the transmitted wave
can also be termed as a Refraction wave.

refracted waves obey Snell’s Law of refraction, and the incident and
the reflected waves obey the laws of reflection
 standing waves and normal modes
mass on a spring has one natural frequency at which it freely oscillates up
and down. A stretched string with fixed ends can oscillate up and down with a
whole spectrum of frequencies and patterns of vibration. These special
“Modes of Vibration” of a string are called standing waves or normal
modes.
Standing wave + x direction

Standing wave - x direction

Equation of Standing Wave:
Let us consider, at any point x and time t, there are two waves, one
moving to the left and the other moving to the right. The wave travelling in
the positive direction of the x-axis is given as,
y1(x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt),
and that moving in the negative direction of the x-axis is given as,
y2(x, t) = a sin (kx + ωt),
As per the principle of superposition, the combined wave is represented
as,
y (x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t)
y (x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt) + a sin (kx + ωt)
y (x, t) = (2a sin kx) cos ωt

(2a sin kx) provides the amplitude of the oscillation of all the elements of
the wave at a position ‘x’
Two sine waves travelling in opposite directions create a standing wave
A travelling wave moves from one place to another, whereas a standing
wave appears to stand still, vibrating in place.
the standing wave, wherein the point of minimum, maximum, and the null remains at
only one position throughout its propagation.

The amplitude is said to be zero for all the values of kx that give sin kx = 0. Those
values which are given by the kx = nπ, for the values n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …

Substituting the values k = 2π/λ in expression for the amplitude, we get x= nλ /2

, for the values of n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …The positions of the zero amplitudes are called nodes.

The distance of 2λ or say half a wavelength will separate the two consecutive nodes.

The amplitude is said to have a maximum value of 2a, that occurs for all the values of
kx that give ⎢sin kx ⎢= 1.
The values are kx = (n + ½) π for all the values of n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … Hence, by
substituting the value for k = 2π/λ in given expression, we get the value for
x= λ (n+1/2)⁢
/2
for the values of n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … as that of the positions for maximum amplitude. These
are called as the Anti-nodes. These antinodes are said to be separated by λ/2 and
located about half a way between the pairs of nodes. Let’s consider a string with length
L whose ends are fixed. The two ends of this string are called nodes.
Nodes
The amplitude of the wave is zero for all the values of kx that give sin kx = 0. It means for
kx = 0, π, 2π …..nπ, the amplitude of vibration of the particles will be zero. Here, n is an
integer.
By substituting
k = 2π/λ
(2π/λ)x = nπ
⇒ x = nλ /2
Therefore, x = 0, λ /2, λ , 3λ /2……..
These points of zero displacements of the particles are called the nodes.

Antinodes
The amplitude will have a maximum value of 2A for all values of kx that give sin kx = ± 1. This
means, for kx = π/2, 3π/2 ——— (n + ½)π, the amplitude of vibration of the particles will
be maximum.
By substituting
k = 2n+1π/λ,
(2π/λ)x = (2n+1)π /2
⇒ x = (2n+1)λ /4
⇒ x = λ /4, λ , 3λ /4,5λ /4……..
These points at which the displacement of the particles is maximum are called
antinodes. The nodes and the antinodes in a standing wave are equally spaced, the
distance is equal to λ/2, where λ is the wavelength of the wave.
Standing Waves on a String with Two Fixed Ends
Consider a uniform string of length L which is stretched between two fixed ends.
A wave that travels in one direction along the string reflects at the end and
returns inverted because of the fixed ends. These two identical waves, travelling
in the opposite direction, form the standing wave on the string. The length of the
string is given as L, so the wavelength of the wave

λ = 2L/n , here n = 1,2,3…..

The standing waves are formed in the string only if the wavelength satisfies the
relationship with L.
If v is the speed with which the waves travel along the string, then the frequency
of the standing wave is
f = v/λ = nv/2L , n = 1,2,3…..

Nodes are formed at the fixed ends. In addition to the nodes, if an antinode
exists at the centre of the string, the stretched string is said to vibrate in the
fundamental frequency.
The lowest resonance frequency, corresponding to n = 1, is the fundamental
frequency. The higher frequencies are called the harmonics. Harmonics are the
integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.
When the string has one of its ends fixed
and the other end is free, the node will be
formed at the fixed end, and the antinode
will be formed at the free end.
The simplest standing wave formed in
this condition is one-quarter a wavelength
long.
The next possible standing wave will be
formed by adding both node and antinode.
The length of this wave will be three-
quarters of the wavelength. In general, the
wavelength of the wave can be written as
λ = 4L/n , here n = 1,2,3…..
Then, the frequency of the standing wave
is restricted to
f = nv/4L
 Beats
When two waves of slightly similar frequency moving in the same
direction meet at a point. We hear these two sound waves as
alternating loud and soft vibrations in our eardrums, and we perceive
it as a beating.
Both the frequencies are almost identical, and there is no significant
difference in the audible frequency you hear when you play each of
them individually,
but when played together these two frequencies, interfere with each
other, as they are very close to each other in terms of frequencies
their crest-crest interference produces a constructive interference and
increases the amplitude of the wave hence the loudness of
sound increases.
When a crest-trough meet the interference produced will be
destructive, therefore they both will cancel out, and the amplitude
produced will be equal to zero; hence the loudness will reduce to zero,
the frequency at which the loudness increases and decreases are
known as the beat frequency, this beat frequency is equal to the
difference between the two frequencies which produced it.
we have frequency A as 700 Hz, frequency B as 705 Hz; therefore, if these two
frequencies interfere in time, the resultant beat frequency will be 705-700 Hz = 5 Hz,

f _beat = |f1 – f2|

The beat frequency is when two sound waves with different frequencies come
across each other; then, their amplitude gets added and subtracted alternatively
for a given time period. This leads to the growth of the sound to be louder and
softer.
let’s consider two waves with slightly different frequencies, f1 and f2. These
waves can be expressed as:
Wave 1: y1 = A * sinω1t = A *sin2πf1t…..(1)
Wave 2: y2 = A * sinω2t = A * sin2πf2t….(2)
Now, applying super position principle, we get:

y net = y1 + y2 = A (sin2πf1t + sin2πf2t)

:
Resultant Wave: A * [sin ω1t + sin ω2t ]
Using trigonometric identities, we can simplify the resultant wave as follows:
Using the formula:
Sin A + Sin B = 2Cos1/2(A−B). Sin1/2 (A+B)
y net = 2 A cos (ω1 - ω2) t/2 .sin (ω1 + ω2)t /2
y net = 2 A cos π(f1 - f2) t sin π (f1 + f2)t

Here, amplitude A = 2 A cos π (f1 - f2)t, is the resultant amplitude of a wave (it
varies with time).

y net = A sin π (f1 + f2)t…..(3)

Frequency of Maxima
Amplitude A will be maximum when Cos π (f1 - f2)t = max = ±1 = cos k π

Where, (f1 - f2)t = k

Example 1:
Suppose you have two sound waves with frequencies: f1 = 440 Hz
(standard tuning for A4 on a musical instrument) f2 = 443 Hz.Calculate
the beat frequency.
Ans . using the formula:
f_beat = |f1 – f2|
f_beat = |440 Hz – 443 Hz| = 3 Hz , the beat frequency is 3 Hz.