Revision Notes for Class 11 Physics

Chapter 14 – Waves

Waves:

Waves are a fundamental concept in physics, describing how energy and information
propagate through various mediums. A wave is a disturbance that travels through space and
matter, transferring energy from one point to another without causing any permanent
displacement of the medium. Waves can be classified into different types based on their
nature, such as mechanical waves, which require a medium to travel (like sound waves), and
electromagnetic waves, which do not require a medium (like light waves). Understanding the
behavior of waves, including their speed, frequency, wavelength, and amplitude, is essential
for studying a wide range of phenomena in both classical and modern physics.

Types of Waves:

1. Mechanical Waves:

• Definition: Waves that require a medium (solid, liquid, or gas) to propagate.

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• Examples: Sound waves, water waves, seismic waves.

Subtypes:

o Transverse Waves: The particles of the medium move perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation.

▪ Example: Waves on a string, electromagnetic waves (when considering them as a wave

model).

o Longitudinal Waves: The particles of the medium move parallel to the direction of wave
propagation.

▪ Example: Sound waves in air, compressional waves in a slinky.

2. Electromagnetic Waves:

• Definition: Waves that do not require a medium and can propagate through a vacuum.

• Examples: Light waves, radio waves, X-rays, microwaves.

• Characteristics: Consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each

other and to the direction of propagation.

3. Surface Waves:

• Definition: Waves that travel along the surface of a medium, with characteristics of both
transverse and longitudinal waves.

• Examples: Ocean waves, ripples on water.

• Motion: Particles move in a circular or elliptical path, combining both perpendicular and
parallel motion to the direction of wave travel.

4. Matter Waves:

• Definition: Waves associated with particles of matter, as described by quantum

mechanics.

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• Examples: De Broglie waves (electron waves).

• Characteristics: Reflect the wave-particle duality of matter, where particles exhibit

wave-like properties under certain conditions.

5. Standing Waves:

• Definition: Waves that remain in a constant position, typically formed by the interference
of two waves traveling in opposite directions.

• Examples: Vibrations in a guitar string, sound waves in a pipe.

• Characteristics: Consist of nodes (points of no displacement) and antinodes (points of

maximum displacement).

6. Progressive Waves:

• Definition: Waves that move or propagate through a medium, transferring energy from
one point to another.

• Examples: Light waves, sound waves.

• Characteristics: Can be either transverse or longitudinal, and continue to move through

the medium without being confined.

TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL WAVES:

Transverse and Longitudinal Waves: Detailed Explanation and Differences

1. Transverse Waves

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Definition:

- In transverse waves, the particles of the medium move perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation. This means that if the wave is moving horizontally, the particles of the
medium are oscillating vertically.

Characteristics:

- Crests and Troughs: The highest points of the wave are called crests, and the lowest points
are called troughs.

- Perpendicular Motion: The particle displacement is perpendicular to the direction of energy

transfer.

- Examples: Light waves, waves on a string, electromagnetic waves, and surface waves on
water.

Mathematical Representation:

- The displacement of particles in a transverse wave can be described by the equation:

y( x, t ) = A sin(kx − t +  )

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 Where:

- y( x, t ) is the displacement at position x and time t .

- A is the amplitude (maximum displacement).

- k is the wave number.

-  is the angular frequency.

-  is the phase constant.

2. Longitudinal Waves

Definition:

- In longitudinal waves, the particles of the medium move parallel to the direction of wave
propagation. Here, the particles oscillate back and forth in the same direction as the wave.

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Characteristics:

- Compressions and Rarefactions: Areas where particles are close together are called
compressions, and areas where they are spread out are called rarefactions.

- Parallel Motion: The particle displacement is parallel to the direction of energy transfer.

- Examples: Sound waves in air, waves in a slinky, and seismic P-waves.

Mathematical Representation:

- The displacement of particles in a longitudinal wave can be described by a similar

sinusoidal function:

s( x, t ) = s0 cos(kx − t +  )

Where:

- s( x, t ) is the displacement at position x and time t.

- s0 is the maximum displacement (amplitude).

- k is the wave number.

-  is the angular frequency.

-  is the phase constant.

Key Differences Between Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

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Aspect Transverse Waves Longitudinal Waves

Perpendicular to the direction of wave Parallel to the direction of wave

Particle Motion
propagation. propagation.

Wave Crests (high points) and troughs (low Compressions (high pressure)
Components points). and rarefactions (low pressure).

Can propagate through solids, liquids, Typically require a medium

Medium
and vacuum (in the case of (solid, liquid, or gas) for
Requirement
electromagnetic waves). propagation.

Light waves, waves on a string, surface Sound waves in air, seismic P-

Examples
water waves. waves, waves in a slinky.

Often represented as
Visual Can be easily visualized as peaks and
compressions and expansions
Representation valleys on a graph.
along a line.

The speed depends on the tension and

Speed depends on the medium's
Propagation mass per unit length in a medium (for
density and elasticity; typically,
Speed mechanical waves like waves on a
faster in solids, slower in gases.
string).

Requires a material medium

Medium Can travel through a vacuum (in the
(cannot travel through a
Requirement case of electromagnetic waves).
vacuum).

Displacement Relation in a Progressive Wave

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A progressive wave is a wave that travels or propagates through a medium, transferring
energy from one point to another without transferring matter. The displacement of particles
in the medium due to the wave can be described by a mathematical relation known as the
displacement equation.

1. General Form of the Displacement Equation:

For a sinusoidal wave traveling in the positive x-direction, the displacement y( x, t ) at a point
x at time t is given by:

y( x, t ) = A sin(kx − t +  )

Where:

- y( x, t ) is the displacement of the particle at position x and time t .

- A is the amplitude of the wave (the maximum displacement).

2
- k is the wave number, defined as k = , where  is the wavelength of the wave.


-  is the angular frequency, defined as  = 2 f , where f is the frequency of the wave.

-  is the phase constant, which determines the initial phase of the wave at x = 0 and t = 0 .

2. Explanation of the Terms:

- Amplitude A:

- The amplitude is the maximum displacement of the particles from their equilibrium
position. It represents the height of the wave crest or the depth of the trough.

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- Wave Number k:

- The wave number k gives the number of wavelengths per unit distance. It is related to the
2
wavelength  by the relation k = .


- Angular Frequency  :

- The angular frequency  is related to the time period T and the frequency f of the wave. It
represents how rapidly the wave oscillates in time.

- Phase (kx − t +  ) :

- The phase of the wave indicates the state of the oscillation at a particular position and
time. It determines the position of the wave within its cycle. The term kx − t shows the
wave’s progression in space and time. The phase constant  shifts the wave along the x-axis.

3. Wave Moving in the Negative x-Direction:

If the wave is traveling in the negative x-direction, the displacement equation is modified as
follows:

y( x, t ) = A sin(kx + t +  )

In this case, the positive sign in front of $ \omega t $ indicates that the wave is moving in the
negative direction of the x-axis.

4. Phase Velocity (Wave Speed):

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The speed v of the wave, also known as the phase velocity, is related to the wavelength and
frequency by the equation:


v= =f
k
This equation shows that the wave speed is the product of the wavelength $ \lambda $ and
the frequency f.

Amplitude and Phase in Waves

Amplitude and Phase are two fundamental concepts that describe the characteristics of
waves, including their behavior and how they interact with each other.

1. Amplitude

Definition:

- The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of particles in the medium from
their equilibrium position due to the passage of the wave. It is a measure of the wave's
intensity or strength.

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Representation:

- In the displacement equation of a sinusoidal wave:

y( x, t ) = A sin(kx − t +  )

- Here, A represents the amplitude of the wave.

Key Points:

- Magnitude: Amplitude is always a positive quantity and is measured in units of

displacement (e.g., meters in mechanical waves).

- Effect on Energy: The energy carried by a wave is proportional to the square of its
amplitude. A wave with a larger amplitude carries more energy.

- Physical Interpretation: For a sound wave, the amplitude determines the loudness; for a
light wave, it determines the brightness.

Example:- In a transverse wave on a string, the amplitude is the maximum height of the
wave crest or the depth of the trough relative to the equilibrium position.

2. Phase

Definition:

- The phase of a wave refers to the position of a point within the wave cycle. It indicates the
state of oscillation of the wave at a specific point in space and time.

Phase Angle:

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- The phase of a wave is usually expressed in terms of a phase angle, which is measured in
radians or degrees.

- In the displacement equation:

y( x, t ) = A sin(kx − t +  )

- The term (kx − t +  ) is the phase of the wave, where:

- kx relates to the spatial position,

- t relates to the time,

-  is the phase constant or initial phase.

Key Points:

- Phase Constant (  ): This is the phase of the wave at x = 0 and t = 0 . It determines the
wave's initial position.

- Phase Difference: The difference in phase between two points on a wave or between two
waves can lead to constructive or destructive interference. When two waves are in phase
(phase difference is zero or a multiple of 2 ), they reinforce each other. When they are out
of phase (phase difference is  or an odd multiple of  ), they can cancel each other out.

- Propagation: As the wave propagates, the phase changes continuously with time and
position, leading to the oscillatory nature of the wave.

Example:

- If two waves have a phase difference of  radians (180 degrees), they are exactly out of
phase, and if they have the same amplitude, they will cancel each other out completely when
superimposed.

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Period, Angular Frequency, and Frequency

Period, Angular Frequency, and Frequency are fundamental concepts used to describe the
time-related characteristics of oscillatory motions, such as waves, pendulums, and other
periodic systems. They are closely related and provide insights into how quickly a system
oscillates.

1. Period ( T )

Definition:

- The period ( T ) of a wave or oscillatory motion is the time it takes for one complete cycle
of the wave to pass a given point. It represents the time interval between two consecutive
points that are in the same phase.

Key Points:

- Unit: The period is measured in seconds (s).

- Relation to Frequency: The period is the reciprocal of the frequency ( f ):

1
T=
f

- Physical Interpretation: In the context of waves, the period is the time it takes for a crest to
follow the previous crest (or any point in phase) at a fixed point. For example, in a
pendulum, it is the time taken to swing back and forth once.

2. Frequency ( f )

Definition:

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- The frequency ( f ) of a wave or oscillation is the number of complete cycles that occur per
unit of time. It describes how often the wave oscillates in a given time interval.

Key Points:

- Unit: Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz equals one cycle per second.

- Relation to Period: Frequency is the reciprocal of the period:

1
f =
T

- Physical Interpretation: Frequency indicates how many wave crests pass a fixed point per
second. In sound, frequency is related to pitch, with higher frequencies corresponding to
higher pitches.

3. Angular Frequency (  )

Definition:

- Angular frequency (  ) is the rate at which the phase of the wave or oscillatory motion
changes with time. It is related to frequency but is measured in radians per second rather than
cycles per second.

Key Points:

- Unit: Angular frequency is measured in radians per second (rad/s).

- Relation to Frequency: Angular frequency is related to the regular frequency by:

 = 2 f

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- Relation to Period: Angular frequency can also be expressed in terms of the period:

2
=
T

- Physical Interpretation: Angular frequency gives the rate of rotation in circular motion or
the rate of oscillation in radians per second in wave motion. It’s particularly useful in the
context of sinusoidal waves, where the wave function is often written as:

y( x, t ) = A sin(kx − t +  )

- Here,  represents how quickly the wave oscillates as a function of time.

Reflection of Waves

Reflection of waves is a fundamental phenomenon that occurs when a wave encounters a

boundary or an obstacle and is reflected back into the original medium instead of being
transmitted through or absorbed by the boundary. This principle applies to various types of
waves, including light, sound, water, and seismic waves.

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Key Concepts in Wave Reflection:

1. Phase Change on Reflection:

o Fixed-End Reflection: When a wave reflects off a fixed boundary, it inverts,

meaning a crest reflects as a trough and vice versa, resulting in a 180-degree
phase change.

o Free-End Reflection: When a wave reflects off a free boundary, it does not
invert, and there is no phase change.

2. Superposition of Waves:

o When incident and reflected waves overlap, they superpose, which can result
in constructive or destructive interference, depending on their phases.

3. Standing Waves:

o When two waves of the same frequency and amplitude travel in opposite
directions, they can interfere to form standing waves. These are characterized
by nodes (points of no displacement) and antinodes (points of maximum
displacement).

Speed of a Transverse Wave on a Stretched String

The speed of a transverse wave traveling along a stretched string depends on the physical
properties of the string, particularly its tension and mass per unit length. This relationship is
crucial in understanding wave motion in mediums like strings, ropes, and even some musical
instruments.

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Formula for Wave Speed:

The speed v of a transverse wave on a stretched string is given by the formula:

T
v=
μ

Where:

• v = Speed of the wave (measured in meters per second, m/s).

• T = Tension in the string (measured in newtons, N).

• μ = Linear mass density of the string, i.e., the mass per unit length (measured in
kilograms per meter, kg/m).

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 Explanation of the Terms:

1. Tension (T):

o The tension is the force applied to stretch the string. It’s the pulling force that keeps the
string taut and allows the wave to travel along it. Higher tension leads to a faster wave
speed because the string resists deformation more strongly.

2. Linear Mass Density (μ):

o The linear mass density μ is the mass per unit length of the string. It is calculated by
dividing the total mass of the string by its length:

m
μ= .
L

o A string with a smaller linear mass density (lighter string) will allow the wave to travel
faster because it’s easier to move.

Key Points:

• Effect of Tension:

o If the tension in the string increases, the speed of the wave increases. This is because a
tighter string has more restoring force, which accelerates the movement of the wave.

• Effect of Mass per Unit Length:

o If the linear mass density increases (i.e., the string becomes heavier), the speed of the
wave decreases. A heavier string is harder to move, slowing down the wave propagation.

• Physical Interpretation:

o This relationship explains why, in musical instruments like guitars and violins, tighter
and thinner strings produce higher-pitched sounds (higher frequency waves), as they
allow waves to travel faster.

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 Speed of a Longitudinal Wave (Speed of Sound)

The speed of a longitudinal wave, such as a sound wave, depends on the properties of the
medium through which it travels. For sound waves, this speed is influenced by factors
like the medium's density, temperature, and elastic properties.

Formula for Speed of Sound in a Medium:

The speed v of a longitudinal wave (sound wave) in a medium can be expressed as:

B
v=
ρ

Where:

• v = Speed of sound (measured in meters per second, m/s).

• B = Bulk modulus of the medium (a measure of the medium's resistance to compression,

measured in pascals, Pa).

• ρ = Density of the medium (measured in kilograms per cubic meter, kg/m³).

Explanation of the Terms:

1. Bulk Modulus (B):

o The bulk modulus is a measure of a material's resistance to uniform compression. A

higher bulk modulus indicates that the material is more difficult to compress, resulting in
a faster propagation of sound waves through the medium.

2. Density (ρ):

o The density of the medium refers to the mass per unit volume. A denser medium typically
slows down the speed of sound because the particles in the medium are more massive and
take longer to move.

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 Factors Affecting the Speed of Sound:

1. Medium:

o Solids: Sound generally travels fastest in solids because they have a high bulk modulus
and closely packed particles.

o Liquids: The speed of sound is slower in liquids than in solids but faster than in gases.

o Gases: Sound travels slowest in gases because they have a low bulk modulus and widely
spaced particles.

2. Temperature:

o In gases, the speed of sound increases with temperature. This is because higher
temperatures increase the energy of the particles, making them vibrate faster and thus
allowing sound to propagate more quickly.

o The speed of sound in air at temperature T (in Kelvin) can be approximately given by:

γRT
v=
M

Where:

▪ γ is the adiabatic index (approximately 1.4 for air),

▪ R is the universal gas constant,

▪ T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin,

▪ M is the molar mass of the gas.

3. Pressure:

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o In gases, the speed of sound is independent of pressure at a constant temperature, because
both the density and bulk modulus change in such a way that they cancel each other's
effects.

Speed of Sound in Different Media:

• Air (at 20°C):  343m/s

• Water:  1482 m/s

• Steel:  5000 m/s

The Principle of Superposition of Waves

The Principle of Superposition is a fundamental concept in wave theory that describes how
multiple waves interact with each other when they meet in the same medium. This principle
is essential for understanding various wave phenomena such as interference, diffraction, and
the formation of standing waves.

Definition:

The Principle of Superposition states that when two or more waves overlap in space, the
resultant displacement at any point is equal to the algebraic sum of the displacements due to
each individual wave at that point.

Mathematically, if two waves with displacements y1 ( x, t ) and y2 ( x, t ) meet at a point, the

total displacement y( x, t ) at that point is given by:

y ( x, t ) = y1 ( x, t ) + y2 ( x, t )
This can be extended to any number of waves. If there are n waves, the total displacement is:
n
y ( x, t ) = y1 ( x, t ) + y2 ( x, t ) + + yn ( x, t ) =  yi ( x, t )
i =1

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Types of Superposition:

1. Constructive Interference:

- Occurs when the waves are in phase (i.e., their crests and troughs align).

- The resultant wave has a larger amplitude than any of the individual waves.

- For two waves of equal amplitude A, the resultant amplitude is 2A.

Example:

- When two sound waves of the same frequency and phase overlap, the sound becomes
louder due to constructive interference.

2. Destructive Interference:

- Occurs when the waves are out of phase (i.e., the crest of one wave aligns with the trough
of another).

- The resultant wave has a smaller amplitude than the individual waves, and it can be
completely cancelled if the waves have equal amplitude and are perfectly out of phase.

- For two waves of equal amplitude $ A $, the resultant amplitude is zero if they are exactly
out of phase.

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 Example:

- Noise-cancelling headphones use destructive interference to cancel out external sounds.

3. Partial Interference:

- Occurs when the waves are neither completely in phase nor completely out of phase.

- The resultant wave has an amplitude somewhere between the amplitudes of the
constructive and destructive interference.

Example:

- In real-world scenarios, waves often partially interfere, leading to complex patterns such
as beats in sound waves.

Applications of Superposition:

1. Interference Patterns:

- In optics, the principle of superposition explains the formation of interference patterns,

such as those seen in the double-slit experiment, where light waves create bright and dark
fringes due to constructive and destructive interference.

2. Standing Waves:

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 - When two waves of the same frequency and amplitude travel in opposite directions, they
superpose to form standing waves, characterized by nodes (points of no displacement) and
antinodes (points of maximum displacement).

3. Sound Waves:

- In acoustics, superposition explains phenomena like beats, where two sound waves of
slightly different frequencies interfere, leading to a periodic variation in sound intensity.

4. Quantum Mechanics:

- The principle of superposition is also fundamental in quantum mechanics, where the

wavefunctions of particles superpose to determine the probability distribution of a particle's
position or momentum.

Standing Waves and Normal Modes

Standing waves and normal modes are fundamental concepts in wave physics that describe
specific patterns of wave behaviour when waves reflect and interfere within a confined
medium. These concepts are critical in understanding phenomena in musical instruments,
resonant cavities, and various physical systems.

Standing Waves:

Definition:

• A standing wave is a wave pattern that results from the interference of two waves of
the same frequency and amplitude traveling in opposite directions. Unlike traveling
waves, standing waves do not move through the medium; instead, they create
stationary patterns of constructive and destructive interference.

Formation:

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 • Standing waves are formed when a wave reflects back on itself after encountering a
boundary, such as the end of a string or the walls of a cavity. The reflected wave
interferes with the incoming wave, leading to a pattern of nodes and antinodes.

Characteristics:

1. Nodes:

o Points along the medium where the displacement is always zero. At nodes,
destructive interference occurs as the waves cancel each other out.

2. Antinodes:

o Points along the medium where the displacement reaches maximum amplitude.
At antinodes, constructive interference occurs as the waves reinforce each
other.

3. Wavelength and Frequency:

o The distance between two consecutive nodes or two consecutive antinodes is

half a wavelength (λ/2).

o The frequency of the standing wave is determined by the boundary conditions

of the medium and the speed of the wave.

Example:

• A common example of a standing wave is the vibration of a string fixed at both ends,
such as in a guitar or violin string. The wave reflects back and forth between the fixed
ends, forming a standing wave with nodes at the fixed points and antinodes between
them.

Normal Modes:

Definition:

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 • Normal modes are specific patterns of standing waves that resonate at particular
frequencies within a system. Each normal mode corresponds to a specific frequency,
known as the resonant or natural frequency, at which the system naturally oscillates.

Characteristics:

1. Discrete Frequencies:

o Each normal mode has a distinct frequency, and these frequencies form a series
of harmonics. The fundamental frequency (first harmonic) is the lowest
frequency at which the system can resonate, while higher harmonics
correspond to higher normal modes.

2. Harmonics:

o The fundamental mode (first harmonic) has the simplest pattern, with one
antinode between two nodes. Higher harmonics have more nodes and
antinodes, corresponding to higher frequencies.

3. Energy Distribution:

o In a normal mode, the energy of the wave is distributed across the entire
system, with specific points (nodes and antinodes) exhibiting distinct
behaviour.

Example:

• In a vibrating string fixed at both ends, the first normal mode (fundamental
frequency) has one antinode in the centre. The second normal mode (first overtone)
has two antinodes and an additional node in the centre. The frequencies of these
modes are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.

Mathematical Description:

1. Wave Equation for Standing Waves:

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 o The displacement y(x, t) of a standing wave can be described by the equation:

y( x, t ) = 2 A sin(kx) cos(ωt )

Where:

▪ A is the amplitude of the individual waves.

2π
▪ k is the wave number, related to the wavelength by k = .
λ

▪ ω is the angular frequency, related to the frequency by ω=2πf.

▪ x is the position along the medium.

▪ t is time.

2. Resonant Frequencies:

o For a string of length L fixed at both ends, the resonant frequencies f n of the
normal modes are given by:

ω = 2πf

o Where:

▪ n is the mode number (1 for the fundamental, 2 for the first overtone,
etc.).

▪ v is the speed of the wave on the string.

▪ L is the length of the string.

Beats

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Beats are a phenomenon that occurs when two sound waves of slightly different frequencies
interfere with each other. The result is a new sound wave that fluctuates in amplitude,
creating a pulsing effect that is heard as periodic variations in loudness. This is commonly
referred to as "beats."

Explanation of Beats:

1. Interference of Waves:

- When two sound waves of frequencies f1 and f 2 (where f1 is slightly different from f 2 )
are played together, they interfere with each other.

- The interference can be constructive (when the waves are in phase) or destructive (when
the waves are out of phase).

2. Formation of Beats:

- Constructive Interference: Occurs when the crests and troughs of the two waves align,
resulting in a louder sound (maximum amplitude).

- Destructive Interference: Occurs when the crest of one wave aligns with the trough of the
other, resulting in a softer sound (minimum amplitude).

- This alternating pattern of constructive and destructive interference causes the sound to
alternately increase and decrease in volume, producing the beat effect.

3. Beat Frequency:

- The beat frequency is the rate at which the amplitude of the sound wave fluctuates, or the
number of beats heard per second.

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 - It is given by the absolute difference between the frequencies of the two interfering
waves:

f beat =| f1 − f 2 |

- If f1 = 440Hz and f 2 = 442Hz , the beat frequency is:

f beat =| 440 − 442 |= 2Hz

This means two beats per second will be heard.

Mathematical Representation:

If the two waves are represented as:

y1 (t ) = A sin(2 f1t )
y2 (t ) = A sin(2 f 2t )
The resultant wave y (t ) is:

y (t ) = y1 (t ) + y2 (t )
Using trigonometric identities, this can be expressed as:

  f +f  
y (t ) = 2 A cos ( ( f1 − f 2 )t ) sin  2  1 2  t 
  2  
In this equation:

- cos ( ( f1 − f 2 )t ) represents the amplitude modulation, creating the beats.

  f1 + f 2   f1 + f 2
- sin  2   t  represents the carrier wave with an average frequency .
  2   2

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Applications of Beats:

1. Tuning Musical Instruments:

- Musicians often use beats to tune instruments. By playing a reference note and adjusting
the instrument until the beats slow down and disappear, the instrument can be tuned to match
the reference frequency.

2. Sound Engineering:

- Beats are used in sound engineering to create effects or to measure differences in

frequencies between two sound sources.

3. Doppler Effect Analysis:

- Beats can be observed in scenarios involving the Doppler effect, where the frequency of
sound changes due to relative motion between the source and the observer.

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