Mathemalzéal Pacliminaaies | 5 oO] SETS -A sek is a well dalrned colleckiom = of chrect - Fusk we specity, a cotnendys pepe among things and then we aathes op all dhe things dhat bate Ahis) commen property « —\lk fs Sophy Ahivigs oon daaythe orl, a& certatn Pere Ro Common: “Sek of all studeol We a celine . “Types of “finger a - . Neakural, nurake 1's set - ae ir - The wndivduat objets ane cated members or elements! of. dpe. set- 7 bis, te capital letlexs _ Mike a, B,C denote a sek: hs - hts we use small letters Dike a, bc, te denote - Elements F a SL. — llhen ad is an element of sek A, we dencte fa 6 A” ‘ loom, Athen a, RE lan clement of set A we “danole ®a ¢! a? ‘ (rr Scanned with CamScannera _ * begs of desertbwog ” a set: i ony . a By Lustig 16 elements ely this - we con ite ell elements eo} the Sek, without epatition = Epelose ther with tb “byraces: = Eqt te Set € all rpositlve jenkege divisiby by 1S and Less than too > 215) 20.th 5) 60,16 1905 0 Sel oF ally bee a ab 4 Ss tabediefigs 63 ® B decew'bn' J “he ‘oeliteatlie. "AE clesrents the sel - 2A P PS iS. of - The devi Lee i Le sti! predicate plan’ a pepe & cated | ~The sel is ten plictlly speched. - bqis + 915, 30, 453 can Sa 5 ae as: in \n is a po itive lege ‘duneble 15 and less -Unan 5b) ha, bie Ag. : ~ an? eo blo 6 an aha ‘Com abd] | 6: 4® By vecurson : ~le Unis method we define elements computalienal Sule 4p eetis Ahe elernents- — & * Set of all mature numbers theawen | a reminder | won divided i wu | can \be descubed a Lan ayet, ana? a,+35 % Subset > Set AS 4 every 3 Represe led as 5 Saud to be a subset of °B elernent Be A also clement § B ACB # 3 fgi Ae 4 4,2,3, 4153 Be bag BEA Coecace eve w clement oh b also clement of AD SQ sets A and Bare seid fo be equal % all elements of A ts equal to That of 8 _ oY ‘heiy membeis ane Same - Fy PW As B, Aheo ACB BCA Scanned wth Canscanner7 Fa: Ae 4418,35 i or ge gavag a Keb C elements exes same) ce phtl seb ce fo ce pe fomervaat > A Sek with ne, element “3s Ale called cu null sek [vid eet = denoted’. by b- ' / rpevalisins ain Sut @ Unién. wee PS ckvB= en ov zoey > tg leh A HeH 052% . = B= 13,45, no aves 41,8,3,43 | ‘ @ Inteysechion Ae > AnB = 3x \xEA aod xed Fay lee Ae La bic A3 by aap ES Be Jb d,e,a°$ = "Anes { ma, b, AS . a Cecornmen elements’ Ay —— Scanned wth CamScanneroe Par ens @ Comp lemenls * D> ArB = fx\x ea and x¢es : JD V1 universal) set Cset of aft elements . Alhak are under considevakien oy partiulas staakion Fox exerrple the v Sekt of numbers & Set & al wotegens. natusel numbers, negelive numbers, hractrenel numbers and decimal number). 3 A complement of a sek A is Ahe Set of elements that ave vo VU but hat cae not io A- PER: Ue U4 2.3,4,5,6,4,8,4, 0h Ae 44,4 ,7,8% Ke Ale 4. ,3,5,6,3,9, 10} te VAC U-A > Set of all subschy ef a set A 3 Denoted by a oy PCAD “+ A> 41,2a,3$ PCa = Lh, Wh, 29h, 458, 1.98, $a 12,98 283} Scanned wth CamScanner-4 : = lek A and B be 2 Sets, the axe % defined as $a, 1 | AEA and b eBy Cab) ts called crdered paiy D> bn Ca,b & Ayrinte frven Cb) e: wn : at Perkition oF Set Dlet S be a sek with | elernents CA, Aa, Ae --An)> Subsets °F S' ets called * pectitren ® AVA) = 4 Cit jd» and SUA; ‘ Ye, CAVAQU--~ VARS © : soe 7m: Vee g= 31,9,3,4,5,6 0 85 S es 41,315,323 ' T= §a,4,6,33 . here, Landy aye pertites sets of $s because Tt) And iay=> : also Tug = 5. ; . w, ole Alere is ‘no Common elemen © LT and T of and Also unon ef elements a equal +o sek 5S. Scanned with CamScannerSe Sete with one bine} operatcn ; @ >A lana opercion # on a set Ess a wle which assigns ko “a ordered po? Ca,b) of elerne nt, fereten S,a conique clement clepeté by ab. 3 Ea: Adbihin on set & all wbegers ts a binae eperateon DSlee w- 3 XP a+2@,b=d- artbasa+xb zaaa- 5 * Postulaler “of binary operaben ® Clesure oh, a and bb cre tm S; then a*b alto iH S > Eq" S is a tek of Note sess % be addittn lek az a, b-3) Ale aebsarb-24+3:5 5 belongs to sel S- So hls Bok des closure Pepety Scanned wth CamScanner® Assodtokivi i . ® Sik asbre are 1S , theGaty her, ax (bxO = Ge bec Pfq asa, bel, cos3 let * be addition © 3 artbre)s G@« b+ DD C1+ d= ai) +? D> R445 SE 3G a> eo = & ® \ertity €lement D> There exist aq umeut element called identedy alemnent e S sc such “that For omy element x 5, ) xmeez C#e se 5X ES | Ege: let Z be xk of beers Sand + be dhe Sipevetran | we, CZ,+)9 News, additive identity of x > ue hae Set T= 40,7303 | Vy deke & number , lek ik be i Q, and sperahen + Lk ux have Qe eer 2a Scanned wth Camcanneres——_"~""—~—-—-—~<—~S~Stéi‘(‘isOSCS— D € =O (identity clement wird +) o ve, additwe rdent ity of set Z “uO > Also we can feed ouk mu lhipli cakive iden di >Eq: Ler & be set oF integers, a and ¥ be x J * 10 ». C4, > (z,*) Ke ON, 8,3, 455° 4 Vet & = a, and operation “6 ~ ree = Cw =x > axe = exQ2=a > axe 2 €XQ=R > e =t + rathiplicekoe identiby of % tL @loverse > For eu clement v2 wo § Aheve exe a Langue element «x! io 8 Such Ahet xxxcl=x'x X= sal ie the wverse elernenk of x wilh ‘Nespeck to “>, Scanned wth CamScanner“> . 2 : 9 ' bet MR be set oF all veal soumbeg and we have cperalkin re addition je, Cc 4 9) Slee =x 2 ; e-o Cidentity element) (additive dent) axeate >a+ x=0 3 24+Ga)i? ac! _-9 te, wove vse of xO% a) == 2p-a eidditive, wove *9° > let cthe “ree be (Z, xD D> lek % = * outhipticabive ident ~ Now, wxx'= | (on x eises ZED er ox te) D RD - Je > a! RQ = = x= xe Com codive. Soverse)© Commutatturt OO > af a,b eS, then axb= bea > Fy: Let the bine opesccdién be (z, Wew Let G=', b=aQ then axb = arb pxas bxa > \*xa = 2+! > 3 -3 “(z+ satiffies cocmmaAatwe prepay Semi Group > hk cet S witha laine operekror x is, gard to be sermreroup » (3, sati sfes Abe fellewrng postulates GY Closure Q) Assoccabinly Fat let ZK be sek of all ikeaeas and bia operction be x. then “4 Wy a,b E% and aexb €4% eq: 1a ee and Ax DEX 2. Cldsuve property sabsfred Scanned wth CanscannerG Let Pitre ag Ox Cb49-2 G@uxbdec 7 2 axCbr)=@rOb)x6 ast, bea, o23 . = Ux2>x2 > 1x Cax3) > xe 2 QXB «4 > 6 =e “Casa ites conn aac 4 g Since (&, 4) gates postelates i. and oo C closure and ascent) 5 ft fs semi grep: Monoid . zA set § atth. a “bil ea «ay op op escledn & called a moneid or xthe poskal tL and 3 ave sablifted | le, thes sakéslie’ closure as sociable ty and ast an wclentiby elemen a Cnclosa ve @) assocwtivi ly 5S emg? 1G) Udentty hey soa> Fqi Take che xomple of Cz,4 @ J . the € le ot, Cz,4 ® ; si a check whether K,+> efves dhe 3 postelates et Gzii bee (a,b€%) eae G+bz 142-3, 3E% ~ closuve GO f sales ed — Now, P Mg * Onda bra 7 a=, b= @, ¢=3 axbec)= @xbd¥C DS peCaraye ter? > 1t5 * 343 > L = 6 ae assveckiily reper aapsabisfied. — Lastly , lets find out the ident element e such dhat eee ST eK THe > xr+e 2 e4¢e Ht > tor lel cea, wre = Qte=8? > e-0-. ude rf clement =— EXS —a * Abelian Menoril Sermiguenp >A get § with binar operation * ou called abdian monoid 4 -lhe ow) osfulafer are sakiefied : pet gE a) closure : oF » gharacgy § SO? @) Comenudichiif Abeuan_menci 3 A set S wilh bineey Opes called abelfan a ( Gy closure (2) Assouckivt @) Iden? element (A) Commirkativity dkeon KH it sedied ses : Carvey DA seb S$ ot called a Ger t i satéfes id d C fos u ve (2) cusouartiity Monoid (3) Woweiel | demtity olernerh Qa) Inve xse eliment . ub tren epeactten ¥ ou Scanned wth CamScannerAbedin _Gyanup ew 2 sel S ith bens operekeen * called abeldam ger on 4 Ee sebirfyen @ closure @ Assodabaity . @ tdesstily element: @ Inverse element’ G Commmneckativily : Pei a,» erat én3 Sels_Dith 2 bine Op > le come across sets vith & binary ope ons es: operatic defined on them bn Some 6 > let 6 be a set. ait 2 bineny ee ov " ¢! and ws = lie have II poshaletes i! ® Closure e * : Q Assoccdtvity os * © identity element “fe x @ Inverse elersent ¢ ¥ @ Commnicledivily {er x 6 closure Poy + ® Associabivity 6 .SS ® Tdenktly clement -fer'+’ @ @ loverse element fer ‘s* fonlf S under ¥ sakiefies the postulates (-5 -then fer eveey Xe, | theve exists a oye elemen|- al Bs i} such that xx oxneals e |, herve e! as the lentils, element come to's’. Com mutactivily with spat do + ® Dist bubteity > For nia abe ws a+Cb#c)=@-bp¥Ca+cd © Algebrate sy stern > A set with one oF more | bene operation & called an algelnafe system > Example, fer alaebreic cyslem sith ove Prey prabl are 2 ‘ ene : . ° Monords ‘ | + Sema reup 5 a vel f * Abe bean © . mr ups, . a szEx mple ter atldmad grep Hh 2 + bens a veftoyy are:« Freld --efe Ring 3A sek with 2 bina is called a vq Fy: operation x and . d> it & an abelan pop Ore He @ » satisfies closure, associadin by and dushi butivily postulates - “yA ving ie Called Commutative ding Ef commudtat tvity portelate ty kakesfied by « >'f a comroutalive ving sabiefies iclentity postelate, te & called conmefatiye ota Fietd nn S[k G4 set 4 Q binayy operetiins * eel » tb it sakisfies the W postulates, Ste, it ts an abelan Gree an Satis Pres closure, assctialiuty , commul: identi element cane inverse Ww-e7yet 4 * . and alco ule have te preve (Z,teXD BOA commutative ving Sith iclentd > Te prove Abe > we heave to “den thae Z+) ws an abelscvn soup an CZ,*) ee closuve, oes “4 elorent eornrnedtakiy it epertre ws~ Also C4A,+- «> sak’s fies clisdeibubve peperty : > now consider CZ, 4) = ~. leh ate a ez b-3 bez! atb: +375 axb EZ 1. élesure psope sty gatahed for CZ, «lel Aza be 3 ert Gaxbox = axCbxe) > O+Dtl= a+ C34) > 6 = G. iS 7G. +) cusse bat ve Scanned with CamScanner-le x = 2 Er Q : Qeez ex QA (ave sexe Qeeceti=c 2 . “é dSe=0 7 Identity clement. of Cz,4) 8 © » Nod, lek x= 5 Et xx xls xlaxse > 54x's axles =O Csince e=0) it > x= “5 we [nverse element of 5 wrk (AD &-5 Te show &,+) % Commutative a,b €0z : dhen Axbz bra lek a= 2 be 3) Q4RSSBrtR =o (4+) is Commutative > AU dhs shows that Gao an abelian ger — Scanned wth CamScanner>Next, ¢ onucder (2,%) » lee a2 E2 Aeez b-5 Ex be = eon a _ axbet ( P anh = Qxb ES = bo Ez os closure property cabs ed er 2, = Aled as 2 (b+ 5 cz) | GrBne = earbso Cametshr iit) >GQxbyrc = AX Cbxo > (Qxe5)xl = ae C5xl = lo re Assoctabivily postelale stetuspted ED » We have Azea b= 3 axb= bea C commulalirty postelate) Dd Axe= BHR = G Cemrautadivi ty satisfied er Cz, Scanned wth CamScanner* Te. cheek ehethe, identity eteinznt extse te CZ,%? Ree = OH NXs x DS xx = € xx =X det x= to sd loxe = exo =10 > e=l * rlow, to check distrbulve peepoty DS a-Cbhecd= @ by Ca-d D> leb asl, b= 2, c=3 SaxCb+cd) = (axbd+ Go S ix (243) = «20 40*39 s 5 = 5 ke “ (a+b) xc = @¥cp+ KbYO DS0V+2d*3 = (ix 3) 4ax 3) > 3x3 = 3+6 2 4 = 4 a distei bubtve property gakis fied tence (X,+,0 © 4 commutative my wrth ident : Scanned with CamScanner @WU anaes —— [_set_| No operation 22 Postulates 1, 2 Semigroup Monoid Abelian group Fig. 2.1 Sets with one binary operation. Scanned wth CamScanneryt 1» 23 Abelian group Ring with identity Commutative ring Commutative ring with identity Field 4-11 Fig. 2.2. Sets with two binary operations. Scanned wth CamScannerRe lations : @ > This cencept basic co well os to geal Séfe . S lk arises when we considey. a pate ci object and Cornperve one with ether agi * being dlaseg hter 4 2 a relation bles 2 persons wle con wve present compale a Sctence db es as ordered A aug hter of b. pair Ca;b)."e & us >In corn peter cctence, the ve lekten. concept av kes aptee it) Conse 4, data structures. : 2A gelation R ha sk S wa cellecken 4, ordered pats ¢ elements in Cte, a Subset of SXS). llhen OP i im R, we wri le Re when Cx 4) net &, we write 2% R* J > ‘ SB Construct a velectran from dhe sek , $= 418,348 defined] by xky 1 x7 Re 1 (2,10 9,0)C4,1904 2904303. F —— ‘ a — Scanned with CamScannerCons luck on 4 @ truck a relat R (yn qv “et Qs) Ashi, a3.5,405 PB = 32/465 cle fined by set of Segre anelarge dy Se YCROCE FICS Properties f Relalien Prepemes yo O Reflexive aa veletien BR ww SH vefteere eeEx te ever x ins: > ky: Ue. 410,345 R= 40,9 (2,2) C3, 3) 04,42f Sy mame fae ( SA releten R in Ss th s mmetate if vr % in Sy, ake whenever =n PEG: : = ( $2 31,2,3,45 R= PCDI, DCBAPCA os OTrensi five 5'A relation Rt S & clransitive HY I {7 tg? Band Xb 5, xz whenever E ' wks ornd gee Scanned wth CamScanner3 Eqs : 7 g* % Se 21,a,3, 45 : 9 R= 34,9) (2,3) Cl 2 (314) 68a Ch DCa0S lation KR om Set S &) Check the pee ve | drensitive S symmetric, reflexive oy S2 $1,8,3,4/5,68 Re J (12)Ca, 203,404 4) 4 5)$ tk ne tref.le ve Image As Sence there 1, 2,3 end 5 the ie hor Lhe elements snelation is nok wef lexive. te, élements are net velcited te “itself > Since dhere me rreledton yRx co hemever aRy, it & alco ret tgrnmetni , an 5 This neletian is not — -Lransittve tor evry xy fkk , ne ve lefrem Kz. > So the quen gelateon +e seé S sot %/ lex ive, net syoomentc : orel ret. breansitite- Scanned wth CamScannerTypes of relations - & O. Reflecwve releheo © Gyrometaic relaten @ Transitwe velatin @ Equivalence relation DA relation Is satd te be equivalence t te is reflexive, gymmetace transitive aia: $2 41,2,35 R= 36 0 C8 2903, DC ,a)Cu3> 62,390 3.2) E499 3,1 F O Empty relabicn /vord releten =A weletien wR on set S bs called empty b -lheve 8 70 ere lecticn bjw any elemente or a set. SEqr S27 Ua R= Se xeplre-gle8 5 sly dthis eran le ther & me element satis Fies the relate R where x-g =8. Scanned with CamScanner® Symraehic closure @ - lek R be a nelekiirn em se A ref fextve closure ea nelatin s on set A, det Ri! be the wwene dP =the symone ae closure & velekienR on set Av Rog! ~ Gg. Ae Sua, 3,08 R= ULNA DC Nt Be § C1, 00139 C3,29C4 C4 DY ‘2 $cu0 Carl ra? C2, 393,19 ,29 03,4) (4.904.395 fur i) Trens itive cleure _ Let & be a-relahsn on set A on & J R" net . + = Transitive closure of Ro R te, ete Riu RuR? or — By As Bray Re JC C4 Ca aye C3 45 e400 Cg) CaO) (3,0) 5 Pe {doy adce,1) 69,4 9C3, 035 Rd a " " : f Scanned with CamScannero A mbisymmetsce relalecn g@ : SA relalies R on set S %& called antf- syromedace uy Ca, bye Ro od (bedER then az=b- 12, R= § cab) 2k leebs > akb, bea? ab © Composite relation > Suppese, we have 3 sels A,B od c, x yeldticon R tren set A to B corel 6 velatecn § defined for B de © then 8 can clefine aA new qelatsn kneDn as cornpos tien 4 s (RoS) > Let R be a ye leticn por x by and s be 4 yelecten trem 4 tox, then ve laten +h R ard § « dhe vrelaticr consisting of ordered aan C82 where LEX vf gem Z | {hore erwt an elemert ay cucl {hot Gupvek and Cy, 2ES C OO ® Universal walabisin h a~@ Asymnmelnic velahos composite ema Scanned wth CamscannerClaur of ave lations &) >A ayer yeledion mey not be ve flesive symmelat 09 trensilive , by adel .og move ve Ordered petys te Rj we can make reflexive , syrometne oy tranditive > Fer eg: let s231,0,3F Ro 3 C1,296%,3)C4) C28 R is nek ve) lextive cas BR'B 1, 3/30 by adding (3,3) te R, R- $4,261, OC8,3) (2,2) (3398 R became veflexive . >There are main 3 “ly pes + closure @ Reflexive closure ELE TOES 5A= Sta,ad\aeas vw the diaeeral srelectwn oP seb A 7 Ref [exive closure set AW RUA — Goi Ae Lire. 3/48 Re £60 C14) 03,3) 63,94 9F bz fF Cu Cea) 0% 3) C4405 $CuUd (229901496813) C31 c3,3)C374) C4495 Scanned with CamScanner relalicn Rom RUA =y — Since e?-R? wr step preset® - - RY = ghuR = 5 C,9C7 02,9 Cd M463, 063, 4F * Definition t Let R be om equiva enc: relekien oo set S$, at a€s -the Cy (equivalence Clas comteini mya Sid ened ex Caz Lbes\ares Funckons S Funckiens can le one —-4fo-'ome -vvelatiens oF moans jo lone veledieins 4 : ; 2 Domain + Sek of yalees shrek Uhe rule & lo applied - te ig the complete cot of possible veluss “} indepenlent vonable oy alk the possible x- valuts coh voll make punctien sont - «Co domewn — Se Ff all Y values XL) eS eel ‘Scanned wih ComScanner° Range = ae teow the complete ser af eat possible aewdting valucs of demaly ov the set of vadrs thel funchin can produce > Eg: A B A—f\ hex. b 3 Range = 412,35 4 4 Domain = § a,b,dy d Cedowein = $1,.2,2, 45 + tes >A Sanction or rap § drm a set Xx toaset Y & a qule which amcdales fe every element x % X oa Lengua element in Y, whith & denoted by f(x): The element fix) & called Wnoaqe of x under fe Ard the functiin % denoted by fixry > Example of a funckun $: (2345 shabicd $0) = a, fee 4@)= Bc 4 . [7 fG)2a ea f(A2b Scanned wth CamScanneregg fence © ® Gre — bo sone | tnyecbive furcteo SEXY 1 seid to be one Fee an toppekwe funchen 4 : different eleenente to XK lave Afferent aye Pex fF Cra) when xpd ay te one OF te, > Te ove 2 ‘sore be one > we assume Pore PergQand ches Ahab x, = %- 5 Example of weet furclion f: jue, sfopeacss FU) er, FOD=4 > fCay-% | Y Xow -B, ® Oole /[ sunyeckive fenchen > f: xy onto v eve coe ‘4 to YS Abe ag of igame € ere nt x io X- ‘ ; 4 ». F12,3,4,5 3 F4, bec, at as eel ory: oe Foo: a, FE)> D5 $cm= a Y Scanned with Camscanner7 NS ® Bijfective Aunelien @ Sf xsy ts saad to be ene te one Cortecperdlemee oT bicker 4 14, is beth injeclive and sur feckive or cone te Ene acd on to enclien 3 Eq: ff: 5 6,4 #45) a, bc 4 $C). a, $OP: b, Head C L$ dead 5 to Y a : ® Many qe one fusctian 3A dunclion f: xy tc said + be many to one 4 Aleve ave 4 valucs that have’ sere tan ome x “Mnluc mapped onto them ne ee 41,9, 34 = 3 4,b,cF 3FM=26 3 {R= 4 \ 4% a Y fcp-c A ‘5 \ A Rev Lo ce ————l Scanned with Camscanner® Owe te voemyy flavakion _@ 3A dunckicn & said to be one te 7% * if Aheve ave x values that have move than one 4 velua mapped + EGF: Fa bicd}— 9 1,8, 5,5 S FGE! ch): 3 < 7 f(b: 5 ¢ 5 Hdd S ¢ KR © lets -fancton | > A funckédn £1 A+B ws said de be into wy Aherve ext even a2 iv le | dlemenk wn B Ying no pre - timace To A, Aheo £ %& said te be an Inte Functien - | 14 \ Q [7 3 4 DTheve are mar okhey Someone ltlee pdgrernad fanettin, quadaakte furctin, unction, Lineare poneton ede algebs ant {~~ 00lUmUmUmU” ny a | ‘ G Pigeonhale_F Primtple © IF n objects ave clistytbuted over mm places ane nom , then seme plac veceiues at leak 2 objec ti Pos Example a . 4 @) Suppose a postman clus dafhedes 51 letters Tn 50 rat lbo wes Cp eonhelec) Then tt 0 eviclent that some mei lbox will conta at leack 2 letters. Thi enunbeiated as a mecthematteed principle called the Plgeebndle Peimaple. 1 (@> Seppose that a, lect °F Qo pices plies thts) a. seb of 1a pigerheles Since there are de pigeons emd onl 19 Piyeorheles, atleast one of cthese fegpertaels vost have | atleast a sigon nm fe +> In clhe case of funchin JAP Carn soy f n+! objects cre put ‘nt. 1 boxes, then 2 or mor objects: fb? i My — The abstract oymuladticts of the © p fn ““p le 3 tr at least one box conta’ Scanned with Camscannerlee x ond Y be finite sete amel tet GY) Fr AB be « feveten SIE x has rove element than Y, then £ & nek one te one : Sf x and Y have The Same neo of ~ elements and f{ 1 onto , then f& one te one. Sf x aid y have dhe same nod elements amd £ ts ane to ore, Then p %s onto: Ginaph > Gpaph theory Us aay epplied ‘> ae Gres of competer scent’ Utke termed tang Paks 3s A gree ts a mathemetical Structure cl te medel pairdGe yeletions blo objects whih is nade up of verttees ees , cornpiler coriting | arti freed Iigenc CAL -. etc. 4 ( G Use ( and “pn DA Giaph Bow ordered pewy G=zCv,e) te Com posses Say eV aa set of vertiees | neces | pert Scanned wth CamScannerase oS ~ E> Set of edges [links | [mes- @ . loop > Tt ff an edge that fofns a Vertex to “Eself- * Un- divectec| - aph alt ts represen ted by oe where the vertices are repre sested by pein or small etcles and edgec Gres deining the vertides ot cussouctie| pai > Eq: e + : —¥, valk auscucted / with e, —hy, v5 asssislhel widh & Cself leep) a 4 Directed graph. 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