CC Mod5

SJB INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
#67, B G S HEALTH AND EDUCATION CITY

Kengeri, Bengaluru-560060.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING
CIRCUITS &CONTROLS (21EC43)
MODULE-5
ROOT LOCUS-FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS AND

STABILITY-STATE VARIABLE ANALYSIS
Prepared By:
Dr. Mahantesh K
Assoc. Prof., Dept. of ECE
Circuits & Control 21EC43
INDEX SHEET
Sl No. Module Name SUB TOPICS CO

1. Concepts of stability, Necessary conditions for Stability,: CO4
Routh stability criterion, and Relative stability analysis: more CO4
2.
on the Routh stability criterion.
Module – 5 Introduction to Root-Locus Techniques, The root locus CO4
3.
concepts, Construction of root loci.
Stability
4. analysis Solution to problems CO4
& CO4
5. Solution to problems
Frequency
6. domain analysis Correlation between time and frequency response,. CO4
and stability
7. Bode Plots, Experimental determination of transfer function CO4
8. State Variable Analysis CO4
TEXT BOOK:
1. “ Control Systems Engineering”, J.Nagarath and M.Gopal New Age International (P)
Limited, Publishers, Fifth edition-2005, ISBN: 81-224-2008-7.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. “Modern Control Engineering,” K.Ogata, Pearson Education Asia/PHI, 4th Edition,
2002. ISBN 978-81-203-4010-7.
2. “Automatic Control Systems”, Benjamin C. Kuo, John Wiley India Pvt. Ltd., 8th
Edition, 2008.
3. “Feedback and Control System,” Joseph J Distefano III et al., Schaum’s Outlines,
TMH, 2nd Edition 2007.
Dept of ECE/SJBIT
MODULE-5
STABILITY ANALYSIS AND FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS
PART A- STABILITY ANALYSIS IN TIME DOMAIN
Every System, for small amount of time has to pass through a transient period. Whether system
will reach its steady state after passing through transients or not. The answer to this question is
whether the system is stable or unstable. This is stability analysis.
For example, we want to go from one station to other. The station we want to reach is
our final steady state. The traveling period is the transient period. Now any thing
may happen during the traveling period due to bad weather, road accident etc, there is a chance
that we may not reach the next station in time. The analysis of wheather the given system can
reach steady state after passing through the transients successfully is called the stability analysis
of the system.
In this chapter, we will steady

1. The stability & the factor on which system stability depends.
2. Stability analysis & location of closed loop poles.
3. Stability analysis using Hurwitz method.
4. Stability analysis using Routh-Hurwitz method.
5. Special cases of Routh’s array.
6. Applications of Routh-Hurwitz method.
Concept of stability:
Consider a system i.e a deep container with an object placed inside it as shown in fig(1)
force ‘F’
(a) fig(1) (b)
Now, if we apply a force to take out the object, as the depth of container is more, it will oscillate
& settle down again at original position.
Assume that force required to take out the object tends to infinity i.e always object will
oscillate when force is applied & will settle down but will not come out such a system is called
absolutely stable system. No change in parameters, disturbances, changes the output.
ECE/SJBIT Page 1
Now consider a container which is pointed one, on which we try to keep a circular object. In this
object will fall down without any external application of force. Such system is called Unstable
system.
(a) fig(2) (b)

While in certain cases the container is shallow then there exsists a critical value of
force for which the object will come out of the container.
F
F F
Fig(3) F<Fcritical F>Fcritical
As long as F<Fcritical object regains its original position but if F>Fcritical object will come out.
Stability depends on certain conditions of the system, hence system is called conditionally stable
system.
Pendulum where system keeps on oscillating when certain force is applied. Such
systems are neither stable nor unstable & hence called critically stable or marginally stable
systems
Stability of control systems:
The stability of a linear closed loop system can be determined from the locations of closed loop
poles in the S-plane.
If the system has closed loop T.F.

C(s) = 10
R(s) (S+2) (S+4) 1
Output response for unit step input R(s) =
S
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C(s) 10 = A B C
S(S+2) (S+4) S S+2 S+4
Find out partial fractions
1 1 1
C(s) = 8 4 8 10
S S+2 S+4
= 1.25 2.5 1.25

S S+2 S+4
C(s) = 1.25 – 2.5e-2t+1.25e-4t
=Css + Ct(t)
If the closed loop poles are located in left half of s-plane, Output response contains exponential
terms with negative indices will approach zero & output will be the steady state output.
i.e.
Ct (t) = 0
t 
Transient output = 0
Such system are called absolutely stable systems.
Now let us have a system with one closed loop pole located in right half of s- plane
C(s) 10
R(s) S(S-2)(s+4)
A + B + C 10
= S S-2 S+4
C(t) = - 1.25 + 0.833e 2t + 0.416e – 4 t

Here there is one exponential term with positive in transient output
Therefore Css = - 1.25
t C(t)
0 0
1 + 4.91
2 + 44.23
4 +2481.88
 
From the above table, it is clear that output response instead of approaching to steady state value
as t  due to exponential term with positive index, transients go on increasing in amplitude.
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So such system is said to be unstable. In such system output is uncontrollable & unbounded one.
Output response of such system is as shown in fig(4).
C(t) C(t) 
OR
Steady state
output
t
(a) fig(4) t
(b)
For such unstable systems, if input is removed output may not return to zero. And if the input
power is turned on, output tends to  . If no saturation takes place in system & no mechanical
stop is provided then system may get damaged.
If all the closed loop poles or roots of the characteristic equation lies in left of s-plane, then in the
output response contains steady state terms & transient terms. Such transient terms approach to
zero as time advances eventually output reaches to equilibrium & attains steady state value.
Transient terms in such system may give oscillation but the amplitude of such oscillation will
be decreasing with time & finally will vanish. So output response of such system is shown in
fig5 (a) & (b).
C(t) C(t) Damped oscillations

Steady state
----------------------- ---------------------------
OR
Steady state output
t t
(a) fig 5 (b)
BIBO Stability : This is bounded input bounded output stability.
Definition of stable system:

A linear time invariant system is said to be stable if following conditions are satisfied.
1. When system is excited by a bounded input, output is also bounded & controllable.
2. In the absence of input, output must tend to zero irrespective of the initial conditions.
Unstable system:
A linear time invariant system is said to be unstable if,
1. for a bounded input it produces unbounded output.
2. In the absence of input, output may not be returning to zero. It shows certain output
without input.
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Besides these two cases, if one or more pairs simple non repeated roots are located on the
imaginary axis of the s-plane, but there are no roots in the right half of s-plane, the output
response will be undamped sinusoidal oscillations of constant frequency & amplitude. Such
systems are said to be critically or marginally stable systems.
Critically or Marginally stable systems:

A linear time invariant system is said to be critically or marginally stable if for a bounded
input its output oscillates with constant frequency & Amplitude. Such oscillation of output are
called Undamped or Sustained oscillations.
For such system one or more pairs of non repeated roots are located on the imaginary axis as
shown in fig6(a). Output response of such systems is as shown in fig6(b).
C(t)
Constant Amplitude & frequency oscillations
X J2 ------------------------------------
----------------------------- steady state output
X J1 ------------------------------------

X - J1
X - J2
Fig 6(a)
non repeated poles on J axis. t
If there are repeated poles located purely on imaginary axis system is said to be unstable.
C(t)
J1 x x
-----------------------------------------
 steady state output
s-plane
J1 x x
Conditionally Stable:
A linear time invariant system is said to be conditionally stable, if for a certain condition if a
particular parameter of the system, its output is bounded one. Otherwise if that condition is
ECE/SJBIT Page 5
violated output becomes unbounded system becomes unstable. i.e. Stability of the system
depends the on condition of the parameter of the system. Such system is called conditionally
stable system.
S-plane can be divided into three zones from stability point of view.
J axis
Left half of s-plane Right half of s-plane
Real
Stable Unstable
S-Plane
(repeated)
unstable (non repeated roots)

Marginally stable
Sl. Nature of closed Location of closed loop Step response Stability condition
No loop poles. poles in s-plane
1. Real negative i.e
in LHS of splane J C(t)
--------------------- Absolutely stable

x x 
-02 -01
Real positive in J
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RHS of s-plane
2. C(t)
x  
a1 ------------------------ Unstable
t
increasing towards 
3. Complex C(t)
conjugate with J
negative real x J 1
part
-a1 Absolutely stable.
 t
x
-J 2 Damped oscillation
4. Complex Ct
conjugate with
positive real
part J1 x

Unstable.
-J 1 -x
t
oscillations with
increasing amplitude
5. Non repeated C(t)

pair on J
imaginary axis Marginally or
x J1 critically stable

x -J2 t
OR C(t)
J
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X J2 t
x J1 Marginally or
 critically stable
Sustained oscillations
x –J1 with two frequencies 1 &
2
x – J2
Two non repeated pairs on

imaginary axis.
6. Repeated pair J
on imaginary C(t)
axis
x x J1
------------------------
 Unstable
t
x x -J1
oscillation of increasing
amplitude
Relative Stability:
The system is said to be relatively more stable or unstable on the basis of
settling time. System is said to be more stable if settling time for that system is less than that of
other system.
The settling time of the root or pair of complex conjugate roots is inversely proportional
to the real part of the roots.
Sofar the roots located near the J axis, settling time will be large. As the roots move
away from J axis i.e towards left half of the s-plane settling time becomes lesser or smaller &
system becomes more & more stable. So the relative stability improves.
J C(t)
Stable for P1
x x  ----------------------------------
P2 P1
Relatively more stable for P2
t
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J
C(t) stable for 1

x x

2 1 --------------------------------------------------------------
x x
more stable for 2

J axis
Relative stability s-plane

improves
Routh – Hurwitz Criterion :
This represents a method of determining the location of poles of a characteristics equation

with the respect to the left half & right half of the s-plane without actually solving the equation.
The T.F.of any linear closed loop system can be represented as,
C(s) b0 sm + b1 sm-1 +….+ bm

=
R(s) a0 sn + a1 sn-1 + …. + an
Where ‘a’ & ‘b’ are constants.
To find the closed loop poles we equate F(s) =0. This equation is called as Characteristic
Equation of the system.
F(s) = a0 sn + a1 sn-1 + a2 sn-2 + ….. + an = 0.
Thus the roots of the characteristic equation are the closed loop poles of the system which decide
the stability of the system.
Necessary Condition to have all closed loop poles in L.H.S. of s-plane.

In order that the above characteristic equation has no root in right of s-plane, it is necessary
but not sufficient that,
1. All the coefficients off the polynomial have the same sign.
2. Non of the coefficient vanishes i.e. all powers of ‘s’ must be present in descending order
from ‘n’ to zero.
These conditions are not sufficient.
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Hurwitz’s Criterion :
The sufficient condition for having all roots of characteristics equation in left half of s-plane
is given by Hurwitz. It is referred as Hurwitz criterion. It states that:
The necessary & sufficient condition to have all roots of characteristic equation in left half of
s-plane is that the sub-determinants DK, K = 1, 2,………n obtained from Hurwitz determinant
‘H’ must all be positive.
Method of forming Hurwitz determinant:
a1 a3 a5 …….. a2n-1
a0 a2 a4 ..…… a2n-2
0 a1 a3 .……. a2n-3
0 a0 a2 …….. a2n-4
H=
0 0 a1 ……... a2n-5
- - ……... -
- - - ……... -
0 - - ……. an
The order is n*n where n = order of characteristic equation. In Hurwitz determinant all
coefficients with suffices greater than ‘n’ or negative suffices must all be replaced by zeros.
From Hurwitz determinant subdeterminants, DK, K= 1, 2, ….n must be formed as follows:
a1 a3 a5
D1 = a1 D2 = a1 a3 D3 = a0 a2 a4 DK = H
a0 a2 0 a1 a3
For the system to be stable, all above determinants must be positive.
Determine the stability of the given characteristics equation by Hurwitz,s method.
Ex 1: F(s)= s3 + s2 + s1 + 4 = 0 is characteristic equation.

a0 = 1, a1 = 1, a2 = 1, a3 = 4, n = 3
a1 a3 a5 1 4 0
H= a 0 a2 a4 = 1 1 0
0 a1 a3 0 1 4
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D1 = 1 =1
1 4
D2 = 1 1 = -3
1 4 0
D3 = 1 1 0 = 4 –16 = -12.
0 1 4
As D2 & D3 are negative, given system is unstable.
Disadvantages of Hurwitz’s method :

1. For higher order system, to solve the determinants of higher order is very complicated &
time consuming.
2. Number of roots located in right half of s-plane for unstable system cannot be judged by
this method.
3. Difficult to predict marginal stability of the system.
4. Due to these limitations, a new method is suggested by the scientist Routh called Routh’s
method. It is also called Routh-Hurwitz method.
Routh’s Stability Criterion:

It is also called Routh’s array method or Routh-Hurwitz’s method
Routh suggested a method of tabulating the coefficients of characteristic equation
in a particular way. Tabulation of coefficients gives an array called Routh’s array.
Consider the general characteristic equation as,
F(s) = a0 sn + a1 sn-1 + a2 sn-2 + ….. + an = 0.
Method of forming an array :

Sn a0 a2 a4 a6 ……….
Sn-1 a1 a3 a5 a7
Sn-2 b1 b2 b3
Sn-3 c1 c2 c3
- - - -
- - - -
S0 an
Coefficients of first two rows are written directly from characteristics equation.
From these two rows next rows can be obtained as follows.
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a1 a2 – a0 a3 a1 a4 – a0 a5 a1 a6 – a0 a7
b1 = , b2 = , b3 =
a1 a1 a1
From 2nd & 3rd row , 4th row can be obtained as
b1 a3 – a1 b2 b1 a5 – a1 b3
C1 = , C2 =
b1 b1
This process is to be continued till the coefficient for s0 is obtained which will be an. From this
array stability of system can be predicted.
Routh’s criterion :
The necessary & sufficient condition for system to be stable is “ All the terms in the first
column of Routh’s array must have same sign. There should not be any sign change in first
column of Routh’s array”.
If there are sign changes existing then,

1. System is unstable.
2. The number of sign changes equals the number of roots lying in the right half of the
s-plane.
Examine the stability of given equation using Routh’s method :
Ex.2: s3+6s2 + 11s + 6 =0

Sol: a0 = 1, a1 = 6, a2 =11, a3 = 6, n = 3
S3 1 11
S2 6 6
S1 11 * 6 – 6 =10 0
6
S0 6
As there is no sign change in the first column, system is stable.
ECE/SJBIT Page 12
Ex. 3 s3 + 4s2 + s + 16 = 0
Sol: a0 =1, a1 = 4, a2 = 1, a3 = 16
S3 1 1
S2 +4 16
S1 4 - 16 = -3 0
4
S0 +16
As there are two sign changes, system is unstable.

Number of roots located in the right half of s-plane = number of sign changes = 2.
Special Cases of Routh’s criterion :
Special case 1 :
First element of any of the rows of Routh’s array is zero & same remaining rows contains at
least one non-zero element.
Effect : The terms in the new row become infinite & Routh’s test fails.
e.g. : s5 + 2s4 + 3s3 + 6s2 + 2s + 1 = 0
S5 1 3 2
S4 2 6 1 Special case 1 Routh’s array failed
S3 0 1.5 0
S2  …. …
Following two methods are used to remove above said difficulty.
First method : Substitute a small positive number ‘’ in place of a zero occurred as a first
element in the row. Complete the array with this number ‘’. Then
examine
lim
Sign change by taking . Consider above Example.
 0
ECE/SJBIT Page 13
S5 1 3 2
S4 2 6 1
S3  1.5 0
S2 6 - 3 1 0

S1 1.5(6 - 3) 0
-

(6 - 3)

S0 1
To examine sign change,

Lim = 6 - 3 = lim 6- 3
 0   0 
=6-
= -  sign is negative.
Lim 1.5(6 – 3) - 2 = Lim 9 - 4.5 - 2

 0 6 -3  0 6 - 3
= 0 – 4.5 – 0
0 -3
= + 1.5 sign is positive
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Routh’s array is,
S5 1 3 2
S4 2 6 1
S3 + 1.5 0
S2 -
 1 0
S1 +1.5 0 0
S0 1 0 0
Second method : To solve the above difficulty one more method can be used. In this, replace
‘s’ by ‘1/Z’ in original equation. Taking L.C.M. rearrange characteristic equation in descending
powers of ‘Z’. Then complete the Routh’s array with this new equation in ‘Z’ & examine the
stability with this array.
Consider F(s) = s5 + 2s4 + 3s3 + 6s2 + 2s + 1 = 0

Put s=1/Z
1 + 2 + 3 +6 +2 + 1=0
Z5 Z4 Z3 Z2 Z
Z5 + 2Z4+ 6Z3+3Z2+2Z+ 1 = 0
Z5 1 6 2
Z4 2 3 1
Z3 4.5 1.5 0
Z2 2.33 1 0
Z1 - 0.429 0
Z0 1
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Special case 2 :
All the elements of a row in a Routh’s array are zero.
Effect : The terms of the next row can not be determined & Routh’s test fails.
S5 a b c
S4 d e f
S3 0 0 0 Row of zeros, special case 2
This indicates no availability of coefficient in that row.
Procedure to eliminate this difficulty :

1. Form an equation by using the coefficients of row which is just above the row of zeros.
Such an equation is called an Auxillary equation denoted as A(s). For above case such
an equation is,
A(s) = ds4 + es2 + f
Note that the coefficients of any row are corresponding to alternate powers of ‘s’ starting
from the power indicated against it.
So ‘d’ is coefficient corresponding to s4 so first term is ds4 of A(s).
Next coefficient ‘e’ is corresponding to alternate power of ‘s’ from 4 i.e. s2 Hence the term es
2
& so on.
2. Take the derivative of an auxillary equation with respect to ‘s’.

i.e. dA(s)
= 4d s3 + 2e s
ds
3. Replace row of zeros by the coefficients of dA(s)

ds
S5 a b c
S4 d e f
S3 4d 2e 0
4. Complete the array of zeros by the coefficients.
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Importance of auxiliary equation:
Auxiliary equation is always the part of original characteristic equation. This means the roots of
the auxiliary equation are some of the roots of original characteristics equation. Not only this but
roots of auxiliary equation are the most dominant roots of the original characteristic equation,
from the stability point of view. The stability can be predicted from the roots of A(s)=0 rather
than the roots of characteristic equation as the roots of A(s) = 0 are the most dominant from the
stability point of view. The remaining roots of the characteristic equation are always in the left
half & they do not play any significant role in the stability analysis.
e.g. Let F(s) = 0 is the original characteristic equation of say order n = 5.

Let A(s) = 0 be the auxillary equation for the system due to occurrence of special case 2
of the order m = 2.
Then out of 5 roots of F(s) = 0, the 2 roots which are most dominant (dominant means very
close to imaginary axis or on the imaginary axis or in the right half of s-plane) from the stability
point of view are the 2roots of A(s) = 0. The remaining 5 –2 = 3 roots are not significant from
stability point of view as they will be far away from the imaginary axis in the left half of s-plane.
The roots of auxillary equation may be,

1. A pair of real roots of opposite sign i.e.as shown in the fig. 8.10 (a).
j j
x
x x   
x Fig. 8. 10 (b)
Fig 8. 10(a)
2. A pair of roots located on the imaginary axis as shown in the fig. 8.10(b).
3. The non-repeated pairs of roots located on the imaginary axis as shown in the
fig.8.10 (c).
j j
x xx
x
 
x
x xx
Fig. 8.10(c) Fig. 8.10(d).
4. The repeated pairs of roots located on the imaginary axis as shown in the Fig.8.10 (d).
ECE/SJBIT Page 17
Hence total stability can be determined from the roots of A(s) = 0, which can be out of
four types shown above.
Change in criterion of stability in special case 2 :
After replacing a row of zeros by the coefficients of dA(s) , complete the Routh’s array.
ds
But now, the criterion that, no sign in 1st column of array for stability, no longer remains
sufficient but becomes a necessary. This is because though A(s) is a part of original
characteristic equation, dA(s) is not, which is in fact used to complete the array.
ds
So if sign change occurs in first column, system is unstable with number of sign changes
equal to number of roots of characteristics equation located in right half of
s-plane.
But there is no sign changes, system cannot be predicted as stable . And in such case
stability is to be determined by actually solving A(s) = 0 for its roots. And from the location
of roots of A(s) = 0 in the s-plane the system stability must be determined. Because roots
A(s) = 0 are always dominant roots of characteristic equation.
Application of Routh’s of criterion :

Relative stability analysis :
If it is required to find relative stability of system about a line s = -  . i.e. how many roots
are located in right half of this line s = - , the Routh’s method can be used effectively.
To determine this from Routh’s array, shift the axis of s – plane & then apply Routh’s
array i.e. substitute s = s 1 - , ( = constant) in characteristic equation. Write polynomial in
terms of s1. Complete array from this new equation. The number of sign changes in first
column is equal to number of roots those are located to right of the vertical line
s = - .
Imaginary j

- 0
Determining range of values of K :
In practical system, an amplifier of variable gain K is introduced .

The closed loop transfer function is
ECE/SJBIT Page 18
C(s) KG(s)
=
R(s) 1+ KG(s) H(s)
Hence the characteristic equation is

F(s) = 1+ KG(s) H(s) = 0
So the roots of above equation are dependent on the proper selection of value of ‘K’.
So unknown ‘K’ appears in the characteristic equation. In such case Routh’s array is to be
constructed in terms of K & then the range of values of K can be obtained in such away that it
will not produce any sign change in first column of the Routh’s array. Hence it is possible to
obtain the range of values of K for absolute stability of the system using Routh’s criterion. Such
a system where stability depends on the condition of parameter K, is called conditionally stable
system.
Advantages of Routh’s criterion :

Advantages of routh’s array method are :
1. Stability of the system can be judged without actually solving the characteristic equation.
2. No evaluation of determinants, which saves calculation time.
3. For unstable system it gives number of roots of characteristic equation having
positive real part.
4. Relative stability of the system can be easily judged.
5. By using the criterion, critical value of system gain can be determined hence
frequency of sustained oscillations can be determined.
6. It helps in finding out range of values of K for system stability.
7. It helps in finding out intersection points of roots locus with imaginary axis.
Limitation of Routh’s criterion :
1. It is valid only for real coefficients of the characteristic equation.

2. It does not provide exact locations of the closed loop poles in left or right half of s-plane.
3. It does not suggest methods of stabilizing an unstable system.
4. Applicable only to linear system.
Ex.1. s6 + 4s5 +3s4 – 16s2- 64s – 48 = 0 Find the number of roots of this equation with positive
real part, zero real part & negative real part
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Sol: S6 1 3 -16 -48
S5 4 0 -64 0
S4 3 0 -48 0
S3 0 0 0
dA
A(s) = 3S4 – 48 = 0 = 12s3
ds
S6 1 3 -16 -48
S5 4 0 -64 0
S4 3 0 -48 0
S3 12 0 0 0
S2 ( )0 -48 0 0
S1 576 0 0 0

S0 -48
Lim 576
 0  = +
Therefore One sign change & system is unstable. Thus there is one root in R.H.S of the s – plane
i.e. with positive real part. Now
solve A(s) = 0 for the dominant roots
A(s) = 3s4 – 48 =0
Put S2 = Y
 3Y2 = 48  Y2 =16,  Y = 16 =  4
S2 = + 4 S2 = -4
S = 2 S =  2j
ECE/SJBIT Page 20
So S =  2j are the two parts on imaginary axis i.e. with zero real part. Root in R.H.S. indicated
by a sign change is S =  2 as obtained by solving A(s) = 0. Total there are 6 roots as n = 6.
Roots with Positive real part = 1

Roots with zero real part =2
Roots with negative real part = 6 –2 – 1 = 3
Ex.2 : For unity feed back system,
k
G(s) = , Find range of values of K, marginal value of K
S(1 + 0.4s) ( 1 + 0.25 s) & frequency of sustained oscillations.
Sol : Characteristic equation, 1 + G (s) H (s) = 0 & H(s) = 1
K
1+ =0
s(1 + 0.4s) ( 1 + 0.25s)
s [ 1 + 0.65s + 0.1s2} + K = 0
 0.1s3 + 0.65s2 +s + K = 0
S3 0.1 1 From s0, K>0
S2 0.65 K from s1,
S1 0.65 – 0.1K 0 0.65 – 0.1K > 0

0.65  0.65 > 0.1 K
S0 K  6.5 > K
 Range of values of K, 0 < K < 6.5
Now marginal value of ‘K’ is that value of ‘K’ for which system becomes marginally stable. For
a marginal stable system there must be row of zeros occurring in Routh’s array. So value of ‘K’
which makes any row of Routh array as row of zeros is called marginal value of ‘K’. Now K = 0
makes row of s0 as row of zeros but K = 0 can not be marginal value because for K = 0, constant
term in characteristic equation becomes zeros ie one coefficient for s0 vanishes which makes
system unstable instead of marginally stable.
Hence marginal value of ‘K’ is a value which makes any row other than s0 as row of zeros.
 0.65 – 0.1 K mar = 0
ECE/SJBIT Page 21
 K mar = 6.5
To find frequency, find out roots of auxiliary equation at marginal value of ‘K’
A(s) = 0.65 s2 + K = 0 ;
 0.65 s2 + 6.5 = 0 Because K = 6.5
s2 = -10
s =  j 3.162
comparing with s =  j
 = frequency of oscillations = 3.162 rad/ sec.
Ex : 3 For a system with characteristic equation
F(s) = s5 + s4 + 2s3 + 2s2 + 3s +15 = , examine the stability

Solution :
S5 1 2 3
S4 1 2 15
S3 0 -12 0
S2
S1
S0
S5 1 2 3
S4 1 2 15
S3  -12 0
S2 (2 + 12) 15 0

S1 (2 + 12)( -12 ) – 15
 0
2 + 12

S0 15
Lim 2 + 12 12
 0 =2 + =2+ = +
 
ECE/SJBIT Page 22
Lim (2 + 12)( -12 ) – 15 Lim -24  - 144 – 15 2

 0  =  0 2 + 12
2 + 12

0 – 144 - 0
= = - 12
0 + 12
S5 1 2 3
S4 1 2 15
S3  -12 0
There are two sign changes, so
system is unstable.
S2 + 15 0
S1 - 12 0
S0 15
Ex : 4 Using Routh Criterion, investigate the stability of a unity feedback system

whose open loop transfer function is
e -sT
G(s) =
s(s+1)
Sol : The characteristic equation is
1 + G(s) H(s) =0
e -sT
 1 + = 0
s(s+1)
 s2 + s + e –sT =0
Now e – sT can be Expressed in the series form as
s2 T2
–sT
e = 1 – sT + + ……
2!
ECE/SJBIT Page 23
Trancating the series & considering only first two terms we get
esT = 1 – sT
 s2 + s + 1 – sT = 0
 s2 + s ( 1- T ) + 1 = 0
So routh’s array is
S2 1 1
S 1-T 0
S0 1
 1 – T > 0 for stability

 T<1
This is the required condition for stability of the system.
Ex : 5 Determine the location of roots with respect to s = -2 given that
F(s) = s4 + 10 s3 + 36s2 + 70s + 75

Sol : shift the origin with respect to s = -2
s = s1 – 2
(s – 2 ) 4 + 10 (s – 2)3 + 36(s – 2 )2 + 70 ( s –2) + 75 = 0
s4 + 2s3 + 0s2 + 14s + 15 = 0

S4 1 0 15
S3 2 14 0
S2 -7 15 0
S1 18.28 0 0
S 0 15
Two sign change, there are two roots to the right of s = -2 & remaining ‘2’ are to the left of
the line s = -2. Hence the system is unstable.
ECE/SJBIT Page 24
Root–Locus Techniques
The characteristics of the transient response of a closed loop control system are related to
location of the closed loop poles. If the system has a variable loop gain, then the location of the
closed loop poles depends on the value of the loop gain chosen. It is important, that the designer
knows how the closed loop poles move in the s-plane as the loop gain is varied. W. R. Evans
introduced a graphical method for finding the roots of the characteristic equation known as root
locus method. The root locus is used to study the location of the poles of the closed loop transfer
function of a given linear system as a function of its parameters, usually a loop gain, given its
open loop transfer function. The roots corresponding to a particular value of the system
parameter can then be located on the locus or the value of the parameter for a desired root
location can be determined from the locus. It is a powerful technique, as an approximate root
locus sketch can be made quickly and the designer can visualize the effects of varying system
parameters on root locations or vice versa. It is applicable for single loop as well as multiple loop
system.
ROOT LOCUS CONCEPT
To understand the concepts underlying the root locus technique, consider the second
order system shown in Fig. 1.
R(s) E(s) C(s)

K
+−
s(s + a)
+
Fig. 1 Second order control system
The open loop transfer function of this system is

K
G(s) = (1)
s(s + a)
Where, K and a are constants. The open loop transfer function has two poles one at origin s = 0
and the other at s = -a. The closed loop transfer function of the system shown in Fig.1 is
C(s) G(s) K
= = 2 (2)
R(s) 1 + G(s)H(s) s + as + K
The characteristic equation for the closed loop system is obtained by setting the
denominator of the right hand side of Eqn.(2) equal to zero. That is,
1 + G(s)H(s) = s 2 + as + K = 0 (3)
ECE/SJBIT Page 25
The second order system under consideration is always stable for positive values of a and
K but its dynamic behavior is controlled by the roots of Eqn.(3) and hence, in turn by the
magnitudes of a and K, since the roots are given by
−a (a 2 − 4K) − a  a  2 
s1 , s 2 =  =    − K  (4)
2 2a 2  2  
From Eqn.(4), it is seen that as the system parameters a or K varies, the roots change.
Consider a to be constant and gain K to be variable. As K is varied from zero to infinity, the two
roots s1 and s2 describe loci in the s-plane. Root locations for various ranges of K are:
1) K= 0, the two roots are real and coincide with open loop poles of the system s1 =
0, s2 = -a.
2) 0  K < a2/4, the roots are real and distinct.
3) K= a2/4, roots are real and equal.
4) a2/4 < K < , the rots are complex conjugates.
The root locus plot is shown in Fig.2
Fig. 2 Root loci of s2+as+K as a function of K
Figure 2 has been drawn by the direct solution of the characteristic equation. This
procedure becomes tedious. Evans graphical procedure helps in sketching the root locus quickly.
The characteristic equation of any system is given by
Δ(s) = 0 (5)
Where, (s) is the determinant of the signal flow graph of the system given by Eqn.(5).
∆=1-(sum of all individual loop gains)+(sum of gain products of all possible combinations of
two nontouching loops – sum of gain products of all possible combination of three
nontouching loops) + ∙∙∙
Or
ECE/SJBIT Page 26
Δ(s) = 1 −  Pm1 +  Pm2 −  Pm3 +  (6)

m m m
Where, Pmr is gain product of mth possible combination of r nontouching loops of the graph.
The characteristic equation can be written in the form
1 + P(s) = 0
KA(s)
1+ =0 (7)
B(s)
For single loop system shown in Fig.3
P(s) = G(s)H(s) (8)
Where, G(s)H(s) is open loop transfer function in block diagram terminology or transmittance in
signal flow graph terminology.
R(s) E(s) C(s)

+− G(s)
+
H(s)
Fig. 3 Single loop feedback system
From Eqn.(7) it can be seen that the roots of the characteristic equation (closed loop
poles)occur only for those values of s where
P(s) = − 1 (9)
Since, s is a complex variable, Eqn.(9) can be converted into the two Evans conditions
given below.
P( s) = 1 (10)
P(s) = 180 (2q + 1); q = 0,1,2 (11)
Roots of 1+P(s) = 0 are those values of s at which the magnitude and angle condition
given by Eqn.(10) and Eqn.(11). A plot of points in the complex plane satisfying the angle
criterion is the root locus. The value of gain corresponding to a root can be determined from the
magnitude criterion.
To make the root locus sketching certain rules have been developed which helps in
visualizing the effects of variation of system gain K ( K > 0 corresponds to the negative feed
ECE/SJBIT Page 27
back and K < 0 corresponds to positive feedback control system) and the effects of shifting
pole-zero locations and adding in anew set of poles and zeros.
GENERAL RULES FOR CONSTRUCTING ROOT LOCUS
1) The root locus is symmetrical about real axis. The roots of the characteristic equation are
either real or complex conjugate or combination of both. Therefore their locus must be
symmetrical about the real axis.
2) As K increases from zero to infinity, each branch of the root locus originates from an
open loop pole (n nos.) with K= 0 and terminates either on an open loop zero (m nos.)
with K =  along the asymptotes or on infinity (zero at  ). The number of branches
terminating on infinity is equal to (n – m).
3) Determine the root locus on the real axis. Root loci on the real axis are determined by
open loop poles and zeros lying on it. In constructing the root loci on the real axis choose
a test point on it. If the total number of real poles and real zeros to the right of this point
is odd, then the point lies on root locus. The complex conjugate poles and zeros of the
open loop transfer function have no effect on the location of the root loci on the real axis.
4) Determine the asymptotes of root loci. The root loci for very large values of s must be
asymptotic to straight lines whose angles are given by
 180 (2q + 1)
Angle of asymptotes  A = ; q = 0,1,2, n − m - 1 (12)
n−m
ECE/SJBIT Page 28
5) All the asymptotes intersect on the real axis. It is denoted by a , given by
sum of poles − sum of zeros

σa =
n−m
(p1 + p 2 +  p n ) − (z1 + z 2 +  z m )
= (13)
n−m
6) Find breakaway and breakin points. The breakaway and breakin points either lie on the
real axis or occur in complex conjugate pairs. On real axis, breakaway points exist
between two adjacent poles and breakin in points exist between two adjacent zeros. To
dK
calculate these polynomial = 0 must be solved. The resulting roots are the breakaway
ds
/ breakin points. The characteristic equation given by Eqn.(7), can be rearranged as
B(s) + KA(s) = 0 (14)

where, B(s) = (s + p1 )(s + p 2 )  (s + p n ) and
A(s) = K(s + z1 )(s + z 2 )  (s + z m )
The breakaway and breakin points are given by
dK  d  d 
=  A  B − A B  = 0 (15)
ds  ds   ds 
Note that the breakaway points and breakin points must be the roots of Eqn.(15), but
not all roots of Eqn.(15) are breakaway or breakin points. If the root is not on the root
locus portion of the real axis, then this root neither corresponds to breakaway or breakin
point. If the roots of Eqn.(15) are complex conjugate pair, to ascertain that they lie on
root loci, check the corresponding K value. If K is positive, then root is a breakaway or
breakin point.
7) Determine the angle of departure of the root locus from a complex pole
Angle of departure from a complex p = 180

− (sum of angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from other poles)
+ (sum of angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from other zeros) (16)
8) Determine the angle of arrival of the root locus at a complex zero
Angle of arrival at complex zero = 180

− (sum of angles of vectors to a complex zero in question from other zeros)
+ (sum of angles of vectors to a complex zero in question from other poles) (17)
ECE/SJBIT Page 29
9) Find the points where the root loci may cross the imaginary axis. The points where the
root loci intersect the j axis can be found by
a) use of Routh’s stability criterion or
b) letting s = j in the characteristic equation , equating both the real part and
imaginary part to zero, and solving for  and K. The values of  thus found give
the frequencies at which root loci cross the imaginary axis. The corresponding K
value is the gain at each crossing frequency.
10) The value of K corresponding to any point s on a root locus can be obtained using the
magnitude condition, or
product of lengths between points to poles

K= (18)
product of length between points to zeros
PHASE MARGIN AND GAIN MARGIN OF ROOT LOCUS
Gain Margin
It is a factor by which the design value of the gain can be multiplied before the closed
loop system becomes unstable.
Value of K at imaginary cross over

Gain Margin = (19)
Design value of K
The Phase Margin
Find the point j1 on the imaginary axis for which G ( j )H( j ) = 1 for the design value
of K i.e. B( j )/A( j ) = K .
design
The phase margin is

( )
φ = 180 + argG jω1 H(jω1 ) (20)
ECE/SJBIT Page 30
Problem No 1
Sketch the root locus of a unity negative feedback system whose forward path transfer function
K
is G(s) = .
s
Solution:
1) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis.
2) There are no open loop zeros(m = 0). Open loop pole is at s = 0 (n = 1). One branch of
root locus starts from the open loop pole when K = 0 and goes to  asymptotically when
K→.
3) Root locus lies on the entire negative real axis as there is one pole towards right of any
point on the negative real axis.
 180 (2q + 1)
4) The asymptote angle is A = , q = n − m − 1 = 0.
n−m
Angle of asymptote is A =  180.
(sum of poles) − (sum of zeros)

5) Centroid of the asymptote is σ A =
n−m
0
= = 0. 0
1
6) The root locus does not branch. Hence, there is no need to calculate the break points.
7) The root locus departs at an angle of -180 from the open loop pole at s = 0.
8) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis. Hence there is no imaginary axis cross
over.
ECE/SJBIT Page 31
Figure 4 Root locus plot of K/s
Comments on stability:
The system is stable for all the values of K > 0. Th system is over damped.
Problem No 2
K(s + 2)
The open loop transfer function is G(s) = . Sketch the root locus plot
(s + 1) 2
Solution:
2) There is one open loop zero at s=-2.0(m=1). There are two open loop poles at
s=-1, -1(n=2). Two branches of root loci start from the open loop pole when
K= 0. One branch goes to open loop zero at s =-2.0 when K →  and other goes to
 (open loop zero) asymptotically when K →  .
3) Root locus lies on negative real axis for s ≤ -2.0 as the number of open loop poles plus
number of open loop zeros to the right of s=-0.2 are odd in number.
 180 (2q + 1)
4) The asymptote angle is A = , q = n − m − 1 = 0.
n−m
Angle of asymptote is A =  180.

n−m
(−1 − 1) − (−2)
= = 0.0
1
ECE/SJBIT Page 32
6) The root locus has break points.

(s + 1) 2
K=−
(s + 2)
dK
Break point is given by =0
ds
2(s + 1)(s + 2) − (s + 1) 2
=0
(s + 2) 2
s1 = −1, K = 0; s 2 = −3, K = 4
The root loci brakesout at the open loop poles at s=-1, when K =0 and breaks in onto the
real axis at s=-3, when K=4. One branch goes to open loop zero at s=-2 and other goes to
 along the asymptotically.
7) The branches of the root locus at s=-1, -1 break at K=0 and are tangential to a line s=-
1+j0 hence depart at 90.
8) The locus arrives at open loop zero at 180.
9) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis, hence there is no need to find the
imaginary axis cross over.
The root locus plot is shown in Fig.2.
Figure 5 Root locus plot of K(s+2)/(s+1)2
ECE/SJBIT Page 33
System is stable for all values of K > 0. The system is over damped for K > 4. It is critically
damped at K = 0, 4.
Problem No 3
K(s + 4)
The open loop transfer function is G(s) = . Sketch the root locus.
s(s + 2)
Solution:
2) There are is one open loop zero at s=-4(m=1). There are two open loop poles at s=0, -
2(n=2). Two branches of root loci start from the open loop poles when K= 0. One branch
goes to open loop zero when K →  and other goes to infinity asymptotically when K →
.
3) Entire negative real axis except the segment between s=-4 to s=-2 lies on the root locus.
 180 (2q + 1)
4) The asymptote angle is A = , q = 0,1, n − m − 1 = 0.
n−m
Angle of asymptote are A =  180.

n−m
(−2) − (−4)
= = 2.0
1
6) The brake points are given by dK/ds =0.

s(s + 2)
K=−
(s + 4)
dK (2s + 2)(s + 4) − (s 2 + 2s)
= =0
ds (s + 4) 2
s1 = −1.172, K = 0.343;
s 2 = −6.828, K = 11.7
7) Angle of departure from open loop pole at s =0 is 180. Angle of departure from pole at
s=-2.0 is 0.
8) The angle of arrival at open loop zero at s=-4 is 180
ECE/SJBIT Page 34
9) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis. Hence there is no imaginary cross over.
The root locus plot is shown in fig.3.
Figure 3 Root locus plot of K(s+4)/s(s+2)
System is stable for all values of K.
0 > K > 0.343 :  > 1 over damped
K = 0.343 :  = 1 critically damped
0.343 > K > 11.7 :  < 1 under damped
K = 11.7 :  = 1 critically damped
K > 11.7 :  >1 over damped.
Problem No 4
K(s + 0.2)
s 2 (s + 3.6)
Solution:
2) There is one open loop zero at s = -0.2(m=1). There are three open loop poles at
s = 0, 0, -3.6(n=3). Three branches of root loci start from the three open loop poles when
K= 0 and one branch goes to open loop zero at s = -0.2 when K →  and other two go to
 asymptotically when K →  .
3) Root locus lies on negative real axis between -3.6 to -0.2 as the number of open loop
poles plus open zeros to the right of any point on the real axis in this range is odd.
ECE/SJBIT Page 35
 180 (2q + 1)
4) The asymptote angle is A = , q = n − m − 1 = 0,1
n−m
Angle of asymptote are A =  90,  270.

n−m
(−3.6) − (−0.2)
= = −1.7
2
6) The root locus does branch out, which are given by dK/ds =0.
(s 3 + 3.6s 2 )
K=-
s + 0.2
dK (3s 2 + 7.2s)(s + 0.2) − (s 3 + 3.6s 2 )
=−
ds (s + 0.2) 2
2s 3 + 4.8s 2 + 1.44s = 0
s = 0, − 0.432, − 1.67 and K = 0, 2.55, 3.66 respectively.
The root loci brakeout at the open loop poles at s = 0, when K =0 and breakin onto the
real axis at s=-0.432, when K=2.55 One branch goes to open loop zero at s=-0.2 and
other goes breaksout with the another locus starting from open loop ploe at s= -3.6. The
break point is at s=-1.67 with K=3.66. The loci go to infinity in the complex plane with
constant real part s= -1.67.
7) The branches of the root locus at s=0,0 break at K=0 and are tangential to imaginary axis
or depart at 90. The locus departs from open loop pole at s=-3.6 at 0.
8) The locus arrives at open loop zero at s=-0.2 at 180.
9) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis, hence there is no imaginary axis cross
over.
ECE/SJBIT Page 36
Figure 4 Root locus plot of K(s+0.2)/s2(s+3.6)
System is stable for all values of K. System is critically damped at K= 2.55, 3.66. It is under
damped for 2.55 > K > 0 and K >3.66. It is over damped for 3.66 > K >2.55.
Problem No 5
K
s(s + 6s + 25)
Solution:
2) There are no open loop zeros (m=0). There are three open loop poles at s=-0,
-3j4(n=3). Three branches of root loci start from the open loop poles when K= 0 and all
the three branches go  asymptotically when K →  .
3) Entire negative real axis lies on the root locus as there is a single pole at s=0 on the real
axis.
 180 (2q + 1)
4) The asymptote angle is A = , q = 0,1, n − m − 1 = 0, 1, 2.
n−m
Angle of asymptote are A =  60,  180, 300.

n−m
(−3 − 3)
= = −2.0
3
ECE/SJBIT Page 37
6) The brake points are given by dK/ds =0.

K = −s(s 2 + 6s + 25) = − (s 3 + 6s 2 + 25s)
dK
= 3s 2 + 12s + 25 = 0
ds
s1,2 = − 2  j2.0817and
K 1,2 = 34  j18.04
For a point to be break point, the corresponding value of K is a real number greater than
or equal to zero. Hence, S1,2 are not break points.
7) Angle of departure from the open loop pole at s=0 is 180. Angle of departure from
complex pole s= -3+j4 is
 p = 180
− (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from other poles)
+ (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole inquestion from zeros)
4
 p = 180 − (180 − tan −1 + 90 ) = −36.87
3
Similarly, Angle of departure from complex pole s= -3-j4 is
φ p = 180 − (233.13 + 270 ) = −323.13 or 36.87
8) The root locus does cross the imaginary axis. The cross over point and the gain at the
cross over can be obtained by
Rouths criterion
The characteristic equation is s 3 + 6s 2 + 25s + K = 0 . The Routh’s array is
s3 1 25
s2 6 K
1 150 − K
s
6
s0 6
For the system to be stable K < 150. At K=150 the auxillary equation is 6s2+150=0.
s = ±j5.
or
substitute s= j in the characteristic equation. Equate real and imaginary parts to zero. Solve
for  and K.
s 3 + 6s2 + 25s + K = 0
( jω)3 + 6( jω)2 + 25( jω) + K = 0
( )
(−6ω 2 + K) + jω ω 2 + 25 = 0
ω = 0,  j5 K = 0, 150
The plot of root locus is shown in Fig.5.
ECE/SJBIT Page 38
Figure 5 Root locus plot of K/s(s2+6s+25)
System is stable for all values of 150 > K > 0. At K=150, it has sustained oscillation of 5rad/sec.
The system is unstable for K >150.
Problem No 1
Sketch the root locus of a unity negative feedback system whose forward path transfer function
K(s + 2)
is G(s)H(s) = . Comment on the stability of the system.
(s + 1)(s + 3 + j)(s + 3 − j)
Solution:
10) There is one open loop zero at s = -2 (m = 1). There are three open loop poles at
s = -1, -3 ± j (n=3). All the three branches of root locus start from the open loop
poles when K = 0. One locus starting from s = -1 goes to zero at s = -2 when
K → , and other two branches go to  asymptotically (zeros at ) when K →  .
11) Root locus lies on the negative real axis in the range s=-1 to s= -2 as there is one pole to
the right of any point s on the real axis in this range.
 180 (2q + 1)
12) The asymptote angle is A = , q = n − m − 1 = 0,1.
n−m
Angle of asymptote is A =  90, 270.
ECE/SJBIT Page 39

n−m
(−1 − 3 − 3) − (−2)
= = −2.5
1
14) The root locus does not branch. Hence, there is no need to calculate break points.
15) The angle of departure at real pole at s=-1 is 180. The angle of departure at the complex
pole at s=-3+j is 71.57.
 p = 180
1
θ1 = tan −1 = − 26.57  or 153.43
-2
θ1 = atan2(-2,1) = 153.43
1 2
 = tan −1 = -45 or 135 , θ 3 = tan −1 = 90
-1 0
 p = 180 − (153.43 + 90 ) + 135 = 71.57 
   
The angle of departure at the complex pole at s=-3-j is -71.57.
 p = 180 − (206.57 + 270 ) + 225  = −71.57 

16) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis. Hence there is no imaginary axis cross
over.
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Figure 1 Root locus plot of K(s+2)/(s+1)(s+3+j)(s+3-j)
The system is stable for all the values of K > 0.
Problem No 2
K
The open loop transfer function is G(s)H(s) = Sketch the root locus
s(s + 0.5)(s + 0.6s + 10)
2
plot. Comment on the stability of the system. .
Solution:
11) There are no open loop zeros (m=0). There are four open loop poles (n=4) at s=0,
-0.5, -0.3 ± j3.1480. Four branches of root loci start from the four open loop poles when
K= 0 and go to  (open loop zero at infinity) asymptotically when K → .
12) Root locus lies on negative real axis between s = 0 to s = -0.5 as there is one pole to the
right of any point s on the real axis in this range.
 180 (2q + 1)
13) The asymptote angle is A = , q = n − m − 1 = 0,1,2,3.
n−m
Angle of asymptote is A =  45,  135, 225, ±315.

n−m
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(−0.5 − 0.3 − 0.3)

= = −0.275
4
The value of K at s=-0.275 is 0.6137.
15) The root locus has break points.
K = -s(s+0.5)(s2+0.6s+10) = -(s4+1.1s3+10.3s2+5s)
Break points are given by dK/ds = 0
dK
= 4s 3 + 3.3s 2 + 20.6s + 5 = 0
ds
s= -0.2497, -0.2877 j 2.2189
There is only one break point at -0.2497. Value of K at s = -0.2497 is 0.6195.
16) The angle of departure at real pole at s=0 is 180 and at s=-0.5 is 0. The angle of
departure at the complex pole at s = -0.3 + j3.148 is -91.8
 p = 180
3.148
θ1 = tan −1 = −84.6 or 95.4
- 0.3
3.148 6.296
 2 = tan −1 = 86.4 , θ 3 = tan −1 = 90
0.2 0
The angleof = 180 − (95.4 + 86.4 + 90 ) = −91.8
   
p departure at the complex pole at s = -0.3 - j3.148 is 91.8
 p = 180 − (264.6 + 273.6 + 270 ) = 91.8
17) The root locus does cross the imaginary axis, The cross over frequency and gain is
obtained from Routh’s criterion.
The characteristic equation is
s(s+0.5)(s2+0.6s+10)+K =0 or s4+1.1s3+10.3s2+5s+K=0
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The Routh’s array is
s4 1 10.3 K
3
s 1.1 5
2
s 5.75 K
28.75 - 1.1K
s1
5.75
s0 K
The system is stable if 0 < K < 26.13
The auxiliary equation at K 26.13 is 5.75s2+26.13 = 0 which gives s = ± j2.13 at

imaginary axis crossover.
Figure 6 Root locus plot of K/s(s+0.5)(s2+0.6s+10)
System is stable for all values of 26.13 >K > 0. The system has sustained oscillation at =
2.13 rad/sec at K=26.13. The system is unstable for K > 26.13.
Problem No 3
K
s(s + 4)(s + 4s + 20)
2
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Solution:
11) There are no open loop zeros (m=0). There are three open loop poles (n=3) at s = -0, -4, -
2  j4. Three branches of root loci start from the three open loop poles when K= 0 and to
infinity asymptotically when K →  .
12) Root locus lies on negative real axis between s = 0 to s = -4.0 as there is one pole to the
right of any point s on the real axis in this range.
 180 (2q + 1)
13) The asymptote angle is A = , q = n − m − 1 = 0, 1, 2, 3
n−m
Angle of asymptote are A =  45,  135,  225,  315.

n−m
(−2.0 − 2.0 − 4.0)
= = −2.0
4
15) The root locus does branch out, which are given by dK/ds =0.
K = −s(s + 4)(s2 + 4s + 20)

= − (s 4 + 8s3 + 36s2 + 80s)
dK
Break point is given by =0
ds
4s3 + 24s2 + 72s + 80 = 0
4s3 + 8s 2 + 16s2 + 32s + 40s + 80 = 0
(s + 2)(4s2 + 16s + 40)
s1 = −2.0, K = 64;
s 2 = −2.0  j2.45, K = 100
The root loci brakeout at the open loop poles at s = -2.0, when K = 64 and breakin and
breakout at s=-2+j2.45, when K=100
16) The angle of departure at real pole at s=0 is 180 and at s=-4 is 0. The angle of
departure at the complex pole at s = -2 + j4 is -90.
 p = 180
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4
θ1 = tan −1 = 63.4 or 116.6
-2
θ1 = atan2(4,-2) = 116.6
4 8
θ 2 = tan −1 = 63.4 , θ 3 = tan −1 = 90
2 0
p = 180 - (116.6 + 63.4 + 90 ) = −90
   
The angle of departure at the complex pole at s = -2 – j4 is 90
p = 180 - (243.4 + 296.6 + 270 )

= −270 = 90
17) The root locus does cross the imaginary axis, The cross over point and gain at cross over
is obtained by either Routh’s array or substitute s= j in the characteristic equation and
solve for  and gain K by equating the real and imaginary parts to zero.
Routh’s array
The characteristic equation is s 4 + 8s3 + 36s2 + 80s + K = 0

The Rouths array is
s4 1 36 K
3
s 8 80
s2 26 K
2080 − 8K
s1
26
s0 K
For the system to be stable K > 0 and 2080-8K > 0. The imaginary crossover is given by
2080-8K=0 or K = 260.
At K = 260, the auxiliary equation is 26s2+260 = 0. The imaginary cross over occurs at s=
j10.
or
s 4 + 8s3 + 36s2 + 80s + K = 0
put s = jω
( jω) 4
+ 8( jω) + 36( jω) + 80( jω) + K = 0
3 2
(ω 4
) ( )
− 36ω 2 + K + j − 8ω3 + 80ω = 0
Equate real and imaginary parts to zero
− 8ω3 + 80ω = 0  ω = 0, j 10; s = j 10
ω 4 − 36ω 2 + K = 0  K = 260
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Figure 7 Root locus plot of K/s(s+4)(s2+4s+20)
For 260 > K > 0 system is stable
K = 260 system has stained oscillations of 10 rad/sec.
K > 260 system is unstable.
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Part B- Frequency Response-Bode Plots

The frequency response of a system is a frequency dependent function which expresses how a
sinusoidal signal of a given frequency on the system input is transferred through the system.
Time-varying signals at least periodical signals —which excite systems, as the reference (set
point) signal or a disturbance in a control system or measurement signals which are inputs
signals to signal filters, can be regarded as consisting of a sum of frequency components. Each
frequency component is a sinusoidal signal having certain amplitude and a certain frequency.
(The Fourier series expansion or the Fourier transform can be used to express these frequency
components quantitatively.) The frequency response expresses how each of these frequency
components is transferred through the system. Some components may be amplified, others may
be attenuated, and there will be some phase lag through the system.
The frequency response is an important tool for analysis and design of signal filters (as low pass
filters and high pass filters), and for analysis, and to some extent, design, of control systems.
Both signal filtering and control systems applications are described (briefly) later in this chapter.
The definition of the frequency response — which will be given in the next section — applies
only to linear models, but this linear model may very well be the local linear model about some
operating point of a non-linear model. The frequency response can found experimentally or from
a transfer function model. It can be presented graphically or as a mathematical function.
Bode plot
• Plots of the magnitude and phase characteristics are used to fully describe the frequency
response
• A Bode plot is a (semilog) plot of the transfer function magnitude and phase angle as a
function of frequency.
The gain magnitude is many times expressed in terms of decibels (dB)
db = 20 log 10 A
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BODE PLOT PROCEDURE:
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■ First determine all the break points (pole and zero locations) and arrange in order of increasing
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Recommended Questions:
1. Explain briefly how system depends on poles and zeros.
2. Mention the necessary condition to have all closed loop poles in LHS of S-Plane
3. Explain briefly the Hurwitz’s Criterion.
4. Explain briefly the Routh’s Stability Criterion.
5..Examine the stability of given equation using Routh’s method
s3+6s2 + 11s + 6 =0
6. Examine the stability of given equation using Routh’s method

s5 + 2s4 + 3s3 + 6s2 + 2s + 1 = 0
7. Using Routh Criterion, investigate the stability of a unity feedback system whose open loop
transfer function is
e -sT
G(s) =
s(s+1)
8. Give the general rules for constructing root locus.
9. Define Phase margin and Gain margin of root locus.
10. Sketch the root locus of a unity negative feedback system whose forward path transfer
K
function is G(s) = .
s
K(s + 2)
11. The open loop transfer function is G(s) = . Sketch the root locus plot.
(s + 1) 2
K(s + 4)
12. The open loop transfer function is G(s) = . Sketch the root locus.
s(s + 2)
K
13. The open loop transfer function is G(s) = . Sketch the root locus.
s(s + 6s + 25)
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K
14. The open loop transfer function is G(s) = . Sketch the root locus
s(s + 4)(s + 4s + 20)
2
diagram
15. Define the following terms: i) Resonant peak ii) Resonant frequency
16. iii)Band width iv) cut off frequency
17. Write a note about gain margin in brief.
18. Sketch the Bode plot for the transfer function
19. State the advantages and limitations of frequency domain approach.

20. Determine the transfer function, of a system whose asyptotic gain plot is shown in fig.
21.
22.
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MODULE -5
Frequency domain analysis
Frequency response of a control system refers to the steady state response of a system subject to
sinusoidal input of fixed (constant) amplitude but frequency varying over a specific range,
usually from 0 to ∞. For linear systems the frequency of input and output signal remains the
same, while the ratio of magnitude of output signal to the input signal and phase between two
signals may change. Frequency response analysis is a complimentary method to time domain
analysis (step and ramp input analysis). It deals with only steady state and measurements are
taken when transients have disappeared. Hence frequency response tests are not generally carried
out for systems with large time constants.
The frequency response information can be obtained either by analytical methods or by
experimental methods, if the system exits. The concept and procedure is illustrated in Figure 7.1
(a) in which a linear system is subjected to a sinusoidal input. I(t) = a Sin t and the
corresponding output is O(t) = b Sin (t +) as shown in Figure 6.1 (b).
Figure 7.1 (a) Figure 7.1 (b)
The following quantities are very important in frequency response analysis.
M () = b/a = ratio of amplitudes = Magnitude ratio or Magnification factor or gain.
 () =  = phase shift or phase angle
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These factors when plotted in polar co-ordinates give polar plot, or when plotted in rectangular
co-ordinates give rectangular plot which depict the frequency response characteristics of a
system over entire frequency range in a single plot.
Frequency Response Data
The following procedure can be adopted in obtaining data analytically for frequency response
analysis.
1. Obtain the transfer function of the system
O( S )
F (S ) = , Where F (S) is transfer function, O(S) and I(S) are the Laplace transforms
I (S )
of the output and input respectively.
2. Replace S by (j) (As S is a complex number)
O( j )
 F ( j ) =
I ( j )
O( j )
= = A( ) + B( j ) (another complex number)
I ( j )
3. For various values of , ranging from 0 to ∞ determine M () and .
O( j )
M ( ) = = A( ) + B( j ) = A + jB
I ( j )
M = A2 + B 2
O( j )
 = = A + jB
I ( j )
B
 = tan −1
A
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4. Plot the results from step 3 in polar co-ordinates or rectangular co-ordinates. These plots are
not only convenient means for presenting frequency response data but are also serve as a
basis for analytical and design methods.
Comparison between Time Domain and Frequency Domain Analysis
An interesting and revealing comparison of frequency and time domain approaches is based on
the relative stability studies of feedback systems. The Routh’s criterion is a time domain
approach which establishes with relative ease the stability of a system, but its adoption to
determine the relative stability is involved and requires repeated application of the criterion. The
Root Locus method is a very powerful time domain approach as it reveals not only stability but
also the actual time response of the system.
It was pointed out earlier that the performance of a feedback control system is more
preferably measured by its time domain response characteristics. This is in contrast to the
analysis & design of systems in the communication field, where the frequency response is of
more importance, since in this case most of the signals to be processed are either sinusoidal or
periodic in nature. However analytically, the time response of a control system is usually
difficult to determine, especially in the case of high order systems. In the design aspects, there
are no unified ways of arriving at a designed system given the time-domain specifications, such
as peak overshoot, rise time , delay time & setting time. On the other hand, there is a wealth of
graphical methods available in the frequency-domain analysis, all suitable for the analysis &
design of linear feedback control systems once the analysis & design are carried out in the
frequency domain, time domain behavior of the system can be interpreted based on the
relationships that exist between the time-domain & the frequency-domain properties. Therefore,
we may consider that the main purpose of conducting control systems analysis & design in
frequency domain is merely to use the techniques as a convenient vehicle toward the same
objectives as with time-domain methods.
The starting point in frequency-domain analysis is the transfer function.
For a single loop feed back system, the closed loop transfer function is written
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C(s) G(s)
M(s) = = (1)
R(s) 1+ G(s) H(s)
Under the sinusoidal steady-state, we get s = j; then equation(1.0) becomes,
C(j) G(j)
M(j) = = (1.1)
R(j) 1+ G(j) H(j)
The sinusoidal steady-state transfer relation M(j), which is a complex function of  , may be
expressed in terms of a real & an imaginary part; that is,
M((j) = Re [ M (j)] + j Im [ M(j)] (1.2)
Or , M(j) can be expressed in terms of its magnitude & phase as
M(j) = M () m() (1.3)

Where
G(j)
M(() = (1.4)
1 + G(j) H(j)
And
G(j)
m() =
1 + G(j) H(j)
(1.5)
= G(j) - 1 + G(j) H(j)
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since the analysis is now in the frequency domain, some of the terminology used in
communication system may be applied to the present control system characterization. For
instance, M() of Eq. (1.4) may be regarded as the magnification of the feed back control system
is similar to the gain or amplification of an electronic amplifier. In an audio amplifier, for
instance, an ideal design criterion is that the amplifier must have a flat gain for all frequencies.
Of course, realistically, the design criterion becomes that of having a flat gain in the audio
frequency range. In control system the ideal design criterion is similar. If it is desirable to keep
the output C(j) identical to the input R(j) at all frequencies, M(j) must be unity for all
frequencies. However, from Eq. (1.1) it is apparent that M(j) can be unity only when G(j) is
infinite, while H(j) is finite & nonzero. An infinite magnitude for g(j) is, of course,
impossible to achieve in practice, nor would it be desirable, since most control system become
unstable when its loop gain becomes very high. Further more, all control system are subject
noise. Thus in addition to responding to the input signal, the system should be able to reject &
suppress noise & unwanted signals. This means that the frequency response of a control system
should have a cutoff characteristic in general, & sometimes even a band-pass characteristic.
The phase characteristics of the frequency response are also of importance. The ideal situation
is that the phase must be a linear function of frequency within the frequency range of interest.
Figure 1.1 shows the gain & phase characteristics of an ideal low-pass filter, which is impossible
to realize physically. Typical gain & phase characteristics of a feedback control system are
shown in Fig. 1.2. The fact is that the great majority of control systems have the characteristics
of a low-pass filter, so the gain decreases as the frequency increases.
M() 0 
1
m()
0 c  Deg
Fig. 1.1. Gain-phase characteristics of an ideal low-pass filter.
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0 
M() Mp
m()
1 Deg
0 
Fig.1.2. Typical gain & phase characteristics of a feedback control system.
Frequency-Domain characteristics:
If a control system is to be designed or analyzed using frequency-domain techniques, we need
a set of specification to describe the system performance. The following frequency-domain
specifications are often used in practice.
Peak response Mp :
The peak response Mp is defined as the maximum value of M() that is given in
Eq.(1.4). In general, the magnitude of Mp gives an indication of the relative stability of a feed
back control system. Normally, a large Mp corresponds to a large peak overshoot in the step
response. For most design problems it is generally accepted that an optimum value Mp of should
be somewhere between 1.1 & 1.5.
Resonant frequency p :
The resonant frequency p is defined as the frequency at which the peak resonance Mp occurs.
Bandwidth :
The bandwidth , BW, is defined as the frequency at which the magnitude of M(j), M(),
drops at 70.7 percent of its zero-frequency level, or 3 dB down from the zero-frequency gain. In
general, the bandwidth of a control system indicates the noise-filtering characteristics of the
system. Also, bandwidth gives a measure of the transient response properties, in that a large
bandwidth corresponds to a faster rise time, since higher-frequency signals are passed on to the
outputs. Conversely, if the bandwidth is small, only signals of relatively low frequencies are
passed, & the time response will generally be slow & sluggish.
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Cutoff rate :
Often, bandwidth alone is inadequate in the indication of the characteristics of the system in
distinguishing signals from noise. Sometimes it may be necessary to specify the cutoff rate of the
frequency response at the higher frequencies. However, in general, a steep cutoff characteristics
may be accompanied by a large Mp, which corresponds to a system with a low stability margin.
The performance criteria defined above for the frequency-domain analysis are illustrated on
the closed-loop frequency response, as shown in Fig. 1.3.
There are other criteria defined that may be used to specify the relative stability &
performance of a feedback control system. These are defined in the ensuring sections of this
chapter.
M()
Mp
1 Bandwidth
0 
p BW
Fig.1.3. Typical magnification curve of a feedback control system.
Mp, , p & the bandwidth of a second-order system:

For a second-order feedback control system, the peak resonance Mp, the resonant frequency p,
& the bandwidth are all uniquely related to the damping ratio  & the natural undamped
frequency n of the system. Consider the second-order sinusoidal steady-state transfer function
of a closed-loop system,
C(j) 2n
M(j) = = (1.6)
R(j) (j)2 + 2  n (j) + 2n
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1
=
1 + j 2 (/n)  - (/n)2
We may simplify the last expression by letter u = / n. The Eq. (1.6) becomes
1
M(ju) = ( 1.7)
1 + j2 u  - u2
The magnitude & phase of M (j) are

1
M(ju) = M(u) = (1.8)
[( 1 – u2 )2 + ( 2  u)2] ½
And
2 u
M(ju) = m(u) = - tan -1 (1.9)
1 – u2
The resonant frequency is determined first by taking the derivative of M(u) with respect to u &
setting it equal to zero. Thus
dM(u) 1
=- [( 1 – u2 )2 + ( 2 u)2] –3/2 ( 4 u3 – 4u + 8u2) = 0 ( 1.10)
du 2
from which
4u3 – 4u + 8u2 = 0 ( 1.11)
The root of Eq. (1.11) are

up = 0 (1.12)
and
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up =  1 - 22 ( 1.13)
The solution Eq. (1.12) merely indicates that the slope of the M() versus  curve is zero at
 = 0; it is not true maximum. The solution of eq. (1.13) gives the resonant frequency,
p = n  1 - 22 (1.14)
Since frequency is a real quantity, Eq. (1.14) is valid only for 1  22 or   0.707. This means
simply that for all values of  greater than 0.707, the solution of p = 0 becomes the valid one, &
Mp = 1.
Substituting Eq. (1.13) into Eq. (1.8) & simplifying, we get
1
Mp = (1.15)
2  1 - 2
It is important to note that Mp is a function of  only, whereas p is a function of  & n
5
3
Mp
0
0.5 0.707 1.0 1.5 2.0
Damping ratio 
1
Fig.1.4 Mp versus-damping ratio for a second – order system, Mp =
2  1 - 2
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1.0
0.8
up = p /n
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.5 0.707 1.0
Damping ratio 
Fig 1.5. Normalized resonant frequency- versus-damping ratio for a second order system,
Up =  1 - 2 .
Fig.1.4 & 1.5 illustrate the relationship between Mp &  , & u = p / n & ,
respectively.
Bandwidth :
Bandwidth BW of a system is a frequency at which M() drops to 70.7% of its zero
frequency level or 3 dB down from the zero frequency gain. Equating the Eq.
1
M(u) = = 0.707
[( 1 –u2)2 + ( 2u)2] ½
1
= [( 1 –u2)2 + ( 2u)2] ½ =
0.707
= 2.
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Squaring both sides

( 1 –u2)2 + 42u2 = 2
1 + u4 – 2u2 + 42u2 = 2
Let u2 = x
1 + x2 – 2x + 42 x = 2
x2 – 2x + 42 x = 1
x2 – x ( 2 - 42 ) =1
x2 – x ( 2 - 42 ) – 1 = 0
a = 1, b = - ( 2 - 42 ) , c = -1
-b b2 – 4ac
x=
2a
(2 – 42 )  (2 – 42 )2 + 4
=
2
(2 – 42 )  (4 + 164 – 16 2 + 4
=
2
(2 – 42 )  16 4 – 16 2 + 8
=
2
2 (1 – 22 )   4 + 164 – 16 2 + 4
=
2
2 (1 – 22 )  22 + 44 – 42
=
2
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2 (1 – 22 )  22 + 44 – 42

=
2
2 [(1 – 22 )  2 + 44 – 42]

=
2
u2 = x = (1 – 22 )  2 + 44 – 4 2
 / n = u = [(1 – 22 )  (2 + 44 – 4 2 ] 1/2
BW = n [ ( 1 – 22 ) + 44 - 42 +2]1/2
For the second order system under consideration, we easily establish some simple relationship
between the time – domain response & the frequency-domain response of the system.
1. The maximum over shoot of the unit step response in the time domain depends upon 
only.
2. The response peak of the closed - loop frequency response Mp depends upon  only.
3. The rise time increases with  , & the bandwidth decreases with the increase of  , for a
fixed n, therefore, bandwidth & rise time are inversely proportional to each other.
4. Bandwidth is directly proportional to n.
5. Higher bandwidth corresponds to larger Mp.
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PART B- Introduction to State variable analysis
State space analysis

State space analysis is an excellent method for the design and analysis of control systems. The
conventional and old method for the design and analysis of control systems is the transfer
function method. The transfer function method for design and analysis had many drawbacks.
Advantages of state variable analysis.
▪ It can be applied to non linear system.
▪ It can be applied to tile invariant systems.
▪ It can be applied to multiple input multiple output systems.
▪ Its gives idea about the internal state of the system.
State Variable Analysis and Design
State: The state of a dynamic system is the smallest set of variables called state variables such
that the knowledge of these variables at time t=to (Initial condition), together with the knowledge
of input for ≥ 𝑡0 , completely determines the behavior of the system for any time 𝑡 ≥ 𝑡0 .
State vector: If n state variables are needed to completely describe the behavior of a given
system, then these n state variables can be considered the n components of a vector X. Such a
vector is called a state vector.
State space: The n-dimensional space whose co-ordinate axes consists of the x1 axis, x2 axis,. xn
axis, where x1 , x2 ,.......... xn are state variables: is called a state space.
State Model
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A is state matrix of size (n×n), B is the input matrix of size (n×r), C is the output matrix of size
(m×n), D is the direct transmission matrix of size (m×r) X(t) is the state vector of size (n×1), Y(t)
is the output vector of size (m×1), U(t) is the input vector of size (r×1).
(Block diagram of the linear, continuous time control system represented in state space)
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Problems
Question 1: -
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Recommended Questions:
1. Define state equation & write the mathematical form of it.

2. Define output variables & give the matrix form of it for n variables of the system.
3. Explain briefly the state equation based on modeling procedure.
4. Draw a block diagram for the general second-order, single-input single-output system:
5. Find the transfer function and a single first-order differential equation relating the output
y(t) to the input u(t) for a system described by the first-order linear state and output
equations:
6. Use the Laplace transform method to derive a single differential equation for the
capacitor voltage vCin the series R-L-C electric circuit shown in Fig below.
7.
8.
9.
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10. Explain briefly the different Graphical Methods to Represent Frequency Response Data .
11. A second order system has a natural frequency of 10 rad/sec and a damping ratio of 0.5.
Sketch the polar plot for the system.
12. Obtain the polar plot for the transfer function.
13. Sketch the polar plots for the system represented by the following open loop transfer
K
function. G(S ) H (S ) = 2
S ( S + 5)
function.
10
function. G( S ) H ( S ) =
S ( S − 2)(S + 4)
16. Give the Comparison between Time Domain and Frequency Domain Analysis
17. For the second order system under consideration, establish some simple relationship
between the time – domain response & the frequency-domain response of the system.
18. Define Peak response, resonant frequency, cutoff rate and bandwidth.
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SJB INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

#67, B G S HEALTH AND EDUCATION CITY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

CIRCUITS &CONTROLS (21EC43)

ROOT LOCUS-FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS AND

Sl No. Module Name SUB TOPICS CO

8. State Variable Analysis CO4

Limited, Publishers, Fifth edition-2005, ISBN: 81-224-2008-7.

1. “Modern Control Engineering,” K.Ogata, Pearson Education Asia/PHI, 4th Edition,

2002. ISBN 978-81-203-4010-7.

TMH, 2nd Edition 2007.

PART A- STABILITY ANALYSIS IN TIME DOMAIN

In this chapter, we will steady

(a) fig(1) (b)

(a) fig(2) (b)

Fig(3) F<Fcritical F>Fcritical

Stability of control systems:

If the system has closed loop T.F.

Find out partial fractions

= 1.25 2.5 1.25

C(s) = 1.25 – 2.5e-2t+1.25e-4t

C(t) = - 1.25 + 0.833e 2t + 0.416e – 4 t

C(t) C(t) Damped oscillations

BIBO Stability : This is bounded input bounded output stability.

Definition of stable system:

Critically or Marginally stable systems:

Left half of s-plane Right half of s-plane

unstable (non repeated roots)

--------------------- Absolutely stable

5. Non repeated C(t)

Two non repeated pairs on

C(t) stable for 1

more stable for 2

Relative stability s-plane

Routh – Hurwitz Criterion :

This represents a method of determining the location of poles of a characteristics equation

C(s) b0 sm + b1 sm-1 +….+ bm

Necessary Condition to have all closed loop poles in L.H.S. of s-plane.

Method of forming Hurwitz determinant:

For the system to be stable, all above determinants must be positive.

Determine the stability of the given characteristics equation by Hurwitz,s method.

Ex 1: F(s)= s3 + s2 + s1 + 4 = 0 is characteristic equation.

As D2 & D3 are negative, given system is unstable.

Disadvantages of Hurwitz’s method :

Routh’s Stability Criterion:

Method of forming an array :

From 2nd & 3rd row , 4th row can be obtained as

If there are sign changes existing then,

Examine the stability of given equation using Routh’s method :

Ex.2: s3+6s2 + 11s + 6 =0

As there is no sign change in the first column, system is stable.

As there are two sign changes, system is unstable.

Special Cases of Routh’s criterion :

e.g. : s5 + 2s4 + 3s3 + 6s2 + 2s + 1 = 0

S4 2 6 1 Special case 1 Routh’s array failed

Following two methods are used to remove above said difficulty.

To examine sign change,

Lim 1.5(6 – 3) - 2 = Lim 9 - 4.5 - 2