EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION Eye Contact

- Eye contact is an especially important type of non-verbal

IN WORK ENVIRONMENT communication. The way we look at someone can
communicate many things, including interest, affection,
COMMUNICATING SKILLS hostility, or attraction. Eye contact helps maintain the flow
 Are necessary for the development of self-advocacy and of conversation and assesses another person’s
self-determination for a lifelong success. They are how response.
we give and receive information and convey our ideas
and opinions with those around us. Touch (Haptic)
Communication comes in many forms: - Touch communicates a great deal. A firm handshake,
- Verbal (sounds, language, and tone of voice) timid tap on the shoulder, warm bear hug, and reassuring
- Aural (listening and hearing) pat on the back, patronizing pat on the head, and
- Non-verbal (facial expressions, body language, and controlling grip on arm are examples of haptic
posture) communication.
- Written (journals, emails, blogs, and text messages)
- Visual (signs, symbols, and pictures) Space (Chronemics)
- This non-verbal communication refers to physical space.
 It is important to develop a variety of skills for both The need differs depending on the culture, situation, and
communicating to others and learning how to interpret the closeness of the relationship. We can use physical space
information received from others. Knowing our audience to communicate many different non-verbal messages,
and understanding how they need to receive information including signals of intimacy, aggression, dominance, or
is equally important as knowing ourselves. affection.
 To an employer, good communication skills are essential.
In fact, employers consistently rank good communication Voice (Paralanguage)
skills at the top of the list for potential employees. During - We communicate with our voices, even when we are not
an interview, for example, employers are impressed by a using words. Non-verbal speech sounds such as tone,
job candidate who answers questions with more than pitch, volume, inflection, rhythm, and rate are important
one-word answers (such as yeah…nah…dunno), communication elements. When we speak, other people
demonstrates that he or she is listening, and shares “read” our voices in addition to listening to our words.
information and ideas (by asking questions for These non-verbal speech sounds provide subtle but
clarification and/or follow-up). powerful clues into our true feelings and what we really
 The interview can be an indication to employers of how mean. The tone of voice can indicate sarcasm, anger,
the candidate or employee will interact with supervisors, affection, or confidence.
co-workers, and customers or resolve conflicts when they
arise. On the other hand, non-verbal communication is How to Achieve Effective Communication?
also critical in an interview. Employers expect good eye  Effective communication happens when a complete
contact, good posture, and “active” listening to their message is sent and fully received and understood by an
interviewee. audience. Good communication is about getting the right
message to the right person in the right medium at the
Non-verbal Communication right time. Depending on the nature of the message and
 Is the process of sending and receiving wordless audience, the audience may then have the opportunity to
messages. Consider the following seven types of non- engage in a productive discussion of the message.
verbal signals and cues we often use to communicate our
interest in and to others. Elements to Achieve Effective
Communication
Facial Expressions
- Unlike some forms of non-verbal communication, facial  The message must be clear, concise and complete (KISS
expressions are universal. They convey countless - keep it short and simple).
emotions without saying a word. The facial expressions  The content of the message must be factually accurate.
for happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust  The message can be a mix of factual and psychological
are the same across cultures. aspects to give the message its full impact; rather than
just dry facts or overly emotional in style.
Body Movements and Posture  The message should be relevant to the concerns of the
- The way we move and carry ourselves communicates a audience.
lot of information to the world. This type of non-verbal  The language should be appropriate to the audience and
communication considers how our perceptions of people communication medium. Avoid technical jargon unless
are affected by the way they sit, walk, stand up, or hold talking to another professional.
their head. This includes posture, bearing, stance, and  The message should be positive and focused on
subtle movements. solutions rather than listing problems.
 The language should invite appropriate participation and
Gestures engagement.
- This is the way we wave, point, plead, and often use our  The message should use the right medium for the
hands when we are speaking in an animated way. The intended audience, the context and the desired response.
meaning of gestures can be very different across cultures  The message should pick the right person/stakeholder to
and regions. It is important to be careful with our gestures send it out.
to avoid misinterpretation.  The message is sent at the right time to enable the
audience to have time to understand and act on the
message.

KRISTINE CALDERON 1
 The Stages of Communication - Applies positive influence on decision-making by
presenting a strong point of view and developing
mutual understanding
- Delivers efficient decisions and solutions by
providing accurate, timely and relevant information
- Enables mutually beneficial solutions • builds
healthy relationships by encouraging trust and
understanding
- Ensures that all service staff are sending out the
same messages.

LISTENING SKILLS
 The sender develops the content of the message. In the  Listening skills are just as important as communication
process, the sender decides on the medium (written or skills in delivering message. This allows full
spoken) and the format (such as email, letter, leaflet, understanding of the other party and what their response
meeting, talk, press release, presentation, podcast.). The is to your point of view. Good listening is vital for building
sender then transmits the communication by the relevant strong relationships. To be a good listener means to fully
communication channel (such as presenting at a meeting understand and constructively respond to what the other
of the heads of department, producing printed material, party is communicating.
announcing on a website or in the press). The message  Sometimes people seem to be giving one answer when
then reaches the audience. The audience will then decide they actual mean another; or wanting to say something
whether to respond and if so how. else but feel unable to do so. This can occur in any
 The audience response will have a particular content and communication scenario, like face-to face or remote,
format through their chosen communication channel. This instant or over a longer time period, with one person or a
may not be the same as the one the sender used to group.
transmit the message (such as an email after a meeting  Knowing how to listen carefully and when to ask for help
where the sender gave their presentation) is important. If an employee and a supervisor learn to
communicate well (in whatever method that works), there
What makes a Good Communication? is a greater likelihood of job retention and promotion.
 A powerful message needs to be delivered convincingly.
There are three stages of communication to think about. Core Listening Skills
Firstly, prepare well and understand what you want to  Giving the other party your full attention. If you are in their
communicate. Next, be confident to the point and focused presence look at them directly, don’t do other activities
on solutions. Finally, let the person or group you are such as doodling. Try to understand their body language.
communicating with have the opportunity to respond and  Encouraging them to speak. Ask open-ended questions.
listen to what they are telling you.  Showing that you are genuinely listening by nodding,
repeating back what they have said but in your own
How a Good Communicator Puts their words.
Message Across?  Acknowledging their feelings – ‘It must have been really
Before Communicating difficult for you when…’
 Well prepared message and arguments  Asking for clarification when you do not understand.
 Has full knowledge of the message  Trying to understand other’s point of view, rather than
 Has full understanding of the message immediately applying own preconceptions about the
respondent.
Delivering the Message  Letting the other party put over their response fully before
 Confident including positive body language and you react and giving them time to express their point of
communicating with energy view.
 Uses facts and well-founded opinion, not rumour; is  Being cautious in expressing your opinion. If it is clearly
honest not appropriate don’t express it.
 Concise  Being timely in your reaction to the other party’s
 Articulate and/or uses persuasive writing skills responses to your messages.
 Focused on solutions not problems

Responding to the Recipient

 Understands the recipient’s point of view
 Actively listens to the response
 Confidently defends the message
 Is prepared to ask clarification
 Is flexible in developing a solution (collaborative not
competitive)
 Good communication ensures that you are being heard.
You can then influence your environment according to
your own goals and requirements. If you do not get your
message across effectively, others will not know or
understand your needs. In general, effective
communication achieves the following:

KRISTINE CALDERON 2
 WORKPLACE DOCUMENTS 11. Use a more informal tone. Remember, however, that
what counts as “formal” or “informal” is defined in terms
of each organization’s culture.
WORKPLACE DOCUMENTS 12. Pay attention to the intended audience and context. Be
 A workplace document is any document that provides guided with the template below
steps or gives instructions to carry out tasks that contains
technical details. All workplaces use documents to record
their business activities. Some documents need to be
completed as part of government acts or regulations,
while others are developed to ensure the efficient delivery
of services and products to customers. It is important to
know which workplace documents, records and forms
you will be expected to complete as part of your job.
There are many different types of workplace documents.
Some examples are:
 Messages
 Memorandum
 Business Letters
 Minutes from meetings
 Agenda
 Annual reports
 Presentations
 Diagrams

 Messages, memorandum, minutes and agenda are

usually workplace documents that are prepared for
internal use. That is, these documents are only used and
read by people inside your organization.

MESSAGES  Memorandum needs to be short and direct, and easy to

 Messages come in all sorts of formats. It can be a simple read and understand. This means that the first step in
phone message to an email or a short message left for a writing a memo is thinking carefully about what you want
work colleague. Whatever the format, it is important to be to say and how to say it clearly and briefly.
sure that people’s names are spelled correctly, that
phone numbers or other figures are written down AGENDA AND MEETING MINUTES
correctly. It is also important to mark on the “message”  Agenda is a list of topics that are planned to be discussed
the time and date as well as who is leaving the message. at a meeting. It is used a guide to the Chairperson of a
Above all, it is vital that you use clear and neat meeting, to keep the meeting “on track”. The minutes of
handwriting. the meeting are the record of the matters that are
discussed during a meeting. They are a “formal” record of
MEMORANDUM what took place in a meeting.
 Memorandum or memo is a workplace document that Consider the following questions in writing meeting
sends information to people in your organization about a minutes:
work related topic. Most messages of this type are sent 1. When was the meeting?
by email, but in some instances a hard copy of a 2. Who attended?
memorandum is distributed to staff members. 3. Who did not attend? (Include this information if it
matters)
Guidelines in Writing a Memorandum 4. What topics were discussed?
1. Choose a representative phrase that immediately tells the 5. What was decided?
reader what the memo will be about. 6. What actions were agreed upon?
2. Use plain paper (not stationery) with one-inch margins 7. Who is to complete the actions, by when?
around the page. 8. Were materials distributed at the meeting? If so, are
3. Use a professional font and black colour. copies or a link available?
4. Begin all the lines of the memo at the left margin, except 9. Is there anything special the reader of the minutes
the MEMO line which can be centered. should know or do?
5. Use single-spaced, with two spaces between paragraphs 10. Is a follow-up meeting scheduled? If so, when?
in the body of the memo. where? why?
6. If your memo is more than 1 page long, use a
subsequent page header that includes who the Memo is Guidelines in Writing a Meeting Minutes
addressed to, the page number, and the date. 1. Write minutes soon after the meeting, preferably within
7. Sign the Memo next to the FROM line, using initials, first 48 hours. That way, those who attended can be reminded
name, or complete name. Purposive Communication of action items, and those who did not attend will
Page 135 promptly know what happened.
8. Don’t add a greeting between the memo heading and 2. Don't skip writing minutes just because everyone
body. attended the meeting and knows what happened.
9. Use declarative verbs, and simple sentence structure. Meeting notes serve as a record of the meeting long after
10. Be specific and detailed without including unnecessary people forget what happened.
(i.e. time-wasting or confusing) information and without
insulting reader’s intelligence.

KRISTINE CALDERON 3
3. Don't describe all the "he said, she said" details unless TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
those details are very important. Record topics
discussed, decisions made, and action items.
4. Don't include any information that will embarrass anyone
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
(for example, "Then John/Jane left the room in tears").  There are several types of written communication
5. Use positive language rather than describing the discussed in this section: electronic mail, memoranda,
discussion as heated or angry, use passionate, lively, or letters, reports and papers. Professionalism and
energetic--all of which are just as true as the negative effectiveness in written communication depends on
words. choosing the best type by which to express a subject,
6. Edit and proof the meeting minutes. and then following basic guidelines for conveying your
7. Attach any hand-outs or documents electronically, so that message to the recipient.
all participants and non-participants have easy access to ELECTRONIC CORRESPONDENCE
them.  Electronic mail, or e-mail, is appropriate for short, rapid
8. Include the following information: communications. It is not effective for conveying large
Topics Next meeting Decisions amounts of information or complex information. Because
Date and time Actions agreed Location e-mail is quick and easy, it is sometimes mistakenly
upon considered informal. And certainly, when you correspond
Person Agenda items Deadline with friends, informality is acceptable. But in other
responsible circumstances, e-mail should be formal and professional.

Below are some general considerations for professional

UNDERSTANDING CONVENTIONS OF e-mail correspondence and etiquette (Hassett, 2003):
TRADITIONAL GENRES - Consider the audience and occasion, and avoid
STEPS IN COMMUNICATION informality and jargon
PLANNING - Use a courteous tone in your message; avoid
provoking misunderstanding or anger by being too
1. Research and analysis or take stock of current
abrupt
situation - Indicate the subject of the message
Consider these: - Greet the addressee appropriately
1.1. Research - Organize your thoughts and communicate them
1.2. Resources clearly and concisely
1.3. Communication Opportunities - Keep e-mail messages brief and to the point
1.4. Communication Impediments - Use proper English, grammar, and spelling;
proofread before sending
2. Goals and Objectives - Sign your name to the message
Consider these: - Read messages you receive carefully before
2.1. Changes you wish to cause responding
2.2. Steps to reach goals - If you need time to compose a reply, send a brief
2.3. Who, what, when, how to communicate message acknowledging receipt and
communicating when you intend to respond in full
3. Target Audience
Consider these: Example of an Unprofessional E-mail
3.1 Defining audience
3.2 What they know
3.3 What influences them
3.4 Communication Impediments

4. Key Messages
Consider these:
4.1 Essential ideas
4.2 The Message
4.3 Specific needs are understood and acted upon
Example of a Professional Polite E-mail
5. Communication Strategies
Consider these:
5.1 Resources
5.2 Effective communication
5.3 Outcomes delivery

6. Evaluation
Consider these:
6.1 Communication plan
6.2 Message
6.3 Audience
6.4 Surveys
6.5 Audits
6.6 Focus group sessions

KRISTINE CALDERON 4
 MEMORANDA Example Business Letters
 A memorandum, or memo, is used to communicate
specific information, usually within a department, or
organization. It is more formal than an e-mail, and can be
used to transmit more information– up to a page or two.
Still, the information you convey should be relatively
straightforward and uncomplicated.

Below are some general guidelines for memos.

- • Format a memo with To, From, Date, and Subject
(or Re:) lines
- Use proper English, grammar, and spelling
- Use a courteous, professional tone
- Be clear and concise
- Clearly state if a reply or other action is required or
requested
- Print the memo on letterhead or a word-processing
memo template

Example Memorandum

REPORTS AND PAPERS

 One of the most frequent forms of written communication
that you will use to complete assignments in your courses
is the report or paper. The format for particular
assignments will often be given by a professor, but below
are the basic elements of a report and guidelines to
follow for writing a paper. Also see the section on
Citation.

Basic Components of a Report

- Introduction
- Literature Review
- Methods and Materials
- Results
- Discussion
- Conclusions
- Bibliography

General Guidelines for Writing a Paper

- Use one inch margins, 12 point font, double-line spacing,
and page numbers
- Avoid second person and passive voice4
LETTERS - Spell-check, grammar-check, and proofread (Spell check
alone is insufficient! For example, “Magellan circumcised
 Letters are the means of formal, professional the glob” does not contain spelling errors, but is certainly
communication with others outside an organization. not the intended communication) (Henriksson, 2001).
Sometimes, letters are used within an organization to
- Organize your thoughts by preparing an outline before
formally present a secondary document, such as a writing
committee report. Letters can convey more detail than a
- Start a paper with an introduction and end with a
memo, and should always be used to introduce a conclusion
resume.
- Cite your sources internally, and include a works cited
and/or bibliography in proper format (see the citation
Below are general guidelines for drafting a letter as well
section of this handbook)
as an example business letter
- Format a letter with the complete address of the
ORAL COMMUNICATION
recipient
- Print the letter on letterhead, or compose a header  Oral communications include simple telephone calls,
with the sender’s complete address and contact interviews for class projects or research studies, and
information informal and formal presentations. Having a clear idea of
- Use a formal greeting, such as “Dear” or “To whom what you want to say or ask is essential to effective oral
it may concern” communications.
- Organize the information, and be clear and concise
- Include a formal closing, such as “Sincerely” and TELEPHONE CONVERSATIONS
sign and print your name  Telephone contact between forest and natural resource
managers and the general public or client groups is very
common. Throughout your career, you will need to
answer incoming telephone calls politely, even when
conversing with a disgruntled individual.

KRISTINE CALDERON 5
 When contacting other individuals by telephone, conference. Similar guidelines apply to both types of
consider these steps. presentations.
- Prepare a list of questions to ask the person you
are contacting prior to making the phone call Both general guidelines and guidelines specifically for
- Always clearly identify yourself and your affiliation. o Power Point and overhead projector presentations are
Example: My name is ___________. I am a student included below.
at the SUNY College of Environmental Science and - Know your audience. Understanding the interests of
Forestry in Syracuse. your audience is essential to understanding how to
- State your purpose for calling. o Example: I am focus your presentation. Speak to the interests and
working on a project for my forest management educational level of your audience.
class, and was wondering if you could provide some - Dress appropriately. Dressing appropriately for your
input for this project based on your experience as a audience can help to connect you to your audience.
forest manager. For example, dressing in a formal suit for an
- Ask your questions clearly without interrupting the audience of foresters may create a psychological
person you are talking to, and take notes on the barrier between you and your audience. In this
conversation. instance, casual but neat attire may make you more
- Thank the person for his or her assistance. approachable to your audience. For formal
- Be prepared to leave a message in case the person conference presentations, a suit may be more
is not available. When leaving a message on an appropriate. If you are unsure about the dress code
answering machine, clearly state your name and, for an event, ask someone who has attended a
speaking slowly; include your phone number and similar conference or meeting before.
the purpose of your call. Also indicate if you will be - Carefully structure your presentation. Your
calling the individual back or if you’d like him/her to presentation should be well organized and include
return your call. the following: o a title slide that shows your name
and the title of your presentation, o the body of
INTERVIEWS information you are presenting, and o a clear
 Often interviews are required for class projects or conclusion that summarizes your presentation
qualitative research studies. If you plan on conducting a (never end with “that’s it.”)
qualitative research project, coursework in qualitative - The information on the slides should be presented
research methods will be necessary. Because of the in a logical order, beginning with basic concepts
complexity involved in conducting qualitative research and leading into more detailed information towards
interviews, this section of this manual will discuss the end of your presentation.
conducting an interview for a class project only. - Practice your presentation. Practicing your
presentation beforehand is always a good idea.
Some guidelines for conducting basic interviews for Have a friend or family member watch your
class projects follow. presentation. Ask him or her to let you know if you
- Understand the benefits of telephone versus in- have any mannerisms (e.g., saying “ummm”
person interviews. Telephone interviews are frequently, turning your back to the audience, etc...)
especially useful when distance prevents you from that you need to eliminate, or if any of the concepts
interviewing in person. In person interviews often presented do not make sense. Practicing will also
provide more detailed information because of the allow you to identify any portions of your
more-personalized contact between you and the presentation that do not flow properly and that need
interviewee. Choose the form that is best based on further work.
project requirements and travel limitations. - Know the time limit for your presentation. Most
- Use an interview guide (i.e., a list of questions to be class and conference presentations have a time
used during the interview). An interview guide will limit that is strictly enforced by an instructor or
help you keep the conversation focused and will moderator. Make sure that your presentation does
prevent you from forgetting any important not go beyond this time limit. Timing your
questions. Make sure the questions apply to the presentation beforehand will clarify if you need to
interviewee’s personal experience. cut back on the amount of material presented.
- Always introduce yourself and the purpose of the - Stimulate audience interest. There are several ways
interview. that a presenter can increase the audience’s
- Let the interviewee know the purpose for which you interest in the presentation.
will be using his/her comments. - Use visual media when appropriate. For panel
- Obtain permission to conduct the interview. If you presentations, visual media are often not used. For
plan on tape recording an interview, always ask most other presentations, however, providing a
permission before turning on the tape recorder, then visual aspect to your presentation can be extremely
ask permission again once the tape is recording. effective in maintaining audience interest in your
Let the interviewee know that he/she can stop the topic.
interview at any time. - Always speak enthusiastically (never in a
- Always thank the interviewee at the end of the monotone).
conversation. - Get the audience involved in your presentation.
- Always send the interviewee a copy of any reports Asking the audience questions and bringing in
resulting from the project. examples of items that can be passed around (e.g.,
field equipment or publications) are two ways to get
PRESENTATIONS the audience involved.
- Call for questions after your presentation. Once you
 Presentations can either be informal (for example, a class have concluded, ask the audience members if they
presentation or a short presentation at a meeting) or have any questions for you. Never put down or
more formal, such as a presentation at a workshop or downplay the importance of any question, as this

KRISTINE CALDERON 6
 will discourage others in the audience from asking Example of Ineffective Graphs
questions. Never argue a point of view during a Figure 1 was generated in Microsoft Excel using default
question and answer period; just state your choices from the Chart Wizard feature. The graph may seem
response and end it there. Finally, if you do not attractive, but is deficient for several reasons. First, the
know the answer to a question, admit it. You can horizontal and vertical axes do not have labels, and the
always say that you don’t know the answer at that Series 1 box is not necessary. These are corrected in the
time but can find out the answer and respond to the next figure.
audience member later with the information.

GRAPHIC COMMUNICATION
 Here are some guidelines to consider in preparing
graphics for your written and oral communications. In
every case, a good general rule is that the table, graph,
or map should have enough information to be understood
if removed from the larger report.

TABLES
 A table is a convenient way to present data. Separate
tables (numbered in the order of their first appearance)
should be used for all but the simplest tabular material.
Every table should have an informative title, which should
Figure 2 has the axes labelled and the Series 1 box
make the tables intelligible without reference to the text.
removed. However, the horizontal axis does not include all
Rows and columns should be clearly identified. Most
the intervals, box lines and tick marks are too narrow, the
word processing packages have utilities to construct
weight and size of fonts for the axis titles are too small, and
tables, and with a little practice a table can be customized
both the horizontal lines across the figure and default shaded
by merging cells, using a combination of no, regular, or
background are unnecessary. These are corrected in the
bold lines, changing column widths, etc. See Table 1 for
next figure.
an example.

Example Table

Figure 3 is in final form except for a lack of a descriptive title.

Also, it is generally useful to add a trend line via regression
analysis to convey the precision of the data and allow for
prediction (when will the world champion pumpkin exceed
2000 pounds?).
GRAPHS
 A graph is simply a device to present data. Various types
of graphs are utilized to convey various date. The table
below provides guidelines for choosing the best graph to
illustrate your data.

Data requirements for Common

Graph Types
EXCEL Graph Dependent Independent
Type Variable (Y axis) Variable (X axis)
column continuous discrete/category
bar discrete/category continuous
line continuous discrete/category
pie continuous (size of discrete/category
slices) (# of slices)
area continuous discrete/category
scatter continuous continuous

KRISTINE CALDERON 7
 Example of an Effective Graph your map from upper left to lower right, good practice
requires that the legend then be in the lower right hand
side of the map (see Map B). This is not always possible,
however.
Scale
- You must include a graphic scale bar and/or the
mathematical scale. The verbal or textural scale (1 inch =
1 mile) should not be used because if the map is copied
the verbal scale will no longer be correct.
Text Boxes
- These describe the purpose of the map and any other
information important for the viewer to understand the
map.
 Tufte (1997) has written three books devoted to display
of quantitative information. The following “principles of Metadata
graphical excellence” are adapted from his first volume. - Metadata is data about data. You should include the
- Graphical excellence is the well-designed Projection or Coordinate system used. Coordinate
presentation of interesting data – a matter of system notations must include the Datum (like NAD27,
substance, of statistics, and of design. NAD83, etc.) and the zone number. For example for
- Graphical excellence consists of complex ideas Universal Transverse Mercator in central NY the notation
communicated with clarity, precision, and efficiency. is UTM Zone 18 NAD27 (or NAD83) and for a State
- Graphical excellence is that which gives the viewer Plane coordinate system the notation is SP Zone 1842
the greatest number of ideas in the shortest time NAD83 (or NAD27).
with the least ink in the smallest space. Balance and White Space
- Graphical excellence is nearly always multivariate - The map should be balanced so that it does not visually
“fall over”. This is really a judgment call on your part.
MAPS White space is another artistic property of a map. A map
 Why use a map? A map is a spatial method of with too little white space appears crowded, while a map
communicating information about a project, process, with too much white space is not well tied together.
travel route or idea. The key word is spatial: how
something is distributed in space or how you get from CITATION
location A to location B. Getting from A to B can be  Citation is an integral component of formal, professional
described either through a map or through a set of steps, communication. Although perhaps most strongly
as anyone who has used MapQuest or Google maps associated with written work, citation is important in oral
knows. For some people, the map showing the route is a and graphic communication also. If you use a quotation
more effective way to communicate than the step-by-step when giving a presentation, or copy a graph onto a
instructions. Some spatial information is just best PowerPoint slide, you must credit the original author.
communicated with a map, and, depending on your  Likewise, if utilizing a chart or table from a book within
audience, a map can provide effective context. your paper, even if you have added some information,
 There are several elements required for effective, you must reference the original creator of that chart or
professional maps. These are illustrated in the example table.
maps following the descriptions of map elements.  The purpose of citation is twofold. First, it references
sources and ideas or words attributable to others and
MAP ELEMENTS documents the research process. Second, it enables a
Border reader to find the original work and words being
- You should enclose it with a border to tie all the elements referenced. If the author of a paper has paraphrased
of the map together. someone else’s idea, the reader may want to see the
Title original sentences. The reader might also want to consult
- The map title should be in large type and perhaps a the original source to understand the context of a
different font. This gives your audience an initial idea particular quotation. Thus, citation must provide all of the
about the subject of the map. details necessary to find a referenced piece of literature.
Neatliness Different disciplines employ various citation formats. For
- Various elements of the map, in particular the graphic example, the humanities typically use footnotes, whereas
map itself, may have a neat line surrounding them. In the natural sciences typically use parenthetical
both example maps there is a neat line around the references. Citations are utilized within the body of a
textural material, and in Map B the legend is surrounded paper and they are also listed at the end of a document in
by a neat line. either a Bibliography or a Works (or Literature).
North Arrow  There are a number of accepted styles, such as Chicago,
- If the North Arrow is not present, N is assumed to be Turabian, Modern Language Association (MLA), and
straight up the page. Although placement of the North Council of Biology Editors (CBE). Different professors
Arrow is a graphics choice, providing this feature may may provide various guidelines for referencing, just as
eliminate questions. different scholarly journals require different formats for
Legend their publications. Your primary objective is to be
- . A legend is usually required with any map. However, consistent and complete, and to learn the habit of
Map A is so simple that a legend is not required. If you referencing others’ works. Generally, the Literature Cited
use a legend, you should only list the features actually in is a list of alphabetized sources, single-spaced with
the map. File names of features used in the mapping hanging indentation, with one line between entries.
software should not be used. You should edit the legend
so it makes sense. Since the viewer’s eye travels across

KRISTINE CALDERON 8
 PLAGIARISM Tag line
 When you do not cite your sources, or keep close track of  A tag line is a catchy one-sentence slogan that s stated
your research process, you run the risk of plagiarizing. towards the end of the PSA. Tagline.
Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s ideas, work, or
words as if they were your own. Plagiarism includes HOW DO I START?
copying from a source without citing it, using the same
 You start with the goal of the PSA: What do you want it to
words without using quotation marks (even with a
accomplish? Once you know the goal, then you can
citation), or improperly paraphrasing (re-wording)
figure out how the PSA can achieve it.
another's work. Always cite sources you consult. You
must attribute words, ideas, interpretations, information,  The goal of a PSA is simple: to get someone to take a
and knowledge that are not your own to the appropriate specific action. It is not to talk about the sponsoring
author or source. organization. It is to motivate the targeted audience to
act: to drop off the canned goods for the food drive…
 The College does not tolerate academic dishonesty. The
penalty for plagiarism may be a grade of zero for a
particular assignment, or failure of a course. The ESF IS IT IMPORTANT ENOUGH?
policies on academic dishonesty are covered in the  Your first question must be: “Is this message important
Student and Judicial Handbooks and in Academic enough to broadcast?”
Integrity @ ESF.10 Students are expected to read and  Your second thought must be: “Is this message relevant
understand these policies. Below are links to other web to the broadcast audience?
resources about plagiarism, even unintentional plagiarism
(i.e., improper paraphrasing).
THE MORAL VITAL, THE LESS UNIVERSAL
PUBLIC SERVICE IT NEEDS TO BE
ANNOUNCEMENT  But “what percentage of the audience will be affected?” is
not the only aspect to consider.
PUBLIC SERVICE ANNOUNCEMENT  Talk only about the results
 Is and advertisement broadcast on radio or television, for  Most people who write PSAs do so from the point-of-view
the public interest. of the sponsoring organization.
 PSAs are intended to modify public attitudes by raising  Use real language
awareness about specific issues.  Use emotion
 A typical PSA is part of a public awareness campaign to
inform or educate the public about an issue such as MAKE IT PERSONALLY RELATABLE
smoking or compulsive gambling.  Deliver exactly “one core message”
 Clarity
SHORT HISTORY OF PSA’s  Music
 PSAs came into being with the entry of the United States  Sound effects
into World War II.  A good public service announcement is for the good of
 Radio broadcasters and advertising agencies offered the community/
their skills and facilities toward the war effort and
established the War Advertising Council which became
the official home front propaganda arm of the Office of
the War Information.
 Print, outdoor advertising and especially radio became
the carriers of such messages as “Loose lips sink ships”,
“keep ‘em Rolling”, and a variety of exhortations to buy
War bonds,

COMPONENTS OF PSA’s
Target Audience
 It is important to think about the intended audience of
your PSA. What elements you include as well as how you
present the information, will vary based on your target
audience.
 Demographic profile includes: age, gender, race,
socioeconomic race…

Message
 Without a clear message, the PSA is not useful to the
viewer.

Organization
 At the end of a PSA, it is important to put contact
information for a local or national organization. This
allows the viewer an opportunity to contact someone for
more information or help.

KRISTINE CALDERON 9