Floating Production Systems

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Solar Turbines Incorporated

P.O. Box 85376
San Diego, CA 92186-5376 U.S.A.

SPFPS
Foreword
This document discusses the fundamental guidelines for use of turbomachinery equipment on floating
production systems to help protect and preserve the marine environment and to secure the welfare of
those who use the equipment. This objective is best met with machinery of proven design and proper
certification. Whether it is intended for “oil and gas” process only or “main and auxiliary” service, the
machinery should have all features necessary to operate in a normal and safe manner. The design
solutions described herein are based on common sense methods that have been used for many years
and represent just a few of the methods available.
Since the first vessel went to sea, shipbuilders have had to overcome many obstacles from leaking
hull planking to undersized shrouds. As each obstacle was overcome, the design change became stan-
dard throughout the industry. The cost to customize machinery to meet different motion requirements is
far greater than the cost of the pre-engineered machine necessary to meet severe marine environmental
conditions.
For the safety of the marine environment and the personnel who must survive in these harsh
condtions, all equipment should be “Type Certified” – supported by historical data and explicit
calculations.
I attempted to present these guidelines as accurately as possible, but it is the responsibility of the
readers to build upon this information with due diligence to ensure that their own designs are safe and fit
for service in the marine environment intended.
I would like to acknowledge my colleagues at Solar Turbines Incorporated for their contributions to
this document: Mark Fogg, Senior Technical Editor; Helga Soucy, Graphic Design Consultant; Lawrence
Campbell, B.S., L.L.M., J.D., Sr. Corporate Attorney; Martin Habel. PE, Manager, Product Strategy; Lance
Weinberg, CS/MD Product Manager; Carlos Aylwin, Manager, Marketing and Business Development; and
Michael Leisenring, Analytical Engineer and Daniel Vahidi, Analytical Engineer.

Peter Baron. C.Eng., MIMarEST., SNAME, USNI

Marine Product Engineer
Solar Turbines Incorporated

The contents of the publication represent the author’s and contributors’ viewpoints and are not representative of Class, Flag State or
other regulatory body regulations and requirements, nor do the contents represent the opinions of their employers. For actual
regulations and requirements, the author highly recommends that readers continually acquaint themselves with the marine
environment and the current rules and regulations.

While every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information contained in this publication, no authors, editors or
contributors involved in its preparation assume liability for any information in this publication. It is the responsibility of the reader who
uses the information and guideline herein to perform due diligence and to ensure their own work is verified for accuracy.

Caterpillar is a registered trademark of Caterpillar Inc. Solar is a trademark of Solar Turbines Incorporated.
All other trademarks are the intellectual property of their respective companies. Specifications subject to change without notice.
©2004 Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. Printed in U.S.A. SPFPS/904

I
Contents
Foreword ....................................................................................................................................................... i

1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 1

2. Types of Floating Production Systems.............................................................................................. 4

2.1 FIXED-LEG PLATFORM .............................................................................................................. 4
2.2 JACK-UP PLATFORM.................................................................................................................. 5
2.3 COMPLIANT TOWER .................................................................................................................. 5
2.4 SPAR ............................................................................................................................................ 6
2.5 TENSION LEG PLATFORM ......................................................................................................... 6
2.6 SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE PLATFORM.............................................................................................. 7
2.7 FLOATING, PRODUCTION, STORAGE AND OFFLOADING /
FLOATING PRODUCTION UNIT ................................................................................................. 8
2.8 MINIMUM ALLOWABLE OPERATING ANGLES......................................................................... 9
3. Environmental Conditions and Effects ............................................................................................ 10
3.1 OCEAN WAVE MOTIONS AND WIND ...................................................................................... 11
3.2 VIBRATION................................................................................................................................. 14
3.3 TWISTING AND BENDING IN MOUNTING STRUCTURES ..................................................... 16
3.4 PERMANENT INCLINATIONS ................................................................................................... 17
3.5 DYNAMIC INCLINATIONS ......................................................................................................... 17
3.6 G-FORCE IN DIRECTIONS OTHER THAN DOWN .................................................................. 18
3.7 CORROSION, EROSION, AND ELECTROLYSIS ..................................................................... 20
4. Machinery Design Solutions ............................................................................................................. 23
4.1 INSTRUMENTATION ................................................................................................................. 23
4.2 EQUIPMENT MOUNTINGS ....................................................................................................... 23
4.3 STRUCTURAL DESIGN............................................................................................................. 26
4.4 OIL TANK DESIGN..................................................................................................................... 29
4.5 DRAINAGE SYSTEMS............................................................................................................... 31
4.6 FLUID CONTROL ....................................................................................................................... 34
4.7 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................... 36
4.8 MACHINERY CONTROL SYSTEMS ......................................................................................... 37
4.9 TOOLING.................................................................................................................................... 37
4.10 ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT AND MOUNTING ............................................................................ 39
4.11 DUTY CONDITIONS .................................................................................................................. 40
5. Marine Certification ............................................................................................................................ 41

6. Appendix ............................................................................................................................................. 48
6.1 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES........................................................................................... 48
6.2 USEFUL WEB SITES ................................................................................................................. 49
6.3 TOPSIDES MOTION IMPACT REPORT (Issued by the Machinery / FPS Purchaser) ............. 50

II
1. Introduction
A machine installed on a floating production sys-
tem (FPS) will be expected to operate in the
same manner as a land-based machine, but it will
be expected to do so while experiencing poor sea
conditions. The equipment may be mounted be-
low or above decks of an FPS and will be re-
quired to operate in all types of climates and envi-
ronmental conditions. Land-based machinery
only experiences these conditions during ship-
ment by sea to customer sites. Problems may
arise when the FPS is towed or propelled by its
own power to its normal operating site where dif-
ferent motions will be experienced. During this
time the machinery experiences motion and its
designed systems react. In addition to environ-
mental considerations, the machines may also
need to be designed in accordance with many
different codes, rules, flag state and international
requirements not required for onshore installa-
tion.
FPS will heel (Figure 1) to either side due to
uneven ballasting or wind effect on one side of
the vessel's superstructure or as a result of wave
action. The floating vessel may also be “trimmed” Figure 1. Vessel Listing -
improperly (Figure 2) when the vessel is loading Permanently Inclined
or unloading. These conditions are normal ex-
periences in the marine environment and must be unknown conditions. This low-at-the-bow condi-
considered in design. tion could exist while the machinery is required to
Both the heel and trim of the vessel are can operate.
be long-term conditions even though the crew will A vessel that is very low at the bow or stern
attempt to right the vessel as soon as possible. and/or listing heavily to one side may be dam-
The vessel may be listed to one side for several aged. Generators and bilge pumps will have the
hours and possibly up to a day or two. greatest demand at that time. The oil and gas
In the trimmed condition, the vessel may be function of the vessel will, in all probability, have
high at the bow for several days during transit in been shut down.
calm seas or while unloading and loading. It is Not all shipboard machinery will be required
unlikely that the vessel will be low at the bow for to operate in the same environmental conditions.
long periods of time except for maintenance and

Figure 2. Vessel Trim – Permanently Inclined

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For instance, a generator designed to meet the
electrical power demands of the ship, classified
as "main and auxiliary machinery," will be re-
quired to operate in whatever environmental con-
ditions the vessel might encounter while genera-
tors for process operation may not be required to
operate in heavy storm conditions.
Hurricanes, which usually occur between
June and November, pose high risk to any off-
shore structure. Per the Beaufort wind scale,
force 12 is hurricane force starting with winds of
63 knots up to and in excess of 140 knots. Over a
period of time, wind forces can generate wave
heights greater than 40 feet during hurricane
conditions. In the North Atlantic and North Sea
regions, wave heights can exceed 60 to 70 ft with
hurricane force winds of 100 knots sustained for
several days.
The Beaufort scale pictures in Figure 3 show
sea states versus wind speeds:

• Force 10 – Storm with wind speed

48 to 55 knots
• Force 11 – Severe storm with wind speed
56 to 63 knots
• Force 12 – Hurricane with wind speed
64+ knots
If the wind speed is sustained long enough,
the wave velocity can reach tremendous speeds.
The following is a simple calculation per “Roll
1958” (Lewis, 1988):

Wave height = 8 m, period = 16 seconds,

wave length = 400 m
Speed = 400 m/(16 sec x 0.5144) = 49 knots

In addition to hurricanes, there are frequently

tornadoes. At sea, tornadoes generate water-
spouts. On land, a tornado is a column of air with
internal wind velocities sufficient to cause suction
and draw up debris from surrounding areas. A
waterspout is a column of water (Figure 4) and as
such holds a tremendous volume of water.
Compressor sets will most likely be shut
down during uncertain weather conditions. This
makes as safe a condition as possible for the
ship, personnel and machinery. Even though
some machinery may only be required to operate
up to certain conditions, their structural integrity
must be sufficient to withstand the extreme condi-
tions and allow the machinery to be restarted
once the environmental conditions have returned
to normal.
Weather conditions can create logistical
problems for FPS, such as scheduling regular Figure 3. Beaufort Wind Scale/Wave Forces
shipments of crucial parts from shore (Figure 5).

2
 that the customer fill out and send to the machin-
ery suppliers a "Motions Impact Report”, Appen-
dix 1, or as referenced in ASME B133.16-2000.
The data will be used to identify the magni-
tude of marinization required to meet the desig-
nated project requirements. There are many
types of FPS being employed in offshore oil and
gas exploration and production, all of which will
be discussed in sufficient detail to develop ade-
quate understanding of individual installation re-
quirements.
As the offshore oil and gas industry becomes
more integrated into the marine industry, the
Figure 4. Water Spouts – Hurricane Lily classification societies and authorities are con-
(October 2002) tinuously updating and developing new rules for
these types of vessels. The current rules are
based upon vessels that transport goods interna-
tionally as well as locally.
Classification authorities provide guidelines
on safety issues pertinent to the offshore marine
oil and gas industry. Prior to beginning a new
design, the latest issue of the relevant classifica-
tion authorities’ rules must be reviewed.
Unfortunately, this author is unaware of any
publications that definitively explain how design-
ers of turbomachinery installed in a dynamic envi-
ronment are to execute their designs. Only the
sound engineering standards and marine envi-
Figure 5. Equipment Delivery at Sea ronment experiences of the designers are avail-
able.
As with any machinery that is being placed
into new environmental conditions, the engineer
Inclement weather may adversely affect the finds that it takes a creative analytical thinker to
timely arrival of such shipments as well as their bring a new design to fruition. Most of the design
installation. Poor weather conditions can last for philosophy described herein is based upon this
several days to weeks, depending on the storm author’s own experiences and successes over
and time of year. many years. This author does not believe that his
Not all offshore structures react to environ- philosophies are the only methods available to
mental conditions in the same manner. These achieve the desired goal. The suggested meth-
differing reactions can be understood by studying ods described, however, have proved to be suc-
the types of structures used. It is recommended cessful in the past in providing pre-engineered
marine gas turbine machinery.

3
2. Types of Offshore Production Systems
There are many types of offshore oil and gas
production structures. The most common are
fixed-leg and jack-up platforms, which have been
used for many years and were derived from early
land-based drilling rigs. They do not subject the
installed machinery to any appreciable environ-
mental conditions other than wind, moisture, deck
deflections and vibration. They are usually
located in shallow waters.
Figure 6 provides a simple representation of
the many platform types and the relative water
depth in which they are likely to be found.
As an overview, this section does not provide
sufficient data to help the reader tell which plat-
Figure 6. Fixed-Leg Platform
form type is appropriate for a given project. Each
category of platform is briefly described in terms
of the environmental effects on installed machin- Generally, little motion is expected from nor-
ery. This will enable the reader to better formulate mal wave experiences. Slamming of waves on
machinery specifications for manufacturers of the the pilings may be felt without adverse effects to
required equipment. machinery. The greatest effect on machinery is
the deck deflection resulting from the rotation of
2.1 FIXED-LEG PLATFORM loaded pedestal cranes during supply boat off-
The fixed-leg platform (Figure 7) is installed atop loading operations. Such events can twist the
a trussed tubular structure mounted to the sea- deck on which the machinery is supported. In
bed. The platform protrudes above the sea sur- such cases, three-point mounted machinery is
face to a level that provides sufficient clearance appropriate if the deck deflection is severe
below the platform deck for the highest annual enough to affect power train alignment or cause
tides and storm wave conditions. an increase in vibration.

Figure 7. Offshore Platform Recognition Chart

4
 Other considerations, equally applicable to all
types of offshore structures, are vibration from
the rotating machinery through the foundation
supports to adjacent machinery from workshops
and from accommodation spaces. In this case,
selection of a suitable anti-vibration mounting
(AVM) system should be considered.

2.2 JACK-UP PLATFORM

Since the introduction of fixed-leg platforms, other
types of structures have emerged. Their purpose
is the same as the fixed-leg platforms, but they
have evolved into structures that are more so-
phisticated and mobile due to progress of con-
trols standards and the need to develop oil and
gas fields in deeper water. Some of the newer
designs have contributed to reduced manpower
requirements and reduced production costs.
One such mobile platform is the jack-up plat-
form (Figure 8). The deck is designed as a hull
with three lattice-work legs that are raised above
the sea floor by lowering the platform to the sea
surface until the hull is self supporting or floating.
Once in the flotation mode, the platform can be
towed to a new location. Once on station, the
legs are lowered to the sea floor and the platform
is raised above the high-tide mark with clearance
for wave motion below. This type of platform is
normally operated in shallow water.
The jack-up platform is subject to sway
motions because the three legs are not intercon-
nected to provide a laterally stable structure. Roll
and pitch are not experienced in the installed
position as they are in the towed condition. How-
ever, side-to-side motion is experienced and
must be accommodated by the machinery
systems.
2.3 COMPLIANT TOWER
The compliant tower (Figure 9) is not a floating
structure. However, depending upon water depth,
the structure will tend to sway with surge and will
tend to behave in a similar fashion somewhere
between that experienced by fixed-leg and spar
platforms. It may sway up to two degrees single
amplitude in any direction with a low period of
approximately 25 to 30 seconds.
Used in water depths up to 1500 feet, as with Figure 8. Jack-Up Platform or Rig
all types of platforms, the compliant tower must
have a natural frequency outside the wave fre-
quency range in order to be “compliant.”
In hurricane-force winds (64 to 120 knots),
wave frequencies can be in the region of 0.05 to
0.1 Hz. Therefore, the structural natural fre-
quency must be substantially less than 0.05 Hz.
Although similar to a fixed-leg platform, the
compliant tower is much smaller and thinner and,
thus, contains less fabrication.

5
 2.4 SPAR
The spar-type platform (Figure 10) is a small plat-
form atop a narrow, buoyant column.
The base of the column is flooded, but the
column has buoyancy tanks in its upper portion.
A mooring ring is attached above the flooded sec-
tion to reduce the pendulum effect associated
with this type of design. The spar is subjected to
rolling motions with some heave attributed to the
rise and fall of the tide in conjunction with surge.
The spar is thought of as having similar stability
attributes as tension leg platforms (TLP).
Typically, the spar has two to three decks
with power generation equipment and supporting
ancillary equipment mounted on them.

2.5 TENSION LEG PLATFORM

The TLP (Figure 11) is designed as a buoyant
vessel that is connected to the seabed via cables
or tubes that are continuously in tension.
Tugs tow the vessel to the operating site
where it is positioned. Some TLP are so large
that they must be towed to the site as several
modules and lifted into place above the founda-
tion module. Initially, the cables are attached to
the foundation module after the module's flotation
ballast tanks have been flooded. Once this has

Figure 10. Spar Single-Buoyancy Tank with

Multiple Mooring Cable

Figure 9. Compliant Tower Figure 11. Tension Leg Platform

6
been completed, the lateral positioning cables are 2.6 SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE PLATFORM
adjusted and the ballast is discharged to raise the
The most common type of offshore structure is
module and place the seabed-attaching cables
the semi-submersible platform (SSP) (Figure 12).
and lateral cables in tension. With the foundation
They can be manufactured to enormous sizes.
module in a stable condition, the other modules
Their limiting factor is cost.
can be installed.
The SSP is a modification of the submersible
The TLP is normally used in water depths
platform. The submersible platform consists of
where it is impractical and cost prohibitive to
two or four buoyant hulls, as are many SSP. The
erect a fixed-leg platform or where the subterra-
intent is to tow the submersible platform out to its
nean geology cannot support the weight of a
operation location, which is generally in shallow
fixed-leg platform without causing subsidence to
water. Once on station, the hulls are flooded to
the structure.
allow the vessel to rest on the sea floor. The hulls
There are several forms of TLP. The decking
are then anchored.
is produced in multiple levels to incorporate drill-
SSP can be used in depths of 5000 feet of
ing equipment, process machinery and accom-
water, although some have been designed for
modation spaces for the crew. By statutory stan-
much greater depths. The double pontoon plat-
dards, the TLP must be commanded by a certi-
form is subjected to pitch and roll effects. This is
fied merchant marine captain and officers. Oil
due to the fact that at the ends of the two pon-
and gas industry-trained operators are responsi-
toons there is less buoyancy than each pontoon
ble for oil and gas production.
has at each side of the vessel. This results in
The substructure of the vessel is usually con-
differences in motion between the two perpen-
structed of three or four buoyant tubes of suffi-
dicular axes.
cient size to maintain deck support. The support
The SSP is anchored similar to the TLP
tubes are also sized to withstand the forces
without vertical tension legs, although the anchor-
imposed on them by oncoming seas. The first
ing cables are taut. This is achieved by submerg-
deck is of sufficient height above the high-tide
ing the hulls below the low water level to a prede-
mark to allow the largest projected waves to pass
termined measure by flooding the pontoons. The
beneath.
cables are tensioned and the pontoons are
The TLP is still subject to shock and to lateral
purged for maximum buoyancy.
sway due to the elongation of the tension mem-
The SSP is very stable for oil and gas pro-
bers and to the lateral motion of the cable buoys.
duction. However, the vessel is still subjected to
There generally is no pitch and roll experi-
motions in all directions. The angular motion is
enced by a TLP except during tow-out from the
not as severe as experienced by a ship, but still
builder’s yard. Even then, the effects are minimal.
The floating TLP is designed to be towed to site.
It is not a streamlined vessel that can maintain a
level attitude in rough seas and it will create
excessive drag to the tow vessel(s) in heavy sea
conditions.
During tow-out conditions, the turbomachin-
ery will not be in a running condition unless
specifically ordered from the supplier as such.
As with any marine or other live-deck struc-
tures, deflections take place. TLP do have mobile
cranes that can deflect machinery-operating
decks when the crane is in operation. The deflec-
tion must be taken into consideration when
selecting the mounting system.

Figure 12. Twin Pontoon Semi-Submersible

Platform

7
requires compensation. The angle during normal FPSO from the builder's yards, which have a
operation can be as high as six degrees in any 15-to-20 year life span. A converted vessel will
direction with a period of approximately 20 sec- have a more limited service life in comparison,
onds. The G-forces associated do not pose any depending upon the refit scope during conver-
particular problem for the structural engineer, but sion. During its life as an FPSO, the converted
the oil system designer will be required to incor- VLCC will be downgraded to a floating production
porate some form of control devices to ensure the unit (FPU). Both the converted oil tanker and the
oil is always where it should be. purpose-built FPSO have the ability to store oil
Two pontoons react in a similar manner as a until a shuttle tanker or floating storage and off-
four-legged chair. When wave actions act on the loading (FSO) unit can take on oil from the
pontoons, water pressure causes the pontoons to FPSO. The smaller tanker can then transport the
twist out of horizontal plane. The twist, or bend- oil to any location while the FPSO continues to
ing, is superimposed onto the machinery deck. produce.
During poor weather conditions, the twisting may The FPSO can operate in water up to 7000
be significant enough to warp the machinery and feet and possibly deeper. Mooring methods differ
disturb the power train alignment. It is important from one FPSO to another. The most common is
that the twisting deck limits are provided to the the bow mooring system (Figure 13), which is a
engineer so that the correct installation method is device that houses the piping systems to the
selected (refer to Section 6.3). wellheads. The mooring system is designed to
Some SSP have four pontoons, or a square take into account the pitch, roll and heave of the
buoyancy tank, surrounding the periphery of the moored vessel. The plumbing is designed so that
platform. The pitch and roll motions tend to be the the connections are not strained when the vessel
same, although not as uneven as the twin turns about the axis of the mooring pod. This type
pontoon version. Nonetheless, their motions and of vessel relies upon weathervaning to minimize
G-forces must be taken into account when the effect of oncoming wind and heavy seas.
designing operational machinery. The deck Unfortunately, the wind subsides long before the
deflections experienced by a four-pontoon FPS seas die down, which causes the vessel to
are not as severe as experienced by the meander off station and breach oncoming seas.
twin-pontoon version. As a result, the vessel tends to commence rolling
SSP, like other marine structures, do not excessively. Drag chains can be employed to
have oil storage facilities and are required to be assist against excessive sway.
connected by pipelines to shore for the transfer of Less common is the stern-moored FPSO
oil and gas. This alone prohibits the distance from (Figure 14). Stern mooring allows the seas to
shore at which many structures can operate. come over the stern sections where most
accommodation spaces are located. A vessel is
2.7 FLOATING PRODUCTION, STORAGE generally designed to take the seas over the bow,
AND OFFLOADING / FLOATING the more streamlined end of the ship.
PRODUCTION UNIT Other FPSO are equipped with a turret moor-
This type of oil and gas production vessel is by ing system (Figure 15) that is located just forward
of the vessel's longitudinal center of gravity and
far the most complex to design machinery for.
Originally conceived for drilling for oil in deep wa- center of lateral rotation.
ter beyond the reach of other types of structures, The turret is constructed, in simple terms, of
an inner and outer shell. The turret's outer shell is
the converted oil tanker provides an economical
means of meeting oil and gas production revenue constructed to form part of the vessel and passes
goals. Floating production, storage and offloading through the ship from the upper deck to the out-
side of the lower shell below water. The inner
(FPSO) vessels are now being operated from
very shallow waters to the deepest waters. The shell is supported by the outer shell and is
vessels can operate marginal wells and be easily allowed to rotate. The inner shell is anchored to
moved to other locations.
A surplus of very large crude carriers (VLCC)
has allowed oil companies to modify them at rela-
tively low capital cost when compared to the con-
struction of alternatives such as TLP, SSP and
other structures.
Not all oil companies have chosen to convert
tankers for this duty. Rather, they have pur-
chased, at a much higher cost, purpose-built Figure 13. FPSO with Bow Mooring

8
Figure 14. FPSO with Stern Mooring Figure 15. Bow Turret Installation

the mooring cables with the oil, gas and water- 2.8 MINIMUM ALLOWABLE OPERATING
flood piping connecting to the same inner barrel ANGLES
of the turret. The class societies generally have minimum al-
Each medium is connected to sealed liners in
lowable pitch and roll angles through which “main
the turret so that the ship's connection can be and auxiliary” and “emergency” machinery, such
fixed, enabling the vessel to rotate 360 degrees as generators and fire pumps, must be capable of
around the inner barrel if necessary. Earlier
operation. Tables 1 and 2 represent examples of
versions only allowed for 270 degrees of rotation, these requirements. As noted before, the society
which caused some problems with repositioning of choice may reduce these values based upon
the vessel. Both versions of the turret-equipped
actual location, service type and other indications
FPSO have positioning thrusters to keep the that the vessel would not be subjected to
vessels pointing into the weather. such values.

Table 1. Inclinations of FPSO/FPU/FSO (Ship-Shaped Floating Vessels)

9
Table 2. Inclination of Column Stabilized Vessels (TLP, CT, SPAR, FPU, SSP)

10
3. Environmental Conditions and Effects
There are many environmental conditions that hull. This can be compounded by large waves
affect machinery installed on floating structures: with smaller cresting waves impinging on the
vessel. The resulting force can be extremely
• Ocean wave motions and wind large as a result of the vessel’s attitude to the
oncoming wave. Higher forces are imparted on
• Vibration
the hull when the vessel's full side is exposed to
• Twisting / bending in mounting structures the wave (Figure 16), which is called breaching
• Permanent / dynamic inclinations – a condition generally to be avoided.
Excessive vessel motion can be expected
• G-forces in directions other than down when a vessel’s natural pitch and roll periods
• Corrosion, erosion and electrolysis coincide with wave periods. Vessels under way
can change the wave periods by changing
speed. Moored FPS, because of their condition,
3.1 OCEAN WAVE MOTIONS AND WIND
cannot change speed. Therefore, it is important
Most of the conditions listed above are the result to conduct stability calculations during and after
of wind. Wave motions are created by wind topside design because the additional increase
action on a body of water. Wave heights are of the center of roll can affect the natural motion
generated by wind force relative to water depth. of the vessel. Figure 17 shows examples of
However, wave velocity is usually slow, with a wind/wave frequencies to give the reader an
frequency of 0.25 Hz or less for large waves appreciation of the natural periods of waves in
greater than 20 feet high. The frequency varying Beaufort scale wind forces.
of waves can be increased by virtue of the
vessel's velocity into the oncoming waves
or by increased wind velocity, direction and
temperature.
The reaction of a vessel to wave motion
depends on many factors. Size, speed, dis-
placement and hull shape play significant roles
in the stability of a vessel. Large waves typically
will place significant forces on the hull. The bow
or stem of a vessel is designed to cut through
the wave motion and reduce the forces by pro-
viding lift. The result is an upward motion at the
bow of the vessel. Smaller waves are more fre-
quent and generally induce vibration into the
Figure 16. Vessel with Side Exposed to Waves

Figure 17. Probable Wave Size versus Frequency

11
 In most cases, breaching is avoided unless Figure 19 shows the effect of high wave-to-
the vessel must change course. The timing and length ratios and the violence of the movement
size of the wave at the time of the course of the vessel in such wave encounters on the
change is at the discretion of the captain or indi- bow.
vidual responsible at that time. Moving vessels may employ stabilizers (Fig-
Considering current ocean wave data and ure 20), which are hydraulically operated and
average wave characteristics with frequency of protrude outward from the hull sides beneath the
occurrence in the North Atlantic, circa 1958, it water line. The stabilizers are hydrodynamically
can be calculated that a wave of 8m significant shaped to reduce their resistance while passing
wave height with a period of 16 seconds would through the water (Figure 21).
have a wave length of 400m. The calculation
would indicate a wave velocity of 49 knots. This
represents a monumental impact force on either
the side plating or the bow structure of an FPS
on station.
The breaching wave has three significant ef-
fects on the hull: the roll angle increases as the
vessel turns, the wave slams against the hull
plating and the vessel rises and falls due to
heave. These effects cause an increase in
forces in the horizontal and vertical directions.
Vessels moored or at anchor are usually at
a safe harbor awaiting entry to port. FPS
moored away from a safe harbor and are
subjected to all environmental elements. Some
vessels, such as barges, are not capable of
self-propulsion and must be towed if a change in
location is scheduled. Therefore, the vessel is at
the mercy of whatever conditions exist at the
attitude of the vessel when moored.
FPS, if moored at the bow, will tend to
weathervane into oncoming seas (Figure 18).
Generally, the wind and wave directions are the
same with some changes during storm condi-
tions. However, the wind diminishes long before
there is any appreciable reduction in wave mag- Figure 19. Violent Pitching - Oncoming Waves
nitude. Vessels not equipped with thrusters will
meander off point and tend to breach the
oncoming waves. The result will be significantly
higher rolls and G-forces with lesser pitch.
While meandering off point, the vessel is
susceptible to “green water” effects with poten-
tial for significant topside damage to equipment
such as cranes, piping and related oil and gas
process machinery.
Figure 20. Stabilized Vessel Underway

Figure 18. Vessel Moored - Weathervaning Figure 21. Stabilizers

12
 Most stabilizers are position modulated.
When a vessel starts to roll, the attitude of the
stabilizers is changed to counteract the roll
motion. The motion does not necessarily stop,
but the effect of the roll is damped. The attitude
adjustment only assists in counteracting the roll
if the vessel is moving. The higher the vessel’s
speed, the greater the effect the stabilizers will
have.
The stationary vessel has little use for
adjustable stabilizers. On small vessels, up to 50
ft in length, it is practical to have dampers
attached to outriggers at either side of the vessel
(Figure 22). These dampers are positioned as
far away from the vessel's sides as possible
beneath the water. The dampers have a door to
allow the equipment to sink. The door, closed by Figure 23. Conventional Bulbous Bow
gravity, prevents the damper’s quick ascension.
Dampers are impractical for vessels the size of
an oil tanker.
The most practical way to stabilize a vessel
is to turn it into the waves to take advantage of
the vessel’s length. The vessel's streamlined
bow offers minimal resistance to the waves. The
effect is that the bow will ride over the wave due
to its flared shape. Simpler bow shapes can be
used for FPSO since hull efficiency is not of
prime importance. A typical bow shape for an oil
tanker (Figure 23) includes a bulb to reduce the
wake fraction, which can add up to 3-5% propul-
sive efficiency. The same bow shape tapers
backwards and flares outwards from the base-
line to the gunwale. A simpler design is a wedge
shape (Figure 24) having a constant cross sec-
tion from gunwale to baseline, yet tapering
evenly to the hull sides. The simpler bow
reduces pitching but increases the green water
effect over the decks in severe sea conditions.
The heavier and longer a vessel is, the less
pitching it will experience. In severe conditions it Figure 24. Simpler Bow Design
may be necessary to ballast the vessel with
seawater to achieve greater displacement.
Another means of stabilization is the
addition of bilge keels (Figure 25). These com-
ponents act similarly to the "flopper stopper"
(damper).

Figure 22. Dampers Figure 25. Bilge Keels

13
Figure 26. Turret Mounting

In certain sea conditions, however, bilge

keels can increase roll motions.
Stationary vessels are kept on station by a
mooring point at the bow or stern, or by a turret
fixture forward of the amidships point of the
vessel (Figures 26 and 27). In most cases, the
vessel will use drag chains at the stern to assist
in preventing swaying off station.
The bow-moored vessel will tend to weath-
ervane around the mooring and take a natural
position facing the waves and wind. The turret-
moored vessel is designed to weathervane, but
typically requires assistance to remain pointing
into the waves. Thrusters (Figure 28), which are
usually electric motor driven, can be positioned
at both ends of the vessel. They are manipu-
lated to rotate the vessel about the turret. Figure 27. Turret Mooring Manifold
When conditions become too severe, it is
sometimes necessary to disconnect the vessel
from its mooring and ride out the conditions in a
more controllable fashion. Disconnecting from
moorings is a practical solution only for those
offshore structures that are converted oil tankers
or have their own means of propulsion. Other
types of structures are impractical to move and
must be anchored soundly to ensure minimal
movement during any conditions.

3.2 VIBRATION
Turbomachinery designed for land-based instal-
lations has been optimized to meet the commer-
cial aspects of its associated manufacturing
costs and engineering requirements. This design
balance is upset when a new set of operating
criteria is introduced. The same machinery, Figure 28. Thruster

14
optimized for static installations, will undoubtedly
see higher vibrations in a dynamic installation.
Although the vibration limits may not be
exceeded for normal operation, the vibration
limits will likely be higher than in a similar land-
based machine installation due to the dynamic
G-forces experienced with the pitch and roll of
the FPS.
Although out-of-balance forces are normally
expected as a result of alignment and manufac-
turing tolerances, the effects of the pitch and roll
dynamic forces can place exceedingly high
forces in directions that would normally experi-
ence only minor rotating forces. In a land-based
installation, two machines close together can
excite each other by structural resonance and
acoustical vibration. The structural vibration can
be isolated easily using anti-vibration material
placed beneath the machine baseplate and the
foundation. Normally, this is done on land based
packages where appropriate using a rubber-type
product under the entire periphery of the ma-
chine. This product serves two functions: it iso-
lates vibration to within acceptable limits and it
provides a dam between the machine and the
outside environment to prevent fluid spills from
contaminating outside surfaces.
AVM assemblies (Figure 29) must be se-
lected or designed to take into account the high-
est forcing frequency and amplitude expected at
the operating speed range of the machinery
(Figure 30). The AVM must have the highest
efficiency at this frequency. Other frequencies,
such as natural frequencies of the supporting
structure, must not be in the natural frequency of
the AVM. Figure 29. Anti-Vibration Mounting

Figure 30. Ratio of Output/Input Frequencies versus Forcing Frequency

15
 There may be other rotating machinery in applied or decreased exponentially, the natural
the vicinity of the AVM that must be accounted frequencies of the machine baseplate and foun-
for when designing the AVM. Any resonant dation change as a result of stiffness to load.
frequency will tend to excite the AVM, causing It is not a simple task to determine the change in
significant vibration amplification. natural frequency during the design phase.
All operating speed frequencies must be For survivability, the engineer must take into
taken into account at the same time as structural account the 22.5-degree offset between lateral
natural frequencies. The efficiency of the AVM is 1g and vertical 1g. They are not 90 degrees
a function of the supported mass. The AVM’s apart. Also, at the point of the terminus of rota-
load versus efficiency is at its optimum at about tion, the mountings will see a maximum 1g
90% of its maximum load capability. Environ- acceleration when the enclosure/ancillaries will
mental G-forces significantly increase and still be seeing a maximum 1g deceleration. This
decrease the supported mass load on the AVM. equals a sum of 2g. The lateral delta displace-
It is prudent, therefore, to evaluate the nominal ment between the enclosure and the ancillary
G-forces and select the AVM based upon the skid will be significant if not properly analyzed.
superimposed loads, and not the static loads, to Unsupported enclosure vents must be prop-
maintain optimum attenuation (Figure 31). erly attached. Equipment attachments, such as
Acoustical vibration is attenuated in a similar air filter mounting and exhaust stack structure,
manner by using an enclosure over the machin- should be analyzed for correct bolt size and
ery. The material in the walls damps the acous- tear outs.
tical vibration before it touches the outside If the unit is located at the side of the FPS,
surface of the machine. It is important to ensure meaning not above the axis of roll, then centrifu-
that no open passages exist between the interior gal forces of up to 5%g must be accounted for
of the enclosure and the exterior. The acting on the vertical axis of the enclosure.
anti-vibration material between the baseplate Fatigue analysis, centrifugal force and g act at
and the foundation helps to prevent noise 6.5-sec intervals.
emanating from beneath the machine. There are several ways to mount machinery
on dynamic support structures including multi-
3.3 TWISTING AND BENDING IN MOUNT- point and three-point attachments. By far the
ING STRUCTURES simplest and most reliable is the latter, although
it is not the least complex to design since the
Both bending and twisting can be a direct result designer must take into account all the stiffness
of dynamic forces being exerted on the machin- issues associated with alignment, vibration,
ery from the pitch and roll of the FPS (Figure fatigue, concentrated load points and ancillary
32). The dynamic movements compound the machinery support system bracing (Figure 33).
vibration effects on the machinery. As load is

Figure 31. AVM Deflection Under G Forces

16
 Figure 32. G-Loads on Machinery Figure 34. Three-Point/Multi-Point Mounting

application. The machine parallel to the vessel's

axis will be far more capable of meeting the
permanent angles shown in Figure 35. Most tur-
bomachinery require long oil drainage systems
that have difficulty returning oil to the equipment
reservoir once inclined with the oil reservoir
higher than the oil drain system. This situation
generally requires scavenge systems that pump
oil from a lower point up to the main reservoir.
On short machines mounted parallel to the
vessel's axis (Figure 36), the permanent inclina-
tion in either direction may not pose a difficulty in
returning oil to the reservoir. The same machine,
however, mounted perpendicular to the vessel
Figure 33. Typical FPS Ancillary
axis may require the addition of a lower oil res-
Equipment Structural Support
ervoir in which all drains return for scavenging
prior to being pumped up to the main reservoir.
Multi-point mounting methods rely on the The same may be true for exceedingly long
rigidity of the supporting structure to maintain machines mounted parallel to the vessel's axis.
stiffness for machine alignment, vibration and All applications may require some modifica-
fatigue considerations. The multi-point mounted tion to the operating systems due the diversity of
machine is at the mercy of the foundation driven products available. The responsible
structure. design engineer must carefully analyze each
machine’s configuration for the permanent
3.4 PERMANENT INCLINATIONS inclination effects of the design.
Figure 34 shows the multi-point mounted 3.5 DYNAMIC INCLINATIONS
machine will twist with the supporting deck, but
the three-point mounted machine will not. As Besides permanent inclinations, there are
previously indicated, however, there will be dynamic inclinations due to the pitch, roll, heave,
relative movement taking place between the sway and yaw of the FPS in the water. The
decking and the machine, which must be classification authorities do not dictate that the
accounted for in the flexibility of the attaching dynamic inclinations are additive to the
manifolds and cables. permanent inclination and, thus, can be treated
The orientation of a machine in relationship separately. In the real world, however, the
to the FPS's axis will assist the designer in defin- permanent and dynamic inclination could be
ing whether or not a standard machine will fit the compounded., therefore, should be treated as
such.
As a guide, dynamic and static inclinations
in which rotating equipment may be expected to

17
Figure 35. Vessel/Turbomachinery Orientation

to meet the classification authority’s minimum

requirements for ship’s service.
As can be expected with permanent inclina-
tions, the orientation of the machine is crucial.
The designer must consider the effects of the
roll and pitch angles with caution to ensure that
the machine will operate up to the design limits.
A vessel is subjected to all degrees of
freedom as depicted in Figure 37, which create
motion and acceleration. Each direction of
motion generally acts in conjunction with
motion in another direction to create a greater
resultant acceleration than one motion in only
one direction.
Since the motion is usually rotational, the
acceleration can be calculated in radi-
ans/second/second. The industry, on the other
hand, uses meters/second/second (m/s2) or
Figure 36. Parallel Mounted Machinery feet/second/second (ft/s2).
operate normally are given in Table 3. Each position on the vessel (below, above,
fore or aft) has differing G-force accelerations,
depending upon the location to the longitudinal,
3.6 G-FORCE IN DIRECTIONS OTHER transverse and vertical center of gravity of the
THAN DOWN vessel. This is compounded by the loaded or
unloaded condition of the vessel. Unless the
All classed ships – those that have undergone a
designer is interested in designing to small
design review with an IACS classification soci-
fluctuations, it is generally the rule and good
ety, as well as the construction being supervised
practice to design for a greater value of "g"
by that class society, will receive the notation of
irrespective of the location on the vessel
Maltese Cross. The vessel’s design will include
(Figure 38).
stability calculations. The purchaser is obliged to
seek a waiver if lesser equipment does not need

18
 The purchaser may provide expected can experience their maximum G-force operat-
G-force accelerations for a particular installation. ing limits installed on the same vessel.
It is recommended that two such values be pro- For instance, compressor sets installed in close
vided to the designer: the maximum G-force at proximity to the vessel's center of rotation could
which the machine will normally be expected to be operating at a G-force limit of 0.5g. Generator
be operated and, for survivability reasons, the sets installed on the stern of the vessel
maximum G-force to which the machine will be farthest away from the center of rotation where
subjected while in non-operating modes. the G-force is greatest could be operating
Most vessels will exert maximum forces up at their G-force limit of 1.5g.
to 1.0g in any direction on deck equipment in the Most of the time, vessels will be operating in
worst operating conditions. In severe storm con- ideal conditions with all dynamic movements
ditions, however, there is the possibility that being minimum. It is highly unlikely that no
forces up to 1.5g can be experienced. A force of dynamic forces will exist, since even the slight-
1.5g can result from waves slamming broadside est motion can change operating conditions.
into the vessel combined with rolling motion. As Accelerations must be combined to deter-
previously described, main and auxiliary service mine the maximum value of “g” in any direction.
generators are most likely to be the only Normally, gravity is added last and to the vertical
machines required to be capable of operating in direction only.
these high-force situations. In determining the transverse maximum
It is possible that two types of machinery acceleration, the following can be combined:
designed to two different operating G-force limits
1. g θ(R) x sine (90 - αR), roll angle = θ(R),
αR = displace angle from vertical
2. Sway g cosine θ(R)
3. Pitch g sine θ(R)
4. Heave g sine θ(R)
5. Gravity sine θ(R)
This is the force acting parallel to the deck
angle of roll and not horizontal.

Figure 37. Degrees of Freedom

Figure 38. Position Related G-Forces

19
 In determining the pitch maximum accelera- known about the vessel to input into a program,
tion, the following can be combined: then completing the motion data form at the
back of ASME B.133.16-2000 and forwarding
1. g θ(P) x sine (90 - αp), pitch angle = θ(P), the information to the project teams would be of
αp = displaced angle from vertical. equal benefit.
2. Heave g cosine θ(P) 3.7 CORROSION, EROSION AND ELEC-
3. Gravity sine θ(P) TROLYSIS
4. Roll g sine θ(P) It is relatively straightforward to design machines
and structures to stand up against the motions
5. Sway g sine θ(P) and forces exerted upon them. Corrosion, ero-
sion and electrolysis, however, are altogether
This is the force acting perpendicular to the different and difficult problems. For instance, a
deck at angle of pitch and not vertical. bolted joint designed to hold together for 10
To determine the longitudinal maximum years will flex due to uneven stress and strains
acceleration, the following can be combined: exerted on the joint by the vessel's motions.
When these designed, acceptable deflections
1. Pitch g sine θ(P) x sine (90 - αp) occur, small gaps appear momentarily. It is usu-
ally during these times when environmental
2. Gravity sine θ(P) conditions are less favorable. Salt spray blown
3. Heave g sine θ(P) by wind will penetrate the statically tight joint in
the dynamic condition. If oxygen is present,
4. Surge g corrosion begins.
5. Wave slamming force g Salt water will destroy a joint through
erosion, corrosion and electrolysis.
The effects of erosion can render a friction
G-forces and pitch and roll angles of motion
joint frictionless in a matter of weeks. Once the
can be estimated using a spreadsheet program
salt water has penetrated the joint and dries out,
(Figure 39). It can be instrumental in determining
the salt crystallizes and forms an abrasive mate-
the level of structural content required as well as
rial. With time and movement, the joint eventu-
how to design the machinery systems to operate
ally wears, causing a once tight joint to become
in such conditions. If sufficient data are not
compromised.

Figure 39a. Data Input Sheet 1

20
Figure 39b. Calculated Data from Sheet 1 Input

Even though it eventually dries, the residue Daily rust chipping and repainting is a common
of salt water actually holds moisture. Oxygen practice aboard all well-maintained marine struc-
causes the joint material to oxidize and creates tures.
a natural deterioration barrier. When salt is Rust preventive coatings are effective in
admitted to the joint, the joint’s movement will fighting rust and corrosion. Although effective on
allow the salt to rub through the oxidation layer land, they do not have nearly the same effect on
causing a new layer to form. Repeating the flexing structures where paint is prone to crack-
process results in further deterioration of the ing and allowing intrusion of salt water.
joint material to the point of failure. A particularly It can be expected that at the end of a
vulnerable joint susceptible to this type of corro- 12-month vessel operating cycle there will be a
sion failure is a multiple base plate structure significant amount of corrosion evident on most
supported on three points where the joint is in a flexing structures, which will require repair
bending moment. unless periodic maintenance is carried out at the
Most structural steels do not have the same time surface corrosion is noticed. It is the norm
chemical make up as steels used for fasteners. that when the slightest evidence of corrosion is
Even though chemically close, they are still detected, far greater corrosion has usually
dissimilar materials. Salt water is a crude but occurred in nonvisible places.
extremely effective electrolyte. The least noble Vibration in highly stressed areas is a root
of the joint materials will erode due to the elec- cause for premature corrosion. High-frequency
trolytic action between the joint and the machine vibration causes paint to crack at the component
grounding point that defines the electron path of fixing areas. Small cracks allow salt deposits to
least resistance. adhere to the bare metal and allow intrusion of
It is sometimes necessary to use isolating salt water by osmosis and electrolysis.
materials to prevent dissimilar materials from Cold weather must be considered when
contacting each other and causing corrosion by designing fluid systems and structures.
electrolysis. The engineer must be extremely Temperatures combined with wind chill factors
careful when selecting a joint for isolation mate- can cause structural weakness in plumbing, not
rial application. Most bolted joints can be just by freezing of the liquid, but by causing the
strapped, cabled or bonded across the joint to material to become increasingly more brittle as
provide an easier path or path of least resis- temperatures drop. For this reason, purchasers
tance for small amperages to flow freely, thus may require a hardness test of all structural
bypassing the fasteners. All three aspects material in primary structures.
compound the effect the others have in acceler- Ice and snow buildup on a package can add
ating the joint's deterioration. a significant weight contribution to the founda-
A primary bolted structural joint's location tion structure. In extreme conditions, the addi-
must be carefully selected for user-friendly main- tional load could be sufficient to deflect the
tenance procedures. The most common tool to structure beyond acceptable alignment limits.
an FPS operator is a rust-chipping hammer.

21
 Moisture that has been able to penetrate able for caulking, a corrosion-resistant material
any crack can deform any joint. Moisture should be used. Typically, 300-series stainless
beneath paint will expand when frozen and push steel is used, such as 316L. Although this mate-
the paint away from the material. When the ice rial is not as strong as most structural steel, it is
thaws, an even larger unprotected area will be a reasonable alternative when considering the
presented for further corrosion. cost of replacing hardware. Stainless steels do
Small voids should be caulked to prevent corrode in saltwater environments, but at a
moisture from settling. In those areas not suit- much slower rate than plain carbon steels.

22
4. Machinery Design Solutions
To date, many of the offshore vessels and SSP
4.2 EQUIPMENT MOUNTINGS
have been designed using a "Marine Applications
Data Acquisition Questionnaire", Motion Impact Vessel deck twist, hogging and sagging (Figure
Report (Section 6 herein) or the mandatory form 40) can be designed for by using gimbal
from Appendix 2 in ASME B133.16-2000. The mountings. Two fixed-position mounts and one
data supplied on the questionnaire identify pitch, sliding-foot type are normally used.
roll and dynamic acceleration criteria for survival Every location on a ship, from midships,
and operational conditions expected of the tur- forward or aft, will affect the turbomachinery to
bomachinery, ancillary and controls equipment. varying G-forces in association with the pitch and
The designers rely on the questionnaire for its roll angles.
accuracy. If a G-force estimator program has Compressor sets are not likely to be
been developed, as shown in Figure 39, then the three-point mounted on offshore structures,
first part of the questionnaire describing the FPS except on FPSO, for the following reasons:
can be used in such a program. Deadweight
tonnage (DWT) cargo carrying capability is • Vessel pitch, roll and deck twist during
required to increase calculation accuracy. Similar equipment operation are not significant
programs for other types of floating structures enough to affect the machinery
can be developed easily.
• Vibration isolation pads are not
The machinery should include features that
necessarily required due to the high
have additional protection against environmental
forcing frequencies associated with
conditions not identified by the customer on the
compressor rotating speeds
questionnaire. These features include instrumen-
tation and equipment mountings.
Semi-submersible and fixed leg platforms
4.1 INSTRUMENTATION may experience deck twisting due to movable drill
heads. In this case, three-point mounting may be
An inclinometer, which senses vessel pitch and
required and gimbals, rather than AVMs, may be
roll conditions, is monitored by the package
more appropriate. More than likely, generator
control system. Once the pitch and roll limits are
sets are required to be three-point mounted. The
exceeded, the control system acts to protect the
main reasons for three-point mounting are:
turbomachinery. The control system would
not shut down machinery classified as main
• To prevent misalignment due to
and auxiliary.
continuous deck twisting
"X", "Y" and "Z" axis seismic accelerometers
(one set per package) are used to report the • To isolate vibration to three positions
dynamic G-forces on the FPS resulting from the
• Minimal calculations required by class
pitch, roll and heaving conditions of the FPS at
societies and for machinery design
the location of the package. G-forces of up to
1.5g can be expected horizontally and vertically. Many gas turbine-driven machines do not
These would be monitored by the control include the inlet and exhaust systems component
system, which would record and report only the mounted on a skid or the enclosure. In most
forces above limits of the design. applications, three-point mounted modules that
house the generator set or other driven equip-
ment mount inlet and exhaust system equipment

Figure 40. Deck Hogging and Sagging

23
separately. This style of mounting is the ideal pumps and gas compression packages will
installation rather than mounting the inlet and normally only be required to meet the process
exhaust system directly to the enclosure. Unless service requirements. Regardless of the duty
the packages are intended to be multi-point type, safety features such as fire detection and
mounted, the inlet and exhaust system equip- protection are defined by SOLAS. In all cases,
ment must be self-supporting. This is the the static permanent inclinations and dynamic
preferred method for marine installations in view inclinations must be considered for structural
of the severe conditions that can be expected. members, oil tanks, fluid management and ther-
Pitch and roll direction arrows depict full mal growth of internal and external attaching
angles or double amplitudes (Figure 41). Values components when operating or not.
are typically given from vertical to one side only. G-forces must be reacted to by structural
The first consideration for the design of the members both in bending and torsion. The
selected turbomachinery model is the type of duty amount of deflection must consider the maximum
or classification: main and auxiliary, oil and gas allowable angular, axial and offset of the high-or
process or emergency service. Each service has low-speed power train component alignment. The
guidelines defined by the classification authori- interconnecting shafts are typically over designed
ties, including DNV, Lloyd's Register of Shipping for durability, particularly to exceed the durability
and ABS. of the bearings at the input and output shafts of
The guidelines as set down by each authority the rotating equipment. How much momentary
are specific in terms of safety and are an interpre- misalignment is permissible while running
tation of the International Maritime Organization depends upon the rotating speeds of the
(IMO) and the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS). machinery and the machines’ sensitivity to
In essence, only generator sets are likely to out-of-balance forces and vibration.
have to meet the emergency service or main and Each machine is equipped with vibration
auxiliary service duty rating. Mechanical drive sensors to detect instability in bearings as a re-
units powering waterflood pumps, cargo oil sult of surge, worn bearings or excessive loading.

Figure 41. Inclination Legend

24
The vibration monitoring system is preset to
alarm and shut down rotating equipment when
abnormal conditions are evident. Usually, the set
points equate to alignment limits that represent
only a small portion of interconnect shafting
misalignment capability. Therefore, it is neces-
sary to review machinery test records for maxi-
mum misalignment limits that cause vibration
alarm conditions.
The maximum deflection for the alarm condi-
tion, not the maximum misalignment capability of
the shafting, combined with a design margin,
dictates the structural stiffness requirements for
the design of the base plate and/or additional
sub-base structure.
As mentioned earlier, it is unlikely that ship Figure 42. Typical Gimbal Mounts
designers will require multi-point mounted equip- while providing adequate accommodation for
ment. Therefore, the machinery supporting combined deck and machine deflection, thermal
structure must be responsible for maintaining the growth and twist.
power train alignment. The fixed gimbal allows for lateral bending
For most machines, it is satisfactory to allow and fore and aft bending of the deck relative to
the structure to deflect up to the point where the the machinery mounting surfaces. The gimbal's
maximum capability of the coupling is reached in primary component is a swivel bearing that is not
a survival or momentary condition. This philoso- intended for constant rotation, but small radial
phy should be avoided in high-speed rotating movements in either axis.
trains while they are operating and should be The sliding foot gimbal allows for relative
considered to be maximum while they are not twist in the deck to the position of the other two
operating. More damage can be experienced in a gimbals mounted farthest away. Hogging and
splined-tooth coupling while stationary and sagging is accommodated in the same method as
experiencing bending than when operating. Such the fixed type. The machinery must maintain a
bending may result in damage that causes straight line in all conditions. The sliding portion
uneven wear on the teeth, especially if the of the gimbal allows this to happen. As the
bending is experienced while the coupling is not vessel's deck hogs and sags, the distance
lubricated. After several occurrences, this could between mountings shortens enough to strain the
result in high unbalanced forces being exerted on fastenings and result in force bending. Over a
component bearings and premature failure. period of time, strain hardening of the fastenings
In order for the machinery base plate to will result in failure. The sliding foot alleviates
assume responsibility for the alignment of the the strain.
power train, the mounting method should be The mounting method may employ the
considered. design of AVMs. There are several manufactur-
Three-point mounting of the entire machine is ers of these types of mountings. The preferred
the prevalent method used for large machines. type for above-deck operations on FPSO or
For large machines, deck deflections of ships othermarine structures is the wire-mesh type.
become too excessive, as does the thermal This type is probably the most directly flameproof
growth between the machine and the deck. The and certainly has better flameproof and tempera-
ship will bend far more than the machine can tol- ture resistance qualities than elastomeric types.
erate. In doing so, the cord distance between first The elastomeric type can be protected and
and last mounting fasteners could be as much as cooled by shielding. The wire-mesh type requires
a 50 mm difference, depending on the size of the little maintenance, whereas the elastomeric types
vessel and the height of the machinery mounting tend to harden and perish in saltwater environ-
deck above the ship's neutral axis. ments.
On larger ships with above-deck mounted Each type of machinery requiring AVM
machinery with 40 ft between first and last mount- mounting will need individual consideration
ing points, such machinery should ideally use depending upon its purpose. AVM efficiency can
gimbal supports or AVM. easily be changed with introduction of superim-
Gimbals (Figure 42) are very effective in pro- posed loadings. The vessel's dynamic motions
viding support restraint against G-forces com- add G-forces to the machinery and are the main
bined with the ship's pitch and roll movements

25
cause for change. Dynamic motions cause meet marine environment conditions. Therefore,
hogging, sagging and twisting of the mounting the designer would do well in soliciting an AVM
deck to which the AVM are attached. Most AVM manufacturer and provide them with the relevant
can only tolerate small angles of deflection. purchase specification.
Therefore, the location of the AVM to its load Due to the size of the gas compressor head-
must be considered with the aim of minimizing ers, the package location will most likely be on
the deflection effect on AVM efficiency. the process deck rather than close to accommo-
Of course, one cannot merely move the AVM to dation spaces. Generator sets, on the other hand,
optimize its efficiency; the deflection, alignment will most likely be located away from the process
and structural integrity of the machine must be deck and mounted below and close to accommo-
considered first. A compromise may be required dation spaces.
to provide the best situation. Local marine rules could impose noise
All package interfaces – fuel, oil and main requirements on the ship/vessel, necessitating
headers on compressor sets – must be restrained the use of vibration isolators under the turbo-
at the skid in order to prevent excessive force machinery. Unfortunately, vibration isolators are
from distorting the power train alignment as a not catalog items. They require some analytical
result of deck twist, hogging and sagging study prior to ordering. The necessary vibration
between the skid and the closest attachment to and foundation loading information is normally
the deck on the plumbing. Flexible connections not available at the time of receiving the
must be used where possible. customer's purchase order. On the other hand,
For compressor headers and mechanical the purchaser may demand a weight estimate
drive waterflood pumps, the system pressure and may impose a penalty on the turbomachinery
may be too high for flexible components to be supplier if the actual weight is considerably over
used. If a solid connection is used, vibrations, or under the guaranteed disclosed weight.
stress, fatigue and thermal growth may cause Table 4 is an example of a weights and
stress to the connections to transmit unwanted moments chart.
vibration through the plumbing.
Sufficient flexibility must be incorporated in 4.3 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
the turbine exhaust and air intake connection to
There are many conditions to be considered
the ancillary equipment since no forces can be
before the design of a machine base plate can
imposed on turbine inlet or exhaust connections.
begin. All of the conditions must be satisfied.
The AVM is somewhat sensitive to system
Environmental conditions must be clearly under-
torque. This is especially true of high-transient
stood as well as the manufacturability of the
generator sets with 1500-rpm generators.
machine.
Depending on generator output power, the
To meet the environmental condition, a sin-
applied mechanical torque will compress the
gle-piece, three-point mounted base plate typi-
AVM at differing rates. This effect must also be
cally offers the best overall design. This concept
taken into consideration when selecting the AVM
is not always optimum in terms of manufacturabil-
and package connection.
ity and transportation. These limitations play a
To protect the vessel from shifting machinery,
significant part in determining whether a single-
the AVM are fitted with sea fastenings. The sea
piece base plate can be used for the application
fastenings are adjusted at the static condition to
or not. Small, compact packages can be assem-
provide the maximum upward and downward
bled on a single-piece base plate and pose little
movement that will be expected with applied
difficulty to the factory.
G-forces without the sea fastenings shorting out
A suitable alternative to the single-piece base
the AVM performance. The intent of the fasten-
plate design is a multi-piece concept that can be
ings is to prevent loss of the machine in the event
either three-point (Figure 43) or multi-point (Fig-
of abnormal operations. The maximum move-
ure 44) mounted to the vessel.
ment must be taken into consideration when
When circumstances dictate a multiple-piece
selecting package connections.
base plate, consideration must be given to the
There are statutory maximum vibration levels
joints between each piece of the base plate.
that must not be exceeded. These levels differ
The joints must first meet the structural require-
from location to location on a vessel. The
ments of the installation if the package is to be
designer must consult with the classification soci-
three-point mounted, a condition when the joints
ety for the latest vibration limit table and curves
will be located between the package mountings
prior to setting out to design or select an AVM.
and will be subjected to varying high stress levels
Even though AVM have a relatively simple
due to the vessel's dynamic movements.
construction, their design is highly complex to

26
Table 4. Typical Weights and Moments Chart

The fasteners must be sufficiently durable to

withstand all the environmental conditions
discussed earlier, the vibrations attributed to the
power train equipment and those coming from
other equipment installed in the proximity of the
machine. To consider the vibration effects on the
joint, the purchaser must be precise in providing
correct and complete information necessary for
the joint design. It cannot be taken for granted
Figure 43. Three-Point Mounted Base Plate that a standard joint will suffice in all installations,
since running gear and speed differ so greatly.
The three-point mounted machine and the
sub-base mounted version supporting a
multi-piece base plate machine must be capable
of holding the power train alignment true in the
service selected during the hogging, sagging
and twisting of the machine in dynamic and per-
manent inclinations.
For compressor sets, the compressor header
Figure 44. Three-Point Mounted Multi-Piece forces must be considered in the sub-base calcu-
Base Plate (Bolted) lations and take into account the additional

27
Figure 45. Typical Force Directions

rotation moments that will be experienced if the

machinery is mounted on soft mounts (Figure
45).
For three-point mounted generator sets using
soft mounts, the short-circuit torque, as well as
the rotational moments due to vessel motion, will
put strain on the generator leads if insufficient
bends are not incorporated into the installation of
the cables from the generator junction box to the
deck penetration gland.
The stiffness of the structure is calculated on
the alignment requirements of the machine
(Figure 46). It may be necessary to design for a
significantly higher stiffness due to the presence
of vibratory frequencies with high amplitudes of
force. These frequencies are likely to amplify Figure 46. Power Train Bending with
deflections as a result of additional G-forces Deck Sagging
caused by vibration.
The face angle, with respect to the base-
plate twist, is shown in Figures 46 and 47. Again,
this assumes that the driven machine is anchored
at its vertical centerline and is not twisted. The
driver machine is supported in two places on the
twisting base plate with an overhanging shaft.
The face angle changes the farther away
from the base plate's neutral axis (in torsion)
it becomes. The face angle would be zero if the
neutral axis was at the machine shaft axis. Since
this is not the case, the shaft axis height to the
neutral axis is important and must be taken into
consideration.
The next step is to determine how much
base-plate twist will create the face offset. Using
the proceeding methods for torsion resistance,
the moment of inertia for the member can Figure 47. Power Train Alignment
be determined.

28
 Apart from the prior described torsion plate, the torsion member in the base plate must
resistance concepts, two tube-type concepts offer be capable of carrying the bending moments. In
equal torsional resistance. The circular this case, the "X", "V" or "/" braced sub-base
cross-sectional torsion member often uses would be the most practical since the side mem-
prefabricated pipe in standard sizes, but it can bers of the sub-base would increase the overall
be customized by rolling. moment of inertia of the base plate considerably.
Square-section tubes are common when
used as liquid containers that offer a maximum 4.4 OIL TANK DESIGN
volumetric capacity for use as an oil reservoir, as
In order to counter the effects of the ship's
well as providing sufficient torsional resistance.
dynamic movements from adversely affecting the
Small, extruded square sections are avail-
operation of the machinery oil pumping system,
able. However, in the size required for base
shallow oil tanks must be divided into compart-
plates, only fabricated sections are available, and
ments. If the tanks are not compartmentalized, oil
they are heavily customized to suit oil tank
will freely flow to all areas of the tank in an
requirements.
uncontrolled manner. Essentially, the compart-
Of the two tube types, the circular version is
ments will act as separate oil tanks linked
most suited for sub-base structural considera-
together by non-return valves or baffles.
tions. This is because it has the highest value of
torsional resistance for its geometry and weight.
4.4.1 Oil Tank, Baffles and Gates
Both section types have their own specific appli-
cations. For exercise purposes, both sections Assuming the oil pumps are located at one end of
should be compared, assuming the two versions the oil tank and oil returns to the tank at the
have the same external dimensions, but with opposite end and the oil tank is separated by sev-
different wall thicknesses (Figure 48). eral bulkheads, the size of each compartment
The circular version is probably more useful and number of bulkheads depends upon oil flow
as a sub-base torsion member due to its weight- requirements, oil tank capacity, depth, width and
savings compared to square sections but has maximum machinery operating dynamics.
space-limiting disadvantages over the square Each compartment bulkhead should allow a
type. However, the torsion moment is much certain oil flow to the adjacent compartment or
larger than if the torsion member was part of the cell, maintaining a flow direction toward the oil
base plate. Thus, the torsion member's require- pumps only (Figure 49).
ments must be proportionally greater by the ratio There should be an air vent at the entrance
of the moments. The supported base plate to the tank to prevent and reduce entrainment of
normally would be sufficient in bending, requiring unwanted air. Transmitting some volume of air to
only the sub-base to be required to carry the the pumping end of the tank is unavoidable;
torsional moments. For a split or multi-piece base therefore, a smaller vent should be installed. This
smaller vent allows internal tank pressure equali-
zation to take place when small air bubbles break
the surface of the oil if they did not escape soon
after entering the tank. If the smaller vent is not
installed, backpressure will build forcing uneven
nominal oil levels to occur through the tank in
each compartment.
To meet certain requirements, the oil flow (Q)
may be diverted to maintain a pressure-regulated
system. To keep the pressure constant, the flow
rate may be variable and excess flow redirected
back to the oil tank. This can be done in the same
cell as the oil pump suction. The redirected flow
can also be returned to the tank in adjacent cells.
In this case, the baffle size will not be
constant throughout the tank. Similarly, the used
oil return lines may enter the tank at various
places (Figure 49).

Figure 48. Sub-Base/Base-Plate

Torsion Moment

29
 Figure 49. Direction of Oil Flow

The oil flows through the baffles can be Due to the geometry of very shallow tanks, oil
considered as: may spill back to the adjacent tank and may
uncover the pump suctions and result in a system
Baffle (1) = Q - R shutdown. To prevent this, a one-way gate
should be fitted to close off the tops of the bulk-
Baffle (2) = Q – R - a
heads to the underside of the tank roof
Oil return = Q – R – a – b (Figure 51).
In a dynamic case, when the oil return end of The one-way swing gate allows oil backup
the tank is raised, the oil tends to flow downhill to behind it to open the gate, but the gate closes
the opposite end of the tank as shown in simula- once the backup has fallen away, thus preventing
tions (Figure 50). When the other end is raised, backflow. The gate allows large quantities of oil to
the oil flows back to the return end of the tank. It flow to the pump cell and prevents backflow,
is important to maintain the oil flow through the which can cover the oil tank vent systems.
tank to the pump suction end. To do this, the tank In the static condition, the oil level will always
cell dividing bulkheads do not extend to the top of be highest at the return end and lowest at the
the tank, but rather extend to the normal operat- pump suction end, resulting in unwanted low level
ing oil level from the bottom of the tank. Oil backs alarms. If the machine is sufficiently filled to pre-
up behind the first bulkhead and spills over. This vent this occurrence, the oil level high alarm is
happens at every bulkhead. When the reverse likely to annunciate upon shutdown. For this
flow begins, a certain quantity of oil is trapped in reason, the bulkheads are perforated (Figure 51).
front of each bulkhead. The quantity trapped The baffle gates are most effective during
must be sufficient to maintain the oil pump moderate to high pitch and roll angles. The perfo-
suction requirements. rations are capable of handling small angles. The

Figure 50. Computerized Simulations of Sloshing in a Typical Oil Tank

30
natural frequency of the oil, taking into account system backpressure condition, resulting in
the operating temperature/viscosity, must be reduction of oil drainage and overheating of
considered in the baffle design along with the bearings.
nominal natural frequency of the vessel and on- The ideal location for the machinery oil tank
coming wave frequency. It is unrealistic to design is midspan of the machine (Figure 53) and as low
baffles for each operating area. Therefore, a wide as possible. If the oil tank can be incorporated
spectrum of sea conditions and vessel sizes into the machine as a completely assembled unit
should be used to determine the effectiveness of (Figure 54), then this will have several advan-
the design (Figure 52). tages to the manufacturer and the user.
The flow through the baffles should equal no As described earlier, the main and auxiliary
more than 50% of the oil demand from the cell classed machine, but not necessarily the oil and
the baffle serves. The remaining 50% should be gas process machine, will be required to operate
allowed to flow over the baffle. The oil left cap- permanently down at the bow or stern by 5°
tured in the pump suction cell should equal 1.5 (500/L degrees where L is the length between
times the amount required by the pump suction, perpendiculars). With a mid-machine main oil
less any returns to the cell, in half the pitch and tank, the scavenge oil drain tank may not be nec-
roll cycle time to account for the 50% back flow essary, as long as the oil pumps are able to
through the baffle. The perforated baffles assist in maintain suction. The vessel will still be subjected
maintaining a nominal oil level in the tank when to pitching and rolling motions, which must be
the vessel is permanently listing or trimmed. taken into consideration at the same time.
However, this function is limited, depending upon An alternative approach to providing a scav-
tank length. It may be necessary to scavenge the enge oil drain tank is installing the machine in an
equipment oil drains to a separate tank and pump incline with respect to the level condition of the
the accumulation of drains to the main tank. In vessel (Figure 55). For instance, if the machine is
this case, the baffle preceding the oil pump suc- capable of sustaining normal operation 5° down
tion should not be perforated. at the oil tank end but only 5° down at the other
The oil tank vents must be uncovered to end, then the machine could be installed 4° down
allow escape of air. Any blockage will produce a at the tank end.
As explained earlier, the vessel would be
down at the bow by 5° in a damaged condition,
but 5° down at the stern is a normal condition
while unloading the vessel. Therefore, it would be
practical to install the machine oil tank end for-
ward and incline up 4° toward the stern as shown
in Figure 56. During the unloaded condition, the
machine would only be inclined 1°.
In the damaged vessel condition, the
machine would be inclined 9° from the horizontal.
This may not pose any problems for the machine.
However, any maintenance covers on the oil tank
should not be removed, since the oil may be
covering the underside. This represents a serious
Figure 51. Baffles and Stilling Tube Location situation for the vessel and it is highly unlikely
that maintenance would be conducted under
these conditions.

4.5 DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

The typical fluid is designed off the vertical or
horizontal planes to allow the fluid to run on the
side of the manifold which allow the fluid to be

Figure 52. Separate Scavenge Tank

31
Figure 53. Suspended Main Oil Tank

Figure 54. Oil Tank Incorporated Into Turbomachinery Support Frame

Figure 55. Inclined Machine Figure 56. Inclined Machine

(5° Down at Bow) (5° Down at Stern)

32
displaced by air or liquid vapors. If the drain does Table 5, a designer can determine the relation-
not allow the fluid to be displaced, overheating of ship between a land-based unit drain pipe lying
the bearings may be experienced since the fluid close to horizontal and the slope
cannot escape efficiently. required to meet API requirements, as well as to
Most of the time, the fluid drain will not be meet pitch and roll angle displacements.
vertical or horizontal due to the vessel’s motions, The same conditions in manifolds happen
which may be limited to small angles of pitch and inside oil tanks. The fluid is expected to flow in
roll. Therefore, normal drain design philosophy one direction only. In gravity drains, when the
should be used. drain is normally sloped down toward the oil tank,
As described previously, oil can back up in oil flows away from the tank, if the drain is
drain systems as a result of the oil tank vent momentarily or permanently sloping away from
being closed off by the oil level in the inclined the tank. The scavenge oil tank helps in the per-
tank. To help prevent this from having adverse manent condition, but in the dynamic conditions
effects, the drain should be fitted with a vent or nonreturn gates can be installed in the drain to
anti-siphon vent (Figure 57). This allows gases, prevent oil from flowing the wrong way.
air and fumes to flow through the oil tank and It may be necessary to fit several gates in a
balance pressures. drain manifold. The gate closest to the draining
Care must be given to atmospheric vents for machine must be far enough away to allow for
generator bearings. Normally gravity drained and the oil that vacates the bearing during the reverse
pressure fed, they have a tendency to overfill dur- flow condition. Once the reverse flow condition
ing dynamic conditions, resulting in oil being reverts to the correct direction, all the gates grav-
forced out of the bearing vent. If possible, these ity open and the manifold quickly empties and
vents should be plumbed to the highest atmos- leaves that part of the manifold between the first
pheric vent of the machine. gate and the bearing void – ready to accept the
When conditions are more extreme it may be required quantity of oil in the next reverse flow
necessary to install a scavenge oil tank beneath part of the cycle.
the machine, which will prevent bearing backup During periods of minimal dynamic move-
completely while the machine is inclined due to ment, the gates open sufficiently to allow the oil
the operating condition of the vessel’s pitch and to flow freely. The designer must consider the
roll conditions. The American Petroleum Institute amount of material used to fabricate the gate,
(API) has guidelines for slope of drains. From since it is the momentum of the oil that keeps the
gates open. If the gate weight is high, then oil
backs up until it has sufficient weight to overcome
the gate (Figure 58).

Table 5. Drain Angles versus List Angles

Figure 57. Oil Drain Vents

Figure 58. Reverse Flow Gates

33
 The gate must be attached with a loose-fitting
hinge to provide a minimum of stiction and to
prevent the door from either jamming open or
closed. The location of the gates must be consid-
ered when planning for maintenance.
Certain equipment relies on maintaining a
level within itself for efficient operation. Such
equipment, like degassing tank systems, relies on
maintaining a level for efficient degassing of the
oil and ensuring that entrained gas does not enter
the machinery oil tank where an explosive mix-
ture of vapors can accumulate.
In land-based machines, each machine’s gas
compressor is fitted with its own degassing sys- Figure 60. Turbine Inclined with No
tem tank and is connected to a common drain. Sealing Air or Scavenging
In permanent, horizontally mounted machine, a
common drain performs satisfactorily. In the close to the bearing. Since the jet pump produces
dynamic condition, a common drain does not foam if it pumps only air, the cavity is modified so
perform satisfactorily. Each degassing tank must the oil collects behind a dam to maintain a
be drained to a separate collector and separately suction at the tube for as long as possible.
pumped to the main tank (Figure 59).
Machinery oil drains may require scavenging 4.6 FLUID CONTROL
when severe conditions do not permit operation
of the equipment and internal sealing of the The oil tanks and other reservoirs have been
equipment is accomplished by self-production of effectively designed to ensure that the pump suc-
seal air during operation of the equipment. A gas tions always have fluid. The next step is to inform
turbine, for instance, produces compressed air for the system control that the machine can operate
combustion, cooling and expansion for delivery of in accordance with specifications.
power. Unless the compressor section is running, During dynamic conditions, all liquids will be
no seal air is generated to prevent oil from seep- moving. The level control devices must inform the
ing into the hot sections of the engine (Figure 60). control system that the level is good for normal
The scavenging system (Figure 61) involves operation, yet be responsive to abnormal
placing a scavenge pump suction tube into the (Figure 62).
engine oil bearing cavity and situating the end The oil level indicator must be located as
close as possible to any pump section. The level
indicator could be located in the middle of the
tank since this is possibly the position where the
oil will fulcrum. This may be true in the static case
but is not always true in the dynamic case. Even
though the level at the middle of the tank, or at
the fulcrum, may indicate it is normal, the level
may be lower than the pump suction located at
the tank's extremity. The level indicator will indi-
cate the level as it changes due to the dynamic
movement of the oil. The result could be
nuisance shutdowns or alarm annunciations while
the machine is operating normally. The level
indicator must be damped to limit this from
happening.
The ball-type potentiometer is easily damped.
Figure 63 shows the indicator housed in a tube
that has a small hole at the top and bottom. The
level holes prevent a large volume of oil from
escaping or entering the tube during the dynamic
time period, even though the surrounding oil level
may be rising and falling.

Figure 59. Cyclonic Separator

34
Figure 61. Turbine Inclined – Scavenged

In the static condition, the level in the tube is

the same as the oil outside the tube.
An oil pressure switch must be fitted that will
sense loss of system pressure as a result of loss
of oil suction. However, the designer must under-
stand that a momentary loss of suction may not
be hazardous to the machine. Such conditions
may mean a loss of only 0.5 gal. of oil to the sys-
tem that requires 5.0 gal. in the same time frame,
but is quickly replenished. Therefore, some hys-
teresis may be required in the pressure control to
prevent a momentary loss of pressure from shut-
ting down the machine.
Figure 62. Level Indicator and Pump
It may be necessary to maintain oil pressure
Suction Relationship
by activating a second oil pump, especially in
conditions where the time period of the pitch and
roll is long and will result in longer periods of low
pressure.
When baffles exist, oil can be controlled side
to side as well as longitudinally (Table 6). How-
ever, it is important that the level control device
be located as closely as possible to the pumps
and to adjacent baffles. It is equally important for
baffles that control oil sloshing to have little effect
in lower speed roll or pitch conditions. The duty of
the baffles is to control the fluid’s high frequency
motions. In list or trim conditions, the baffles have
no effect.
As shown in Figures 64, 65 and 66, with
baffles, one pump is potentially needed with a
Figure 63. Level Indicator Damping backup pump installed. Even with baffles
installed, the operating pump can ingest air from
Care must be taken to ensure that oil can the tank. Air slugs can reduce the cooling effect
flow in and out of the tube and still annunciate the of the oil. Once compressed, the air slug occu-
conditions correctly. For instance, oil trapped in pies only a small volume until the pressure drops.
the tube may not rise or fall more than 2 in., while The air slug will expand at some place in the ma-
the surrounding oil level may fall below the oil chinery bearings, putting the cooling effect at risk.
pump suction point, causing loss of suction until It is also possible that the bearing will lose oil
the oil has risen as the dynamic condition wedge or lift, causing a momentary vibration
reverses. spike.

35
Table 6. Sample Baffle Calculation

A means to remove the air from the pressur-

ized oil piping is to connect the tops of the oil
filters to the oil tank top via suitably sized tubing
(Figure 67). Isolation valves must be installed in
the vent lines to enable filter changeover during
operating conditions. The vent lines will continu-
ally flow oil and any air back to the oil tank.

Figure 64. List Condition – Duplex Pumps 4.7 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Figure 68 shows that vertical cable entries into
the electrical box should be avoided or a suitable
drip shield must be provided. The drip shield
must extend far enough so that moisture cannot
drip onto the glands or box while the vessel is
listed. Side or bottom entry of cables is the
preferred entry method. In top and side entry, the
cable entry should be suitably supported prior to
Figure 65. List Condition – Simplex Pumps the gland to prevent vessel motion from whipping
the cable, resulting in wear on the gland and
creation of a leak path for moisture. To assist in
migration of fluid along the cable, top and side
entries require drip loops. Classification codes
require specific distances between clamps and
unsupported cable lengths.
Specific types of cable glands are necessary
to meet the IP rating of the installation location of
Figure 66. Baffle Effect in Roll Conditions – the machinery. This is also true of the control
console. The control console should be fitted with
Duplex Pumps

36
 ever, these transducers may not feed back true
readings to the control system.
The positioning of the transducers can some-
times affect machinery operation. The turbine air
inlet filter is usually fitted with a differential pres-
sure transducer to assist in determining when the
filters need to be replaced and to calculate
turbine engine performance. The measurement is
often in inches of water pressure or millimeters
Hg. When dealing with small pressures, conden-
sation in the tubing that leads to the pressure
switch can unnecessarily induce machinery
shutdowns (Figure 69).
Figure 67. Oil Filter Arrangement
As the vessel rolls, the trapped condensed or
spillover fluid will flow back and forth in the
tubing. The amount of fluid weight combined with
the force resulting from vessel motion could over-
come the pressure setting that the transducer is
looking for as an indication there is a problem
within the system. A better approach (Figure 70)
is to install the transducer and connect to the
piping. Even though this relationship offers a
reasonable solution, the tubing should be sloped
upwards if possible.
The superimposed forces resulting from the
vessel’s motion affect the turbomachinery and the
control console. Wire harnesses and components
must be adequately supported inside the console.
Alternating stresses experienced by the mounting
hardware and each of the components must be
taken into account. Console doors should be
fitted with dampers to prevent the doors from
swinging uncontrollably when access to the
components is required.

4.9 TOOLING
Even though a turbomachinery unit has been
designed to operate and survive in the marine
Figure 68. Terminal Box/Gland/ environment, consideration must also be given to
Cable Arrangement maintenance of the equipment in the same condi-
tions. Periodically, gas turbines need to be
removed from service for overhaul. Machinery
devices to prevent the door from closing on main- can be supported in a protective cradle and
tenance personnel while working inside. removed either by a wheel-and-track system or
an overhead gantry crane.
4.8 MACHINERY CONTROL SYSTEMS
Most machinery control systems involve pro-
grammable logic controllers (PLC) typically
mounted in a console installed in a machinery
control room (MCR). The controls feed operating
orders to the machinery while the machinery-
based transducers feed back for signal condition-
ing. The feedback transducers or normal machin-
ery controls are usually the same or similar to
those used for land-based applications. Unless
the pitch and roll conditions are considered, how- Figure 69. Preferred FPS Transducer /
Switch / Piping Relationship

37
 required to verify the tooling. The tooling is
required to have a safe working load (SWL),
including duty rating and allowances for other
conditions. However, the calculations should indi-
cate the possible conditions in which the tooling
may be used. If the tooling has a combined factor
of 1.75 SWL, it can be seen from Figure 71 that
the SWL can be exceeded if the load attitude with
respect to the hoist is directly below the hoist,
causing all of the vertical G-force to be placed on
one of the two hoists.
The calculations should indicate the lateral
forces and SWL at the maximum roll angle, indi-
cating the effects of both hoist systems. If the roll
is periodic every 15 to 20 seconds, for instance,
turbine removal will take considerably more time
in a moving environment than in a land-based
application. The calculations should further
consider tooling fatigue life.

The tooling should be supplied with the fol-

Figure 70. Preferred FPS Transducer /
lowing:
Switch / Piping Relationship
• Maximum SWL at various angles of
attitude both lateral and longitudinally
The maintenance team must consider the
motion of the vessel to determine if the • Warning and caution labels
current environment is safe to perform engine
removal/installation operations. Being fully • Inspection log
prepared for the unexpected is of paramount
importance. It is advisable to check the weather In their rules for lifting appliances, the class
forecast for several days prior to commencing societies include guidelines for tooling design and
a task. all the various conditions with which the tooling
Figure 71 shows the gas turbine supported must comply.
by two overhead hoists and the effects of the Although tooling certification is required by
vessel movement imposed on the tooling. many authorities, the lifting attachments, such as
Despite the relative motion indicated, it is practi- bollards, pad eyes and welded eye bolts, should
cal during very benign conditions to remove or be clearly shown in the machinery engineering
install the gas turbine as shown. It is strongly calculations described earlier that they have been
recommended that additional restraints be used sufficiently considered to meet the environment in
to prevent the turbine from swinging. All chains, which they are likely to be used. The tooling,
ropes and tackles should be adequately sized. along with the structure that holds the tooling in
As noted in Section 3, if the wave period is place during maintenance procedures, should be
15 seconds and the roll period is 20 seconds, it capable of meeting the environmental conditions.
can be expected that on every third wave the
vessel will roll in resonance and experience
severe roll displacement depending upon signifi-
cant wave height. Therefore, when the FPS
motion data are submitted, it is important to
report to the manufacturer the maximum roll
angle and angular acceleration for the geographi-
cal location(s) and not just the natural roll angle
and period.
A lifting device, often called a hoist or crane,
for gas turbine removal is often required to be
certified to the many class, local and international
codes of compliance by a notified body. In the
certification process, calculations must be submit-
ted for design appraisal. A load test is usually
Figure 71. Gas Turbine Removal with Cranes

38
4.10 INLET AND EXHAUST (ANCILLARY) Taking the maximum value of roll angle
EQUIPMENT AND MOUNTING combined with G-forces applied in all of the
Along with the gas turbine and tooling, the gas appropriate directions, it is possible to determine
turbine ancillary equipment or on-deck support the total maximum allowable relative displace-
ment for flexible joint selection and design. A
systems must be considered.
The same G-forces and pitch and roll angles good rule of thumb is to allow up to ±25 mm in
apply. Figure 72 shows AVM used to support the any direction for a flex joint design. Any greater
gas turbine unit. The ancillary equipment is movement will require consideration of other
mounted on a deck-supported structure. In this connections of much more solid construction. Any
situation, there will be relative motion experi- less will increase the natural frequency of the
enced between the machinery and the support system and could give rise to operating problems.
structure. Particular attention should be made to The flexible connection components take the
the turbine exhaust and air intake connections. brunt of the displacement. Metal bellows usually
Before the flexible connections or bellows are cannot take more that ±6 mm of radial displace-
selected or designed, the combined relative ment without suffering stress cracking. For
displacement at both sides of the joint has to be extreme environmental installations, an articu-
calculated. The following information is required: lated bellows would be appropriate. Flexible
components must be designed for a given life,
1. Hull girder deflection – used to calculate using a fatigue analysis that should take into
the oil and gas process deflection, consideration:
hogging, sagging and twist
1. Number of vessel natural roll oscillations
2. Oil and gas process deck hogging,
sagging and twist – used to calculate 2. Maximum G-force at 2% of lifetime
the relative displacement of the interface 3. Nominal G-force at 35% of lifetime
points at various locations along the gas
4. Avg minimum G-force at 63% of lifetime
turbine enclosure
5. Lifetime = 15 years
3. Machinery hogging, sagging and twist
4. Ancillary structure bending

Figure 72. Ancillary Equipment and Support Systems

39
 Requirements (1) through (4) are considered For each environmental effect discussed
low-frequency drivers. High-frequency drivers herein, there is a simple solution. The same
that also need to be considered are the exhaust calculations necessary to design an oil filter
stream and engine vibratory responses. bracket are also necessary to design the ancillary
The greatest force imposed upon the ancil- support structure. The environmental effects must
lary equipment is the combined effect of wind. be considered fully in order for the machine to
Many installations are expected to withstand hur- operate as expected and not become a safety
ricane force wind. In severe roll conditions, ma- issue to those who use it.
chinery installed 30m above main deck level will
reach a maximum radial velocity at the vertical 4.11 DUTY CONDITIONS
position. The velocity related to the motion is both
After incorporating the necessary design fea-
added and subtracted from the wind velocity. At
tures, the machinery should be capable of normal
the same time, the equipment mountings are ex-
operation and surviving without damage in the
periencing high alternating forces, causing stress
conditions indicated in Tables 7, 8, 9 and 10.
at the fasteners. The alternating forces through-
out the installation must be considered.

Table 7. Typical Motion Data for Oil and Gas Process Generators Installed on TLP, SPAR, SSP
or Moderate Duty for FPSO, FSO, FPU

Table 8. Typical Motion Data for Severe Duty Oil and Gas Process Generators Installed or Main
and Auxilliary Service Generators Installed on Ship-Shaped FPSO, FSO, and FPU

40
Table 9. Typical Motion Data for Moderate Duty Oil and Gas Process Machinery Installed
on TLP, SPAR,SSP or Moderate Duty for FPSO, FSO, FPU

Table 10. Typical Motion Data for Severe Duty Oil and Gas Process Machinery Installed
on Ship-Shaped FPSO, FSO and FPU

41
5. Marine Certification
Maritime classification society rules for machin- fabrication details to the society. The society’s
ery may be required in addition to the normal surveyors check the plans and verify them for
hazardous area or explosive atmosphere codes compliance to the society rules. Other surveyors
and standards. verify the construction of the components for
Marine certifications conform to rules and conformance to the design requirements and the
standards established by the certification society construction rules. After completion of
authorities and/or end user specifications. construction, verification by testing of the
The International Association of Classifica- components takes place.
tion Societies (IACS) is a recognized body by In the offshore oil and gas industry, machin-
the maritime wing of the United Nations known ery ordered by the vessel builder on behalf of
as the International Maritime Organization the vessel’s owner for use as main and auxiliary
(IMO). IACS members have observer status at service conforms to the class rules mandated by
IMO meetings (Table 11). The United States the intended flag state where the vessel will ul-
Coast Guard (USCG) is the United States repre- timately be registered. It may be required that
sentative at IMO. the vessel also comply with rules and regula-
Before a vessel can be used, many regions tions of another flag state or local authority with
require that the vessel be classified by a recog- jurisdiction of the vessel’s operating area, even if
nized society for several purposes, including the vessel is to be in that area on a temporary
safety and insurance. basis, either for a long term or by entering and
The society chosen for the purpose of FPS leaving on a regular basis.
classification will survey the ship for machinery Machinery ordered by the builder on behalf
design and construction in accordance with the of the owner or lessee of the vessel for use as
society’s rules for materials certified by the topsides equipment to support the oil and gas
society. This includes metals, cables and com- process, but not intended to be used to power
ponents used in the ship’s construction. any vessel system or safety system, is generally
Each society’s rules outline the process by not required to be classed by the society. The oil
which the classification is obtained. In general, and gas process system could be termed
the builder submits the plans or designs with “owner’s own personal equipment.” Main and

Table 11. IACS Members and Associate Members

42
auxiliary machinery is considered to belong to In addition to the international authorities,
the ship, while the oil and gas process equip- there may be local authorities in the area of the
ment belongs to the owner/lessee. vessel’s operation whose rules must be consid-
The role of the class society with respect to ered, such as:
the oil and gas process equipment is normally
limited to verification that the safety systems for • USCG – Department of Transportation
protection of the machinery and personnel when (USA)
the machinery is in operation or being
• UK DOE – Department of Energy (UK)
maintained complies with mandatory safety
measures. The oil and gas process machinery • Norwegian Maritime and Petroleum
must not pose a threat to the life and safety of Directorate (Norway)
personnel and the safety of the vessel machin-
• COGLA – Canadian Oil and Gas Lands
ery, while the machinery is stationary or operat-
Administration (Canada)
ing. The class society, upon memorandum of
understanding (MOU) will be used to certify • Gosstandart (Russia)
that the purchased machinery does meet
• MMS – Minerals Management Service
purchaser/manufacturer contract agreements as
(USA)
well as statutory requirements.
The machinery must have an approved elec- • Vessel’s Registered Flag State
trical system with safety features acceptable to Requirements
the class society for the environment in which
the vessel is expected to operate. Mechanical
To meet many of the international and local
systems, such as machinery foundation and
authority rules and requirements, the codes,
structural fasteners, should be verified as suit-
standards and rules in Table 12 may be applied.
able to withstand the environment in a survival
The published rules for each regulating body
mode. This includes machinery not classed.
for the design of shipboard equipment vary

Table 12. Codes and Standards

43
slightly, although they are based upon interna- • Any other services needed for safe
tional maritime standards. These regulations are operation of the vessel
known as the "Code of Construction and Equip-
Equipment used to power other vessel
ment of Offshore Drilling Units” (MODU code).
requirements that are part of the ves-
The intent of the code is to recommend design
sel’s system not deemed essential to
criteria, construction standards and other safety
the safe operation of the vessel, such as
measures for MODU in order to minimize safety
air conditioning, general lighting, galley
risks to the vessels, platforms, personnel and
equipment and hotel requirements, are
environment.
generally referred to as auxiliary power
Each end user or purchaser may place re-
and, thus, fall under the classification of
strictions on their projects in addition to the in-
main and auxiliary.
ternational authority and local authority rules.
Both sets of rules are generally regarded as the
2. Oil and Gas Process or Deck Equipment
minimum to meet. If the equipment being certi-
fied is to be downgraded from the rules require- Equipment used to power oil and gas
ments, then a special waiver from the recog- process equipment that is not part of the
nized authority rules is necessary from the au- vessel's system includes gas compres-
thority. sor sets, mechanical drive packages
Each authority may use slightly different and generator sets dedicated to the oil
terminology, but there are three basic areas of and gas process (Figures 73 and 74).
certification: Generators that support the oil and
gas process, but can also serve the plat-
1. Main and Auxiliary Services form or vessel requirements, default to
main and auxiliary classification.
Equipment used in whole or in part to
power:
3. Emergency Machinery
• Fire fighting machinery • Emergency equipment used for
preservation of life
• Main vessel process power
• Essential equipment fitted in accor-
• Propulsion dance with statutory requirements
• Steerage • Standby firefighting equipment
• Anchorage • Life-saving functions
• Navigation

Figure 73. Purpose –Built FPSO

44
Figure 74. VLCC Conversion to FPSO

In determining machinery classification, the must meet health and safety criteria for persons
requirements of the flag state – the country in working at sea. Some of these features include
which the vessel is registered – need to be minimum handrail heights, maintenance
known. As a rule of thumb, the following basic walkways and access ladders. Handrails must
information is required by the machinery supplier be high enough to help prevent personnel from
in order to fulfill class requirements and the falling over them when the vessel is rolling or
vessel’s operating parameters. pitching. Access ladders are best inclined from
A simple electrical one-line diagram, such as the vertical so that personnel do not end up on
Figure 75, can easily represent the use of the underside of the ladder.
machinery where it is not clear as to the duty The same attention should be given to main-
rating of the machinery. tenance tooling, such as turbine engine removal
Whether the machinery is to be classed or equipment or other lifting apparatus. Lifting eyes
certified, other parts of the machinery systems and welded lifting gussets attached to machinery

Figure 75. One-Line Diagram

45
parts must be verified for compliance. Each There are many sources of codes and rules
class society has guidelines for this type of tool- to meet the requirements of each and every flag
ing. state or international body. The purchaser
The lifting devices shown in Figure 76 are: should ensure in its MOU with the class society
• Lifting Bollard – Four of these are that the society clearly identifies 1) the full duty
arranged two per side for offshore type of the supplier’s machinery and 2) the soci-
and onshore lifts. ety’s rules that will be used to class or certify the
manufacturer’s machinery.
• Shackle Post – Four of these are
The class society, whether representing the
arranged two per side for offshore
purchaser, manufacturer or authority, should
and onshore lifts.
identify the required documentation necessary to
• Oil Tank Shackle Lug – Usually sufficient efficiently execute the certification process and
for a safe lift using three or four lugs. This clarify the depth of detail necessary by plans
lug is typically designed for onshore lifts and calculations.
to meet local rules where manufacturers Whether the machinery is classed as Main
must meet factory health and safety and Auxiliary machinery or is used for Oil and
codes such as OSHA. Gas process service only, each gas turbine
driven generator, pump or compressor set is
• Oil Tank Lid Eyebolt/Handhold – Periodic
generally constructed as a self-contained power
inspections of the oil tank may be neces-
module. The module’s external equipment is
sary. Local and international rules man-
usually turbine combustion air filtration, turbine
date maximum weight of a component
exhaust silencing, lubrication oil cooling and
before a lifting tool or hoist is used for
conditioning, liquid and gas fuel processing and
onshore and offshore lifts.
remote control unit. Within the module are the
• Eyebolt – Welded to a plate and used for gas turbine and its primary source of lubrication
onshore and offshore lifts. It must meet and fuel oil with connections from the external
local codes where the eyebolt was first process facility. If the machinery is a generator,
used and subsequent codes if the there is usually a firewall separating the fuel sys-
eyebolt is to be used for maintenance tem and the generator. The module is generally
of the component. comprised of a sound-proof enclosure that is
fixed to the gas turbine support frame with a seal
There are several codes used for lifting
creating a differential pressure from one side to
equipment. The lifting devices described above
the other side of the firewall. The generator side
are covered by the manufacturer’s local codes
has the highest pressure. All of the penetrations
applicable to factory assembly of the machinery.
and underside of the support frame are treated
The lifting posts and bollards are covered by
to reduce noise, gaseous fuels and fire
codes, such as API RP-2A, that govern lifts
extinguishing medium from escaping.
at sea.

Figure 76. Lifting Devices

46
 The self-contained power module is locked engine space may create a worse situa-
remotely or externally controlled and requires no tion when natural gas is present.
personnel to enter the module during any As there is no apparent code obvious to the
machinery operating time. The personnel author it is suggested that the class societies be
accesses in many cases are locked to prevent solicited via IACS for the association’s recom-
unauthorized entry. mendations for CO2 treatment of locked un-
SOLAS codes indicate the requirements for manned engine spaces.
periodically unattended machinery spaces and An alternate fire extinguishing system to
manned spaces. Ref: Chapter II-1, Part E regu- CO2 is a water mist system. There is generally
lation 46, paragraphs 1, 2 and 3 states, “The no time delay required for this method of fire
arrangements provided shall be such as to suppression, however, system cleanliness and
ensure that the safety of the ship in all sailing treatment of water is recommended, especially
conditions, including maneuvering, is equivalent in operating temperature that could cause the
to that of a ship having machinery spaces medium to freeze or components to stick due to
manned.” contraction of the materials. Both CO2 and water
Pertaining to carbon dioxide, CO2, fixed mist systems requirements are covered in detail
gas-extinguishing systems, the code indicates by many class society rules.
that the fire alarm shall operate for a suitable Time delays, as mentioned above, can allow
period before medium is released. This appears a fire to become established. However, attention
to be for personnel escape from such spaces, to fire safety is of great importance. Reference is
however, many gas turbine modules used in oil made to SOLAS chapter pertaining to fire integ-
and gas industrial service are fitted with an auto- rity of bulkheads. A machinery space that in-
matic CO2 fire extinguishing system on account cludes a power module as describe above more
that no personnel is required or authorized to be than likely will be required to have “A” class or
in the module except for maintenance reasons. higher rated bulkheads, whereas the machine
During planned maintenance periods the modules may not be required to have a class “A”
machinery is to be fully secured with prepara- rating. The tables in the SOLAS codes define
tions having been made with suitable portable where an “A” class bulkhead is required and
fire extinguishers being on hand. time rating. Per SOLAS “they shall be insulated
Such modules are generally fully assembled with approved non-combustible materials such
and tested in a factory prior to shipment to a that the average temperature of the unexposed
fabrication/installation yard. Full installation side will not rise more than 14oC above the
assembly of each major sub-assembly is then original temperature, nor will the temperature, at
performed. These modules are generally any point, including joint, rise more than 180oC
designed to be installed on or between decks above the original temperature, within the time
and, in some cases, have been installed inside period listed below:
of a vessel’s engine space that is an integral
part of the vessel. In the latter case, the engine Class “A-60”* 60 mins
space is also fitted with a SOLAS type fixed Class “A-30”* 30 mins
fire-extinguishing system. In such cases there is
Class “A-10”* 15 mins
a time delay after fire alarm annunciation to
discharge of CO2 extinguishing medium. How- Class “A-0”* 0 mins
ever, the power module should be able to be
*Note: The above bulkhead class ratings used to be verified
fitted with an automatic discharge control system
by class rules and SOLAS requirements”
immediately upon fire detection.
Ships do not usually use natural gas as a Sources of fire need not necessarily be from
fuel, whereas it is the fuel of choice for the the inside of a power module. Fire extinguishing
offshore oil and gas industry. Natural gas could systems may be required to protect power mod-
be very volatile and should be treated with cau- ules installed on open deck. In oil and gas appli-
tion. Some class societies and administrations cations blast protection has been a recent
have indicated that 20 second time delay fea- requirement. Machinery on deck locations
tures be added to CO2 fire extinguishing alarm need to be protected from potential blasts by
and control systems. For the periodically unat- locating a blast wall between the machinery
tended and manned engine spaces, the time area and the source of the potential blast. De-
delay for personnel escape is necessary. How- flecting a blast may be significantly easier to
ever, it is the author’s opinion that a time delay develop than it may be to incorporate a blast
for a CO2 fire extinguishing system inside of a absorbable material in the machinery design.

47
6. Appendix
6.1 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
UK Health and Safety Executive Offshore Tech-
ABS, “Guide for Building and Classing Floating nology Report 2000/123, “Review of model test-
Production Installations,” June 2000. ing requirements for FPSO’s,” BMT Fluid Me-
chanics Ltd.
ASME B133.16-2000, “Procurement Standards
for Gas Turbine Marine Applications.” UK Health and Safety Executive Offshore Tech-
nology Report 2001/005, “Analysis of Green Wa-
ATEX Directives European Union. ter Susceptibility of FPSO/FPU’s on the UKCS,”
BOMEL Limited.
Baron, P.J., The Floater Book, Solar Turbines
Incorporated, San Diego, CA, 2003 UK Health and Safety Executive Offshore Tech-
nology Report 2002/018, “FPSO response in long
Baron. P.J., “Shipboard-Mounted Turbomachin- and short crested seas,” HR Wallingford Limited.
ery Installations,” ES 2228, Solar Turbines
Incorporated, San Diego, CA, 1997. UKOOA FPSO Design Guidance Notes for UKCS
Service, VES06, March 2002.
Code of Federal Regulations Title 46 – Shipping,
Chapter II, Maritime Administration, Department UKOOA FPSO Inspection Repair & Maintenance,
of Transportation, Parts 200 to 499. Study into Best Practice, Lloyd’s Register, May
2003.
DNV Classification Notes No. 30.5.

DNV Offshore Rules and Standards.

DNV Offshore Standard DNV-OS-D201, “Electri-

cal Installations,” March 2001.

DNV Rules for Classification of Ships.

IEC/NEC Classification Comparator, EGS / Ap-

pleton Electric, 2000.

Howes, J., editor, The Journal of Offshore

Technology, The Institute of Marine Engineering,
Science and Technology.

Lewis. E.V., Principles of Naval Architecture,

Vol. III, “Motions in Waves and Controllability,”
The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engi-
neers, 1988.

Lloyd’s Register of Rules and Regulations for the

Classification of a Floating Offshore Installation at
a Fixed Location, May 1999.

UK Health and Safety Executive Offshore Tech-

nology Report 2000/097, “Rationalisation of
FPSO design issues, Relative reliability levels
achieved between different FPSO limit states,”
Noble Denton Europe Ltd.

48
6.2 USEFUL WEB SITES
Table 13. Organization Web Sites

Organization Web Site

American Bureau of Shipping www.eagle.org
Dept. of Trade and Industry UK www.og.dti.gov.uk
Det Norske Veritas (DNV) www.dnv.com
EGS Appleton Electric www.appletonelec.com
Health and Safety Executive UK www.hse.gov.uk
The Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and www.imarest.org
Technology
International Association of Classification Societies www.iacs.org.uk
International Maritime Organization www.imo.org
International Standards Organization www.iso.com
Lloyd’s Register of Shipping www.lr.org
MARIN www.marin.nl/agenda.html
Mineral Mining Service www.gomr.mms.com
National Weather Service www.crh.noaa.gov
Oil & Gas for Britain www.oilandgas.org.uk/ukooa/newpublications
Oil & Gas for Britain FPSO Study www.oilandgas.org.uk/issues/fpso/studies
Quest Offshore Resources Inc. www.floatingproductionzone.com
RINA Information Technology www.itservices.rina.org
Russian Certification Gosgortekhnadzor of Russia www.gost.ru.com
Germanischer Lloyd www.germanlloyd.org
Technical Information Superstore www.techstreet.com
UK Offshore Operators Association www.ukooa.co.uk
U.S. Government Printing Office (CFR) www.access.gpo.gov
U.S. Naval Architecture Class http://web.nps.navy.mil/~me/tsse/NavArchWeb

49
6.3 TOPSIDES MOTION IMPACT REPORT (Issued by the Machinery / FPS Purchaser)

Company:

FPS
DESIGN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT
Topsides Motion Impact Report
Issued to Solar Turbines Incorporated

Distribution:

0
REV DATE BY CHKD ENG
APPV

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................. 52

2.0 OBJECTIVE ...................................................................................................................................... 52

3.0 SCOPE SUMMARY .......................................................................................................................... 53

4.0 RESULTS.......................................................................................................................................... 53

4.1 Classification Society Requirements .................................................................................. 53

4.2 FPS Design Conditions......................................................................................................... 54

4.3 Deflection Parameters........................................................................................................... 55

4.4 Design Considerations ......................................................................................................... 58

5.0 RESULTS SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................... 59

7.0 REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................. 67

8.0 ASSUMPTIONS ................................................................................................................................ 67

9.0 CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................................ 67

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1.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The main objective of this report is to address the topsides equipment and systems for the __________
FPS Design Development Project that might be adversely affected by the motions of the FPS vessel. This
report provides possible solutions to address each concern for consideration during early procurement of
equipment or detailed design. The concerns and possible solutions are tabulated by equipment type.

The operational angle field conditions for the FPS process equipment are the following.

Maximum angles required for equipment operation:

(Note: These values are typical for an FPSO this size in similar moderate environments. Finalized
values are to be verified by the contractor.)

• Pitch ± (___°); Time period (___) seconds

• Roll ± (___°); Time period (___) seconds
• List (__°)
• Trim (__°) up at bow or up at stern

The operation is (to include) / (not to include) simultaneous addition of pitch plus trim along with roll
plus list. These operational values are derived considering the 100-year wave, wind, and current criteria
with the field layout chosen at this point. The operational conditions (are) / (are not) severe (particularly
compared to the North Sea) and can be considered (moderate) / (severe) as is evident from the site
data. (ATTACHED: include wave height, period, wave length and fetch distance.) These operational
conditions are to be used for design of structural decking, supports, machinery, other equipment and their
related systems.

Maximum angles and accelerations during (tow) / (under self propulsion) of the FPSO along with
maximum angles, accelerations and deflections during operation are provided for the FPSO topsides in
this report.

The pitch and roll motion criteria set forth by the classification society for “main and auxiliary” classed ma-
chinery are also detailed in this report. Only the (main and auxiliary) / (emergency) classified equipment
will need to operate and withstand the classification criteria unless otherwise stated by the classification
society.

This report is a guideline only to suggest possible solutions to be considered in addressing potential con-
cerns per equipment type and is NOT a specification. The equipment supplier, FPSO builder, and proc-
ess deck supplier are responsible to incorporate the motion criteria set forth in this report in their designs
and utilize their own experiences to achieve a satisfactory system.

The contractor engineer and equipment supplier are to use the summarized motion parameters in section
4.2 and 4.3 in the design of the equipment and systems. The contractor engineer and equipment supplier
are to use recommendations used in this report as a guideline for equipment and system design.

2.0 OBJECTIVE
The main objective of this report is to provide estimated motions, angles and deflections and identify top-
sides equipment by service, which are adversely affected by the motions, angles and deflections and pro-

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vide recommendations and guidelines to mitigate these effects.

3.0 SCOPE SUMMARY
Determine effects of FPS motion field data on essential, non-essential, and process deck equipment and
provide recommendations to address negative impacts. Determine effects of motion during transportation
towing analysis and provide a guideline for equipment layout.

4.0 RESULTS
4.1 Classification Society Requirements

The motions identified from environmental factors for the FPS vessel are:

These are the marine environmental dynamic motion requirements for machinery installations onboard
FPS. Note that roll, pitch, surge, heave, and yaw relate to the dynamic case and that trim and list relate to
the static case. According to classification societies, the pitch and roll criteria can be identified as the fol-
lowing:

Equipment Type Pitch Roll List Trim

Emergency 10° 22.5° 22.5° 10°

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Main and Auxiliary Machinery 7.5° 22.5° 15° 5°

Process (Must survive, but not operate. Operational limits defined 7.5° 22.5° 15° 5°
by project.)

Emergency equipment is for vessel services that are essential for safety in an emergency condition. The
following equipment falls into this category. This equipment must operate at and withstand the minimum
classification requirements.

• Emergency generators
• Fire water pumps
• Jockey pumps
• Sprinkler system

Main and auxiliary machinery is equipment whose services need to be in continuous operation for
maintaining the vessel’s maneuverability with regard to propulsion, steering and for normal continuous
safe operation of the vessel that does not constitute an emergency. However, it can be used for oil and
gas process.

Process equipment is the category that will fit the majority of topsides equipment, such as:

• Compressors
• Pumps
• Oil and gas process vessels
• Oil and gas main generators (not used for FPS main and auxiliary service)
• All other process and deck equipment

4.2 FPS Design Conditions

(NOTE: These values are typical for an FPS this size in similar environments. Final values are to be
verified by the contractor.) See “Acceleration Calculation Worksheet” in Section 6.4.

Equipment Project Roll / List Pitch / Trim Long Trans Vert

Type Phase Condition Angle, degrees Angle, degrees Acc., g Acc., g Acc., g
Emergency Tow Operating 22.5 / 22.5 10 / 10
Tow Operating 22.5 / 22.5 10 / 10
At Site Operating 22.5 / 22.5 10 / 10

Main and Tow Dry 22.5 / 15 10.0 / 5

Auxiliary
Tow Dry 22.5 / 15 7.5 / 5
Tow Operating 22.5 / 15 7.5 / 5

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At Site Operating 22.5 / 15 7.5 / 5

At Site Damaged, Wet 22.5 / 15 7.5 / 5

Process Tow* Dry 22.5 / 15* 7.5 / 5*

Tow* Dry 22.5 / 15* 7.5 / 5*

At Site Operating
At Site* Damaged, Wet 22.5 / 15
* Not Operating

The above motion angles and acceleration values are to be used for the equipment and system designs
for the FPS. These are the design values to be used by the equipment suppliers. Note that the Tow / Dry
and At Site / Damaged, Wet cases do not require the equipment to operate, but the equipment must
maintain structural integrity during such conditions.

Notes:

1. Damaged means FPS hull damaged. Oil and gas process equipment is to be shut down, but re-
main in wet condition in standby mode for restart once normal FPSO conditions have been re-
sumed.
2. Accelerations are compiled from the attached worksheet.
3. Vertical accelerations do not include static gravity. (Acceleration due to gravity is 9.81 m/s2.)
4. Accelerations are applicable for equipment with centers of gravity (__) meters below / above hull
main deck, except as noted. See Note 5 below.
5. Accelerations noted by an asterisk (*) are applicable for all equipment with centers of gravity (__)
meters below / above hull main deck. See Note 4 above.
6. Accelerations are reported for outside of the equipment base plate edge.

These data have considered the 100-year wave, wind, and current data. Generally, equipment sensitive
to motions, such as large process vessels, should be located closest to the center of gravity of the FPS.
The worst accelerations are experienced at the bow and stern end sections of the FPS. These accelera-
tions are also affected by height, and these values increase as the equipment location height increases.
The contractor may need to develop further details on these values.

4.3 Deflection Parameters

The motions identified for vessel deck deflection are termed hogging and sagging. The effects of hogging
and sagging on large rotating equipment can be minimized by using flexible mountings (e.g., three-point
mounting with either gimbals or soft supports). These values need to be addressed specifically by area
and deck deflection. If soft supports are used (anti-vibration mounts) they shall also be used to minimize
transmitted vibration to within classification society required levels for the installation area with respect to
other equipment / personnel living and work stations.

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The values provided for the deck deflections are general for each topsides module.

FPSO Vertical Hull Girder Deflection Chart

25

20

15
Vertical hull Deflection [mm]

10

5
Towing, sagging
Y AXIS

Towing, hogging
0 On-site, sagging
On-site, hogging
-30 -20 -10 -5
0 10 20 30

-10

-15

-20

-25
Distance from module center [m]
X AXIS

Distance from Reference Point, m

-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25

FPSO Vertical
Hull Deflection,
mm
Tow Sagging
Hogging

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On Sagging
Site
Hogging

Note: For a module of (__), if the reference point is the module center, both ends of the module are lo-
cated ±15 m. This gives vertical deflection at both ends of (__) up in the towing sagging case. The equip-
ment is to be designed for these deflection values provided and assumes transverse deflections are small
compared to these values.

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4.4 Design Considerations

The main factors to consider are the following:

Process Vessels / Separators

Since roll is greater than pitch for the FPS operating conditions, it is ideal to align horizontal vessels longi-
tudinally along the vessel to minimize the effect of the motions. Quiescent conditions are needed for es-
sential liquid / liquid and gas / liquid separations. Perforated baffles are considered the primary way to
achieve close to quiescent conditions and dampen primary and secondary turbulence caused by the liq-
uid movement. Residence time during separation is key and consideration of the operational criteria an-
gles at the given time period is essential during simulation to achieve proper separation.

Structural Design
Sloshing fluid in process and utility vessel and tanks is a key concern that the equipment supplier, to-
gether with the contractor engineers, need to consider during design of equipment, structural support,
vessel / tank internals, etc. Operational limitations also need to be defined (e.g., liquid level constraints
during extreme conditions).

Three-point mounting with either gimbals or soft supports (springs and dampers) to accommodate for
deck deflection needs to be considered for turbomachinery. All metallic (flameproof) vibration isolators or
gimbals are commonly used to minimize the vessel motion effects and address vibration. The natural fre-
quency and all operating rotational frequencies of the turbomachinery equipment and mounting structure
need to be evaluated for the equipment installed in the module, as opposed to only the individual skid
itself. Both the equipment supplier and the engineering contractor will perform a fatigue analysis of the
turbomachinery structural components, while considering the degradation of the mounting springs and
dampers over the operating range of the equipment and considering the cyclic motions encountered in
the vessel for a period of (___) years of machinery operating life.

The fatigue analysis should consider the motion values and frequencies during operation and non-
operational periods. The analysis will consider gas turbine exhaust stream purge cycle speeds, idle speed
and nominal operating speed of all the rotating components in the power train. Over the life of the equip-
ment, the analysis should consider periods of time at the following conditions:

1. (__%) life experiencing severe motion

2. (__%) life experiencing moderate to severe motion
3. (__%) life experiencing moderate motion
4. (__%) life experiencing benign to moderate motion
5. Balance of life at benign motion

Note: Benign motion can be expected to be vessel rolling no more than 2.5 degrees, single amplitude
with imposed accelerations on the equipment no greater than 0.2g.

Lubrication System
The lube oil reservoir design needs to account for maintaining suction for pumps. Scavenging systems
and deeper lube oil tanks are common solutions.

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Drainage System
Operational angles need to be addressed to prevent backflow and overflow of fluids, especially for gravity
drain systems. Proper use of check valves and tank baffles can address this issue. Piping arrangement /
layout needs to account for the static slope caused by the vessel trim up to that noted in the above motion
table.

Fluid Control
Placement of the level bridles at the center of the vessel and the use of algorithms (time delay / averag-
ing) for worst-case scenario need to be evaluated to obtain level readings that are essential to process
control. Floats have been known to be unreliable for level controls; pressure differential measurement is
more suitable. This is due to the effects of heave accelerations on the apparent level float weight and the
only effect on the differential pressure if the difference in liquid height is above the sensor.

5.0 RESULTS SUMMARY

Equipment Concerns Possible Solutions
Type
HP Separators • Accuracy of the level instruments • Install level instrument connections on the
vertical centerline of vessel
• Use programming algorithms to smooth level
readings
• Increase foaming • Outfit the vessel with inlet devices that re-
duce foaming
• Agitation of oil / water interface • Outfit the vessel with wave breaker baffles to
reduce motion in the x, y, and z axes, includ-
ing the liquid / gas and liquid / liquid inter-
faces
• Sloshing of vessel levels • Install the vessel with the long axis running
fore and aft with respect to the FPSO
• Exposed liquid outlets resulting in gas • Maintain liquid level sufficient to prevent gas
blow-by blow-by
• Liquid carry over into the gas outlet • Outfit the vessel with high performance mist
eliminators / outlet devices

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Equipment Concerns Possible Solutions

Type
IP Separator, • Accuracy of the level instrument • Install level instrument connections on the
LP Separator, vertical centerline of vessel
Compressor Suc-
tion Scrubbers • Use programming algorithms to smooth level
readings
• Increased foaming • Outfit the vessel with inlet devices that re-
duce foaming
• Sloshing of vessel levels • Outfit the vessel with wave breaker baffles to
reduce motion in the x, y, and z axes, includ-
ing the liquid / gas and liquid / liquid inter-
faces
• Install the vessel with the long axis running
fore and aft with respect to the FPSO
• Liquid carry over into the gas outlet • Outfit the vessel with high performance mist
eliminators / outlet devices
• Exposed liquid outlets resulting in gas • See accuracy of level instruments and in-
blow-by creased foaming
Cranes • Ability of the crane to operate to per- • Crane derating
formance curves
• Operational guidelines for safe working con-
ditions
• Dynamic coefficient to be established • Required sea state criteria and motions of
based on motion of the vessel vessel to be evaluated
Piping System • Flexibility of the piping with respect to • Design the piping system for flexibility to
the deflections of the hull handle deflection imparted by the hull, differ-
ential movements between modules, and
thermal and other stresses
• Flexibility of the piping with respect to • Design the piping system for flexibility to
the differential movement between handle deflection imparted by the hull, differ-
modules ential movements between modules, and
thermal and other stresses
Drain, Vent, and • Ability of the system to remain self- • Design the systems to slope through all an-
Flare Systems draining through the range of motion gles of the trim operating range
and differing FPSO trim
• Ability to maintain seal loop levels • Design the systems to slope through all an-
gles of the trim operating range
• Sloshing of drains back into the drip • Design drip pan to handle sloshing in the
pans. system without overflowing
• Minimize drip pan surface area and design
pans to meet module flexure requirements
• Install drip legs in the flare header to remove
collected liquids

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Oil Treatment • Accuracy of the level instruments • Install level instrument connections on the
Unit vertical centerline of vessel
• Sloshing of tank fluids • Outfit the vessel with wave breaker baffles to
reduce motion in three dimensions, including
• Agitation of oil / water interface
the liquid / liquid interface.
• Install vessel with long axis running fore and
aft with respect to the FPSO
• Exposed liquid outlets resulting in gas • Maintain liquid level sufficient to prevent gas
blow-by blow-by
Structural • Machinery goes in and out of alignment • Inaccuracy of motion data
in sync with vessel motion
• Structural calculations not performed with
total consideration of motion
• Turbine exhaust or turbine air intake • Survival condition underestimated or calcu-
bind with outside structural supports of lated. Addition flexibility may be required in
ancillary equipment flexible sections
• Anti-vibration mounts transmit vibration • Deck deflection and or machinery base plate
in sync with vessel motions may be too far apart in natural frequency
• Addition of more flexible mounts or stiffen
decking
Tank with Pump • Accuracy of level instruments • Install level instrument connections on the
Suction (e.g., vertical centerline of vessel
Lube Oil Pumps,
Drain Drums, • Use programming algorithms to smooth out
Flare Drums, level readings
Cooling Medium • Liquid carry over into the gas outlet • Outfit the vessel with performance mist
Expansion Tank, eliminators on the gas outlets
Heating Medium
Expansion Tank) • Sloshing of tank levels • Outfit the vessel with wave breaker baffles to
reduce motion in three dimensions, including
the liquid / gas interface
• Install vessel with the long axis fore and aft
with respect to the FPSO vessel
• Loss of pump suction • Raise the level safety low set point in the
vessel to assure that sufficient pump suction
head is maintained

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Induced Gas • Accuracy of level instruments • Install level instrument connections on the
Flotation Unit vertical centerline of vessel
• Use programming algorithms to smooth out
level readings
• Sloshing of tank levels • Outfit the vessel with wave breaker baffles to
reduce motion in three dimensions, including
the liquid / gas interface
• Install vessel with the long axis fore and aft
with respect to the FPSO vessel
• Liquid carry over into the gas outlet • Design the oil froth collection header to han-
dle the increase in liquid flow
• Use floating skimmer devices
• Loss of pump suction • Raise the level of safety low set point in the
vessel to assure that sufficient pump suction
head is maintained
Columns (e.g., • Accuracy of the level instruments • Install level instrument connections on the
Dehydration vertical centerline of vessel
Contactor)
• Use programming algorithms to smooth out
level readings
• Sloshing of tank levels • Install dampening orifices in the instrument
connection lines
• Even distribution of the liquid at the top • Outfit the liquid inlet with a pressurized dis-
of and through the structured packing tribution header
• Maintain liquid level sufficient to prevent gas
blow-by
• Over-circulate liquid
• Use packed columns instead of trayed col-
umns

• Liquid carry over into the gas outlet • Outfit the vessel with high performance mist
eliminators on the gas outlets
• Exposed liquid outlets resulting in gas • See accuracy of level instruments
blow-by

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Reboilers • Accuracy of the level instruments • Install level instrument connections on the
vertical centerline of vessel
• Use programming algorithms to smooth out
level readings
• Even distribution of the glycol entering • Outfit the liquid inlet with a pressurized dis-
the still and sparge columns tribution header
• Surge flow of the fluid out of the boiler • Maintain a higher level to keep the tube bun-
section dle immersed
• Sloshing of tank levels • Outfit the vessel with wave breaker baffles to
reduce motion in three dimensions, including
the liquid / gas interface level
• Install the vessel with the long axis running
fore and aft with respect to the FPSO
Rotating equip- • Misalignment issues due to deflection • Use three-point mounting for skid structures
ment (e.g., En- (hogging and sagging) for gas turbine driven equipment
gines, Pumps,
Compressors • Design for vibration frequencies of system as
and Turbines) a whole (skid and vessel) with the overall
system installed as opposed to local skid
frequencies
• Lubrication system • Use air vents along with baffles for lube oil
tanks
• Use one-way gates for lube oil tanks
• Drainage system • Use separate scavenge lube tanks
• Fluid control • Use lube oil vent and balance vents for drain
systems
• Environmental protection • See accuracy of level instruments for ves-
sels
• Outfit turbomachinery with inclinometers or
accelerometers for equipment protection as
needed for redundant protection

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6.0 ACCELERATION CALCULATION WORKSHEET

6.1 FPSO Diagram

Example of Forward Moored FPSO (substitute dimensions for actual)

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6.2 Wave Criteria

Wave Spectrum Wave Height Wave Length Fetch Pitch Period Duration
Survival
Max. Operating

6.3 Motion Criteria

Component Survival Operating Conditions Period

Main & Auxiliary Oil & Gas Seconds
Heave (M)
Sway (M)
Roll angle θ°R
Pitch angle θ°P
Trim angle θ°T 0
List angle θ°L 0

6.4 Results (Static “G” = 9.81 m/s2 is additional)

Note: The pitch center can be repositioned forward of the free body pitch center due to mooring chains
and catenary load effects proportional to increasing conditions.

6.4.1 Basic Accelerations

Component Main & Auxiliary Oil & Gas Survival

“g” Operating Operating Not Operating
Pitch 0.0g
Roll
Sway

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6.4.2 Accelerations (perpendicular to deck)

Component Main & Auxiliary Oil & Gas Survival

“g” Operating Operating Not Operating
G sine θP
Heave g sine θ(P)
G sine θ(T)
Pitch g cos (90-αP)
Roll g sine θ(P)
Wave slam g sine θ(P)
Total 0.0g g g
Wave slamming is due to oncoming waves.

6.4.3 Transverse Accelerations (across deck)

Component Main & Auxiliary Oil & Gas Survival

“g” Operating Operating Not Operating
G sine θ(R)
G sine θ (L)
Roll at θ(R), cos αR
Sway g cos θ(R)
Heave g sine θ(R)
Pitch g sine θ(R)
Total g g g

6.4.4 Longitudinal Accelerations (across deck)

Component Main & Auxiliary Oil & Gas Survival

“g” Operating Operating Not Operating
Pitch g sine θ(P) cos αP
Heave g sine θ(P)
G sine θ(P)
G sine θ(T)
Surge
Sway g sine θ(S)
Wave slam (axial) g
Total g g g

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Wave slamming is due to oncoming waves.

7.0 REFERENCES
1. Classification Agency Requirements
2. Shipboard Mounted Turbomachinery Installations Report (Solar Turbines)
3. “The Floater Book” (Baron)
4. “Floating Production Systems” Baron
5. Environmental Safety Considerations and Engineering Guide for Floater Designs (Baron)
6. Marpol
7. IMO / SOLAS Codes
8. ASME B133.16-2000
9. ISO Pertinent Codes and Practices

8.0 ASSUMPTIONS
IACS classification society member requirements and angles are similar enough not to effect the recom-
mendations and classification requirements in this report.

9.0 CONCLUSIONS
It is evident that motions, angles and deflections caused by the marine environment will be detrimental to
the operation of the process facilities, if these motion criteria are not properly factored into equipment and
facility design. The motion criteria set forth by the classification society for certification requirements along
with the values produced from the marine engineers are presented in this report. The potential problems
as well as possible solutions per equipment type have been outlined in this report and should serve as a
guideline for equipment and system evaluation and design. The equipment supplier along with the con-
tractor engineer need to incorporate the motion criteria set forth in Section 4.2 and 4.3 in their design for
equipment and systems and utilize their own experiences to achieve satisfactory equipment and system
operation.

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