IV.

PIGEONS AND DOVES

A. INTRODUCTION

1. Origin

The terms "pigeon" and "dove," especially in languages other than English,
are often used interchangeably, with "dove" generally having connotations of
grace, gentleness, and religious significance, rather than of speciation. In
fact, pigeons and doves are representatives of several distinct genera of the
subfamily Columbidae.

Wild pigeons and doves are more or less worldwide in their distribution, with
a number of species of each being native to North America. A few species
such as the band tailed pigeon (Columba sasciata<) and the mourning dove
(Sonaida macroura) are seen in parts of Canada (Goodwin, 1967).

Domesticated pigeons (Columba livia domestica) and the common "street

pigeons," which are feral derivatives of domestic pigeons, are not indigenous
to the Americas, but were first brought to this continent by the French and
the English, to Quebec and Nova Scotia respectively, circa 1607.

All today's many varieties of domestic pigeons derive from the rock pigeon
(rock dove) of Europe, Asia, and North Africa (Levi, 1969). The domesticated
doves (Streptopelia risoria) Ringneck, Laughing, Barbary, etc., originated
from a wild type North African ancestor (Streptopelia roseogrisea) and are not
found in the feral state in the Americas (Goodwin, 1967). The number of dove
breeders has increased considerably in recent years, particularly in the USA
(Burger, 1974). Numerous research and zoological exhibit colonies are also
maintained in both the USA and Canada (Kendall and Scanlon, 1981; Mulder,
1978).

2. Domestication

Archaeological records suggest that both pigeons and doves trace their
domestication back to around 5000 BC. Greek and Roman writings refer to
the selective breeding and housing of pigeons in dove cotes (Levi, 1969),
which must represent one of man's first recorded attempts at intensive
animal production.

The hardy and prolific Columba livia has, through the centuries, given rise to
hundreds of breeds and varieties at the hands of pigeon fanciers. These
exhibit a very wide range of sizes, shapes, forms, and behavioral
characteristics. By far the most numerous single group is that of the racing
homers, which express the characteristic homing and survival instincts
common to all pigeons, but not to doves. It is probable that this almost
complete lack of homing instinct, and its vulnerability to predation accounts
for the captive dove never having been as widely propagated and never
becoming established as a feral bird like the street pigeon. As a consequence,
doves have remained relatively unchanged by selection, with only the fawn
and white coloured varieties being commonly propagated, despite their grace
and the ease with which they can be maintained (Hollander, 1954).
 In addition to the keeping of pigeons for racing and for fancy, their young
(squabs) have long been raised for food. In the USA, a squab industry had
been established by the middle of the 19th century and still flourishes,
particularly in the southern states (Levi, 1969). To date, a large and viable
squab industry has not become established in Canada, although one seems
now to be developing on the west coast.

B. BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR

1. Distinctive Features

Two characteristics differentiate pigeons and doves from all other avian
families:

a. "Crop Milk"

This protein rich substance is produced in the crop of both the male and
female pigeon and dove, from the desquamation of the outer epithelial
cells of the lateral walls of that organ. The crop lining cells hypertrophy
and become lipid rich, under the influence of the hormone prolactin,
secreted in the adenohypophysis. Both of the parents feed their young by
regurgitating "milk," which will constitute essentially the sole food of the
squab for its first few days. Subsequently, the crop milk will be mixed with
increasing amounts of regurgitated grains and other nutrients ingested by
the parents. Some other avian species feed their offspring on regurgitated
crop content; however, none but the Columbidae produces a cellular "crop
milk" (Vandeputte-Poma, 1980; Silver and Cooper, 1983).

b. Method of Drinking

Pigeons and doves are unique amongst birds in not imbibing by repeatedly
scooping water up into their beaks and elevating their heads to help them
in the act of swallowing. All Columbidae drink by submerging their beaks
to the nostrils and sucking in in continuous drafts.

2. Biological Characteristics

a. Breed Differences

About 100 different breeds and varieties are described in more or less
detail by Levi in his comprehensive reference work on the pigeon (Levi,
1969). The intensive and divergent selection that has gone into the
establishment of these innumerable breeds and varieties has resulted in a
great variance in conformation, feathering, colour and behavior.

Much less diversity exists among domestic doves, although an increased

interest in these animals, both by fanciers and for research, has resulted
in a large number of colour and feather pattern mutants being identified
since mid-century (Burger, 1974).
 Pigeon breeds may, for convenience, be grouped on the basis of body
weight and size into: light breeds, averaging 250-300 g adult weight;
medium birds of between 450-500 g and heavy breeds up to 1000 g.

b. Physiological Parameters

Differences in breed size are reflected in the ranges seen in many of the
physiological parameters of pigeons.

Body temperature is 41.8oC (106.6oF) and blood volume is variable and

rather small, at about 8 ml/100 g (Schrag, 1974). In common with other
birds, their erythrocytes are oval and nucleated. Platelets do not exist as
in mammals, but are replaced by nucleated thrombocytes: cells with a
scanty cytoplasm, which are somewhat smaller and more round than
erythrocytes.

Rather surprisingly, doves and pigeons, particularly of the small breeds,

will hybridize and breed naturally if isolated together. Male pigeons and
female doves produce fertile eggs in about 50% of their matings; only
about 3% of the offspring hatched are female. Fertility from the reciprocal
cross is very low. All hybrids are apparently sterile, although the males
have viable sperm (Cole and Hollander, 1950).

3. Behavior

Wild pigeons and the feral, so-called "street pigeon," have adapted to and
thrive in a wide variety of habitats and environments. In nature, these birds
tend to select a relatively small, confined roosting and nesting space. They
are, however, gregarious and, by choice operate in groups within which they
form monogamous fairs. Numerous genetically influenced, often bizarre,
behavioral characteristics, such as homing, tumbling, and pouting, have been
selected by fanciers and are described by Levi (1969).

C. RESEARCH USES

1. Sources

In Canada, pigeons for research are most often acquired either directly or
indirectly from commercial squab farms in USA, among which one or two
major breeding facilities supply either investigators or laboratory animal
supply houses (ILAR, 1979). The breeds used are most often the large Kings
and the White Carneaux. A second, often used source is the local pigeon
fancier and breeder. A majority of birds from this source are homing pigeons,
though this is also the means by which breeds showing special inherited
physiological and behavioral characteristics may be acquired. Breeding at
research institutions is rarely undertaken in this country except as regards to
ring doves. Research breeding colonies and colonies at zoological parks
constitute essentially the only sources of the last named species.

Birds from any of the above sources will usually prove satisfactory and the
choice will depend on availability and on the requirements of the research. In
 any case, newly acquired animals should be of known age, parentage, from a
premises with a known health status and be permanently banded for
identification (usually done on squabs before they leave the nest). "Street
pigeons," which are feral birds, about which little will be known, do not
generally make suitable research animals.

2. Utilization as Models

Pigeons in research are most often thought of as providing models for

behavioral studies, although they are widely used for other purposes as well.
Their attributes of good memory, sharp vision, and stable behavior have
particularly suited them for investigations into various aspects of learning
behavior and cognizance (Skinner, 1951; Epstein, Lanza and Skinner, 1981).
Similarly, they have found considerable use in neurophysiological research,
although they do not withstand surgical interference as well as do a number
of the laboratory mammals, especially not during their fall molt period
(Desmedt and Delwaide, 1966).

The pigeon's relative freedom from enzootic diseases and other disorders
associated with prolonged confinement, as well as ease of husbandry,
enhance its value as an experimental animal for biomedical studies (Clarkson,
Prichard, Lofland et al. 1963), although it has not been widely used in these
investigations in Canada. Pigeons have provided valuable models in studies
on atherosclerosis, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism (Wagner and Clarkson,
1974), endocrinology, toxicology and problems in genetics, reproduction, and
population control (Elder, 1974; Sturtevant, 1970). Ring doves have been
studied mostly for reproductive physiology (Cheng, 1979; Silver, 1978) and
immunogenetic investigations (Miller, 1967).

Despite the above outlined extensive use of pigeons and doves as laboratory
animals in biomedical as well as behavioral research since early in the 20th
century, surprisingly little information on their care and maintenance has
been published in the animal care literature Indeed, this species is
"conspicuous by its absence" from most manuals and guides on laboratory
animals and was even dropped from the third (1967) and subsequent editions
of the otherwise fairly comprehensive reference work on laboratory animals
compiled by the Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW, 1967).

D. HUSBANDRY

1. Housing

Pigeons are highly adaptable, hardy birds of a generally tractable disposition.

As a consequence, they have, through the years, been successfully raised by
hobbyists and commercial breeders under a vast variety of husbandry
conditions. Generally, pigeon housing has consisted of more or less closed
lofts and holding nests opening into a wire enclosed flypen or aviary of
varying but usually quite limited area. Such a facility should be proof against
the entry of predators, particularly cats and dogs.

The large loft, nest boxes and flypen system has been successfully adapted to
research breeding requirements of production with large numbers of pairs
 (Nohlgren and Wagner, 1977). However, when a communal loft/flypen system
is used, up to 10% of the progeny may be sired by extra-pair copulation.

Pigeons do not need heating or enclosed housing as long as their water

supply is kept from freezing and they are provided with space for limited
exercise in the form of a flypen. Doves are also able to adapt to extremely
cold weather, but are adversely affected by cold drafts and rapid chilling
(Hollander, 1959).

2. Caging

a. Breeding Cages

Pair breeding cages have been the usual way of raising the defined
pedigree pigeon required for certain types of research. It has been stated
that these cages must be at least 0.7 m3 (3 ft.3) if fighting or other
disruptions to reliable breeding are to be avoided; however, the space
requirement for doves is less critical (Hollander, 1959). More recent
reports show that much less space is needed to successfully cage-breed
pigeons and that a 46 cm (18 in.) cube-shaped, wire enclosure with an
open, 15 cm square (6.2 in.), 5 cm (2 in. deep) burlap lined pine nest box
is adequate. This type of cage may be made of welded wire in batteries of
four (Sturtevant and Hollander, 1978). Chopped straw or hay may be
provided for bedding. Short, 5-8 cm (2-3 in.) lengths of string make an
excellent source of clean nesting material for small numbers of breeding
pairs of laboratory pigeons and doves.

Breeding pairs must be provided with two nests, as they will often start a
new clutch before the previous pair of squabs has left the nest (Clarkson,
Prichard, Lofland et al. 1963).

b. Standard Laboratory Cages

The majority of pigeons for research are housed singly, often for long
periods (several years), in commercially obtained, standard pigeon cages.
These average about 24 cm (9 1/2 in.) wide, provide approximately 775
cm2 (120 sq. in.) of floor space, with up to 33 cm (13 in.) head room.
Commercial cages have a more or less solid back and sides, a wire mesh
top and door, with outside water and feed containers. While pigeons have
been maintained in even smaller cages, for several months in "apparent
good health," they lose muscle tone and strength in their wings, are
unable to fly properly on release and, in attempting to do so, may sustain
injury (sprains) to their wing joints (Clarkson, Prichard, Lofland et al.
1963).

There are significant advantages to the use of flight cages for both
pigeons and doves in many behavioral studies in that they permit natural
movements and interactions, as well as ensuring a more nearly normal
physiological status in the test animals.
 Flypens should be either located indoors or be roofed in such a way as to
minimize the risk from the introduction of disease and parasites from wild
bird carriers.

The obvious spatial inadequacy of the standard pigeon cage, at least for
long-term holding, has led several Canadian user groups to seek practical
ways to enrich the cage environment; two of these are briefly described
here:

c. Modified Poultry Cages*

Wire poultry cages 30 x 46 x 41 cm (12 x 18 x 16 in.) high, in three

batteries of 10 cages each, may be suspended on a custom made rack
over standard, slightly forward sloping, rat-rack dropping trays. The fronts
of the cage batteries are modified to suspend feed and water troughs or
individual cups. Temporary dividers can easily be inserted between the
individual cages if desired, although signs of insecurity, or of fighting
between birds in adjacent cages, has not been a problem. Birds have
thrived in these cages over a period of 12 years with no indication of
maladjustment, and have been used consistently in behavioral studies. On
release, at any time, they are able to fly immediately.

In addition to being far less expensive, routine cleaning is much quicker

and easier than with standard, individual cages. Dust control, as in all
pigeon rooms, presents a problem, the control of which in this cage
system, may be aided by a gentle spraying of the racks and pigeons with
water. (Pigeons, it should be noted, like to bath and splash if given the
opportunity.)

d. Flypen Holding**

Pigeons held in small standard pigeon cages to control body weight and
other parameters during experimentation are, under this system, released
between periods of experimental use into an indoor flypen, until needed
again. The wired off end of a pigeon holding room, 2 x 3 m (7 x 10 ft.) in
area, has been used. Perches (nest boxes optional) should be provided
and the floor covered with sawdust or paper. Pigeons prefer to roost on a
perch or ledge against a wall. Birds subject to this regimen do not lose
flying ability, do not fight newcomers introduced into the flypen, maintain
a normal body weight, are less labour intensive to look after, and remain
healthy.

e. Comments on Caging Standards

The standard, small individual cage is said to provide the incumbent with
a sense of security by simulating the natural habitat. This rationale seems
somewhat specious, in that the King and Carneaux pigeons, which have
been captive bred for innumerable generations, have shown no aversion
to permanent residence in wire sided chicken cages. The pigeon is a flying
bird and surely should be provided with sufficient cage space to stretch its
wings, if access to a flypen cannot be provided.
 For certain experimental purposes, small groups of pigeons have been
housed five to a chicken finishing battery compartment. Under such
conditions, normal pairing and breeding cannot take place and fighting
and feather picking will usually occur (Clarkson, Prichard, Lofland et al.
1963). Even though these problems have been circumvented to some
extent by partial debeaking, this practice should be discouraged and this
system of caging should not be used.

3. Environment

Pigeons may be raised under wide seasonal ranges of temperature, humidity,

light, and barometric pressure, if kept in flypens. For cage housed birds,
temperature should be held between 10-24oC (50-57oF) with RH of 30%. A
12-hour light, 12 hour dark diurnal cycle is commonly provided, although 14
hours light will enhance breeding activity (Sturtevant and Hollander, 1978).

A problem peculiar to pigeon rooms in the laboratory is the one of excessive

dust from feathers and skin. This dust is a potentially potent allergen and
management steps should be taken for its control. It is responsible for the so-
called pigeon breeders' lung disease, and may cause a severe reaction in
susceptible persons (Fink, Moore and Barboriak, 1975). The dust is light and
should theoretically be removable by exhaust hoods over the cage racks. In
practice, this usually creates excessive turbulance and tends to scatter the
dust. A system of supply diffusers near the ceiling above the cages and
exhaust diffusers at floor level, if coupled with regular damp mopping, has
proven a more satisfactory method of pigeon dust control.

As indicated above, pigeons enjoy splashing in water and will frequently bath,
if water is available. Access to water for this purpose does not seem to be
necessary or particularly beneficial, merely pleasurable.

Sudden noise or surprise movement will startle pigeons and doves and should
be avoided. Lighting that can be reduced by rheostat when bright light is not
needed, will help to keep the birds quiet and is a useful feature in pigeon
rooms.

E. NUTRITION

1. Requirements

Members of the family Columbidae are all seed eaters, though most species
will also eat insects. Domestic pigeons and doves are almost entirely
granivorous. Non-breeding birds may be maintained on a fairly low protein
diet consisting of peas, wheat, corn, and similar cereal grains. Under large
group housing conditions, it has proven advantageous to offer these grains
"cafeteria style," along with oyster shell, a granite grit mix and mineral
supplement containing iodized salt. Pigeons, if they are to breed optimally,
need a supplement of Vitamin D and probably Vitamin A and B. The diet for
breeders should contain at least 15% protein, and it is good practice to use a
commercial, combined vitamin-mineral premix added to either the feed or
water (Hollander, 1954; Clarkson, Prichard, Lofland et al. 1963; Sturtevant
and Hollander, 1978).
 Adult pigeons will consume large amounts of food and, if caged without
exercise, should be kept on a restricted diet to maintain about 80% of their
normal body weight on ad libitum feeding. In practice, this is about what they
will consume in 20 minutes, fed twice daily.

2. Feeding

Food consumption is about one-tenth of the pigeon's body weight and will
range from 20-100 g daily, depending on the strain.

Under laboratory conditions, particularly for small numbers of caged birds, the
feeding of a pelleted pigeon feed (readily available commercially) is by far the
most satisfactory procedure to follow. A vitamin-mineral supplement is
usually also fed, but granite grit is not essential with pelleted rations,
although oyster shell must be provided for breeders. The periodic feeding of
some mixed whole grain is said to be good practice, in order to exercise the
gizzard (Sturtevant and Hollander, 1978).

Powdered rations should not be offered to pigeons as, although they will
usually eventually eat them, they have difficulty swallowing fine particles and
will sometimes refuse to do so for a long enough time to cause death
(Clarkson, Prichard, Lofland et al. 1963). Pigeons can handle wet mashes
better and may be trained to accept these when young (Hollander, 1954).

Semi-synthetic diets are quite often required in research on pigeons,

particularly for the feeding of high protein and high fat diets, on which these
birds survive quite well. The "crop milk" on which the squabs are raised is
extremely high in these nutrients, having a protein level approaching 50%,
and fat about 20% (Vandeputte-Poma, 1980). Synthetic diets should be
pelleted unless the birds have been pretrained to accept powdered feed.

3. Water

A continuous supply of fresh water is important. This should be provided

either in a cup located outside the cage or so covered that it cannot be fouled.
The pigeon consumes from 36-60 ml of water daily. Water depth must be
maintained at approximately 5 cm (2 in.) so as to accommodate the pigeon's
manner of drinking. It is important that pigeons be given ample opportunity
to drink after feeding, which they will normally do within two hours of eating,
to help move grain from the crop. The inability to drink at these times, for
any reason, may result in retention and swelling of food in the crop, causing
discomfort. Light should be maintained in the room for a two hour period after
feeding to facilitate drinking, as the birds will attempt this even in the dark,
despite having very little night vision.

With large numbers of pigeons and pens it may prove advantageous to install
an automatic watering cup system, as pigeons readily adapt to these. Either a
float system or individual receptacle with weight controlled flow may be used
(Clarkson, Prichard, Lofland et al. 1963).
F. REPRODUCTION

1. Breeding Behavior

Under the appropriate conditions of light, warmth, and nutrition, pigeons will
breed and lay year round. Doves tend to be somewhat more seasonal, with a
reduced productivity from November through February.

Young pigeons reach sexual maturity by six to seven months, as do doves.

They breed well for at least five to six years and will continue to reproduce,
but less regularly, into an old age of 10 or more years (somewhat less for
doves).

Pigeons and doves are monogamous; however, established pairs can be

manipulated if required and new mates will be accepted. It is advisable not to
allow previous mates access to each other, however, as, having long
memories, they may return to their original monogamous relationship.

Pairing among the grouped birds starts with a courting ritual in which the
male pigeon struts and pirouettes (doves bow) before the hen. Acceptance is
signalled by the female following the male to a nesting place that he will have
chosen, though the nest will not be started for two or three days. The cock
brings the nesting material (straw, twigs, etc.) and the hen builds. About a
week later, the first egg is laid, a second one follows in about 45 hours (40
hours in doves). Pigeons will lay successive clutches of two eggs at five week
intervals and will raise from 10-22 young per annum, with 15 to 16
considered a good commercial production average (Levi, 1969; Kendall and
Scanlon, 1981; Hollander, 1954; Sturtevant and Hollander, 1978).

2. Incubation and Hatching

Both partners share in the incubation and either one will sit if the eggs are
seen to be unattended, though the male most often sits from 10:00 a.m. to
4:00 p.m. (Hollander, 1954).

The duration of incubation is 18 days from laying of the first egg in pigeons,
but only 15 days in doves (Silver, 1978). Hatching takes about 24 hours from
first pipping of the shell.

Pigeon eggs can be incubated artificially using modified poultry incubator

trays, with similar temperature, humidity, and rotational regimens as for
chickens.

3. Rearing

The newly hatched squab is atricial (born naked and helpless) and, if
orphaned, will need heat to 32oC (90oF) initially, and frequent feedings with a
high protein, high fat, vitamin and mineral supplemented diet. Wood pigeons
have been hand reared on a diet of vitamin and mineral supplemented raw
eggs for the first week, with the addition of increasing amounts of ground
 grains and turkey starter, fed twice daily, till weaning (Fazlul Haque, Broom
and Gaitens, 1982).

Squabs of both pigeons and doves are fed with the previously described "crop
milk". Squab growth is amazingly rapid, and they normally double their birth
weight of approximately 20 g (1 oz.) over the first 48 hours and again by four
days. They will be 20 times their birth weight by weaning, at three to four
weeks, and as big as their parents by seven to eight weeks. Pigeons start to
fly at four weeks, doves at three.

Weaning is a critical period as, until then, the squab has been totally
dependent and must, once it can fly, follow and learn to feed and drink by
imitating its parents.

It is essential that two adjacent nests be provided, as pigeons will start a new
clutch three weeks after the previous hatch and will divide their time between
sitting on the new eggs and feeding the squabs in the other nest. This rapid
reproductive cycle will usually slow down, or stop briefly, for the annual fall
molt.

4. Sexing

Several methods may be used, though none is particularly simple. The cloacal
method involves distinguishing between the single left oviduct opening of the
female and the two sperm ducts of the male. The latter empty one on either
side of the cloaca, onto small papillae. This method can only be used on
mature birds and requires the use of a disposable, clear plastic, nasal
speculum.

Direct visualization of either the single left ovary or the two testes may be
accomplished under anesthesia by laparotomy, if it is necessary to sex an
immature animal. This is a slow procedure and not without some risk, though
the identification should be sure.

Genetic methods of sexing may be used on some, but not all, breeds. This will
be based on colour and feather pattern differences, involving sex linkage
and/or autosexing. Similar methods are also applicable to doves, amongst
which the eggs from crosses between blond females and white males can
actually be sexed at three days incubation, by candling. In this cross, the
male embryo will have easily seen dark eyes, as opposed to the almost
colourless ones of the female embryo (Hollander, 1954).

G. RESTRAINT AND MANIPULATIONS

1. Capture and Handling

Pigeons in flypens may be difficult to capture during daylight. If the lights are
turned on after dark, pigeons will almost instantaneously become alert and
take off from their roosting places. However, their night vision is poor and, if
approached in the dark and dazzled by a flashlight, they can easily be picked
up. Although at first they may resent capture, both doves and pigeons will
 usually become very tame from gentle and repeated handling, in the
laboratory situation.

2. Physical Restraint

This is not difficult and, as the pigeon will not peck, it may readily be clasped
by its feet, held between one's index and middle finger while the wings are
encircled with the thumb and remaining fingers.

A number of restraining devices may be improvised from such things as

rounded quart sized juice containers or a length of plastic tubing of the
appropriate diameter. Use of a stockingette tube for this purpose has proven
useful prior to X-ray or inducing anesthesia, to prevent self-injury.

3. Sampling and Manipulations

Injections should generally be made using a short, 27 gauge needle to

minimize trauma. Subcutaneous injections should be given high on the bird's
neck. Intramuscular injections may be given into the pectoral muscles,, but
not the leg muscles because drainage from this region will pass through the
bird's renal portal system. Intraperitoneal injections are contraindicated and
should as a general rule, be avoided. If this site must be used for some
reason, then extreme care must be taken to avoid accidentally depositing the
material into the air sacs. A point mid-way between sternum and cloaca along
the midline, with the needle directed cephalad at a shallow angle just under
the abdominal wall, should be used (Green, 1979).

Small samples of blood may be collected in a micro pipette after nicking the
side of a toe with a lance. Venipuncture for injection or for the collection of
quantities of blood (up to 10 cc from mature, large birds) is easily performed
with a 20 gauge needle, using the wing (alar) vein after swabbing the area
with alcohol. Chemical restraint is not necessary for this procedure if the
pigeon is held manually by an assistant and a few feathers are plucked from
the site.

Chronic cannulations of the carotid artery can be performed on anesthetized

pigeons and maintained successfully if the catheter is exteriorized at the
occiput so that it cannot be reached by the bird's beak (Wendt, Normile,
Dawe et al. 1982). Cannulations of other blood vessels, such as the wing vein
and femoral artery, may also be readily performed and are well-tolerated in
pigeons and presumably also in doves.

Esophageal and crop intubation for force feeding is easily performed with a
metal tube and dose syringe; up to 60 cc may be injected into the crops of
mature birds in rapid succession by this method (Clarkson, Prichard, Lofland
et al. 1963).

When interpreting radiographs, it must be remembered that birds have no

diaphragm and have very large air sacs. The latter will provide excellent
negative contrast to most of the bird's organs, thus enhancing the usefulness
of radiography in the diagnosis of many avian diseases.
 4. Euthanasia

Under most circumstances, pigeons and doves may be killed most humanely
and quickly by cervical dislocation. A bird that is accustomed to being
removed from its cage and/or flypen may be caught and taken to another
room for this to be done. However, where restraint and removal may be
expected to cause panic and vocalization, it may be more humane and far
less frightening to the remaining birds if cervical dislocation is performed
immediately on capture. It is the specific and repeated "fear vocalization" cry
that will upset and panic other birds, not the (uncomprehended) sight of
another bird being subjected to euthanasia.

Carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide, as long as the euthanasia chamber is

completely prefilled with the gas, are each effective, relatively rapid, and
painless methods of avian euthanasia. An overdose of a barbiturate
anesthetic agent i.v. into the wing vein is also effective.

H. ANESTHESIA AND SURGERY

1. Pretreatment

Prior to undertaking the anesthesia of any bird, the anesthetist and/or

surgeon not experienced in the anesthesia of this class of animal should refer
to one of the several reviews on this subject available in the veterinary
literature. There are many aspects of the anesthetic responses of birds that
differ markedly from those of mammals (Green, 1979; Amand, 1977;
Langham, 1981; Jones, 1973).

The choice of anesthetic and method will, to a considerable extent, be

governed by the experience and preferences of the operator. A number of
injectable and inhalation agents, alone or in combination, have been used
with variable success in pigeons.

Prior to anesthesia, food should be withheld for six to 12 hours to ensure that
the crop is empty, so as to avoid possible regurgitation.

Intubation, if called for, should not present a problem in the sedated bird,
provided that the anatomy of the region has first been reviewed. With beak
opened and tongue pulled forward, the airway can be easily visualized and a
small diameter endotracheal tube inserted without the need of mechanical
aids.

2. Injectable Anesthetics

Agents such as ketamine, xylazine, and short acting barbiturates, have been
used for sedation and for surgical anesthesia, either alone or in various
combinations (Bree and Gross, 1969; Altman, 1980). It has been reported
that pigeons do not tolerate xylazine well (Gandal, 1969), and persons using
any of the injectable agents should constantly be alert to the fact that there is
always a distinct possibility of adverse reactions. Urethane at 1 g/kg i.p. has
been recommended for long lasting anesthesia in pigeons (Desmedt and
 Delwaide, 1966); however, because of its potential as a chemical carcinogen
and because, as stated above, injections by the i.p. route are generally
contraindicated, use of urethane cannot be advocated.

3. Inhalation Anesthesia

Anesthetic induction with such agents as nitrous oxide, halothane, and

methoxyflurane by mask or chamber are preferred by some. These agents
should not be used in a closed container. Ventilation is critical, as the bird's
air sacs provide a very extensive surface area for absorption and will store
large amounts of (residual) anesthetic gas. The procedure of choice, by many
anesthetists, is initial sedation or light induction with an injectable agent such
as ketamine, followed by intubation and maintenance with an inhalation
anesthetic.

The onset of apnea in birds is often very sudden and fatal. Consequently, the
depth of anesthesia must be carefully monitored at all times, with the
operator being prepared to initiate immediate steps for ventilation support.
Gas flow should be high to ensure clearance of expired gases and should be
approximately three times the respiratory minute volume of the patient,
which in a 300 g pigeon is 250 ml (Green, 1979).

4. Assessment of Depth of Anesthesia

This is best judged on the reflex from pinching the pericloacal skin or the toe.
The corneal reflex cannot be used, as movement of it and the nictitating
membrane (third eyelid) persists throughout anesthesia. Birds do not usually
exhibit Stage II excitement as do mammals; consequently, lightly
anesthetized birds may appear to be in deep sleep from which, unfortunately,
they may be aroused by the initial incision.

5. Surgery

Methods of implantations and neurosurgery (Gandal, 1969) as well as for

stereotactic implantation of electrodes (Desmedt and Delwaide, 1966) have
been developed and described for both pigeons and doves. Prior to surgery,
the site should be prepared by plucking the feathers, scrubbing, and treating
the area with a long acting, residual disinfectant. This procedure, if carefully
carried out, reduces the possibility of abscessation, particularly of the large
feather follicles, during the healing process.

6. Post-Operative Recovery

Following anesthesia with an injectable agent, recovery will be safeguarded if

air and O2 are administered to the respiratory system to assure proper
ventilation and clearance. This is because large amounts of the anesthetic
agent will be released into the air sacs and will tend to accumulate and be
taken up to excess by the parabronchial capillaries. This will impede recovery
and may even prove fatal.
 Recovery should take place at a temperature of 35o-40oC (95o-104oF). Wing
damage that sometimes takes place during the excitation phase of recovery
can be prevented by placing the pigeon in a stockingette or other restraining
device.

I. HEALTH CARE

1. General Precautions

Pigeons and doves are hardy birds and those that are raised in commercial or
laboratory breeding colonies and supplied for research purposes rarely
become diseased or present serious health hazards. This is not necessarily
true of birds from the hobbyists and fanciers, nor of the feral "street pigeon"
population.

All newly acquired birds should be subjected to a period of quarantine away

from other birds of the colony, during which they should be observed closely.
This is a particularly necessary precaution when pigeons are obtained from a
dealer and/or local hobbyist, as parasitic and respiratory diseases may
frequently be encountered in such birds.

Overt signs of disease may not be shown during the early stages of sickness
in pigeons and doves, as is also true of most wild species of birds, for to show
signs of ill health and weakness in nature is to invite attack. Consequently, by
the time that signs of sickness are actually discerned, a pigeon's energy
reserves may have become over-extended. Once these reserves are
exhausted, the bird's health will deteriorate rapidly, with collapse and death
coming quickly. For these reasons, a close watch is particularly important for
non-specific signs such as depression, weakness, anorexia, and deviations
from established behavior. If noted, they call for immediate attention, with
aggressive follow-up once a diagnosis has been established. Aid in rapidly
establishing a diagnosis should be sought from a specialist in avian
diseases***.

Any pigeon that is found dead in a colony, regardless of whether the cause is
thought to be known or not, should be subject to a thorough necropsy,
preferably by a veterinary pathologist familiar with avian diseases****.

2. Infectious Diseases

Bacteria, viruses, and occasionally fungi may all cause disease in both
pigeons and doves. Unfortunately, there are almost no current reviews
devoted specifically to the common diseases of pigeons (Schrag, 1974). Most
of the information on this subject has been published as isolated papers in a
wide range of research and medical journals, often from European countries
in languages other than English and French. The journal "Poultry Abstracts" is
a good source of information on current international publications concerning
pigeons and dove diseases****. Some brief reviews and mention of pigeon
diseases have also been included in general reference works to the diseases
of birds, wildlife, and zoo animals (Petrak, 1982; Hofstad, 1978).
a. Salmonellosis

Among the bacterial diseases, salmonellosis (paratyphoid) has been

reported to be the principal enzootic disease encountered in laboratory
pigeons in the USA although the infection is usually only expressed by
mild enteric signs and does not constitute a major problem (Clarkson,
Prichard, Lofland et al. 1963). Although several Salmonella biotypes are a
serious zoonotic hazard to humans, pigeon strains of Salmonella
typhimurium do not play a significant role in human salmonellosis (Oye
and Von Borghijs, 1979). However, feral pigeons are important carriers in
the spread of this disease to other species (Williams, 1978).

b. Avian Tuberculosis

Mycobacterium avium, the causative organism of avian TB, occurs among

feral pigeons and has been reported in commercially acquired White
Carneaux pigeons of a research colony. The risk of infection from this
ubiquitous organism increases with age and duration of exposure. Wood
pigeons and starlings are reservoirs of infection for the spread of this
microorganism to other animals. Signs of the infection include lameness,
"wry neck," skin lesions, and loss of appetite. The disease might be
confused with salmonellosis, some forms of which show similar signs
(Pond and Rush, 1981; Thoen and Karlson).

c. Mycoplasmosis (catarrh)

The causative organism of this infection is probably present in a latent

state in most pigeons, which when stressed may come down with a clinical
upper respiratory infection (Schrag, 1974; Sinclair, 1980). The signs of
catarrh may be confused with ornithosis (psittacosis). Diagnosis should be
confirmed by culture and the making of a mycoplasma antigen for
serological testing.

d. Chlamydiosis (Psitticosis; Ornithosis)

This is a serious, viral, zoonotic disease in humans, for which psittacine

birds and pigeons are favoured natural hosts. The number of laboratory
confirmed cases of avian chlamydiosis has increased in Ontario, Alberta,
and some U.S. states since 1977 (Hunter and Pettit, 1981). Pigeons are
well known as clinically normal carriers. If an outbreak of the disease is
suspected in laboratory pigeons, the diagnosis must be confirmed and, in
most jurisdictions must be reported to the provincial public health
authorities. Treatment should not be attempted. The birds should be
killed, appropriately disposed of, and the facility cleaned and disinfected
with formalin or some other effective virucidal agent.

e. Other Virus Infections

Some of the virus diseases that occur occasionally and spontaneously in

pigeons are due to herpes virus, Newcastle disease virus, paramyxo virus,
 adeno virus and avian pox virus, among others (Schrag, 1983; Hofstad,
1978; Fritszche, Heffels and Kaleta, 1981).

3. Parasitic Infestations

Parasites may be responsible for a number of serious health problems among

pigeons, either directly or indirectly as vectors in the transmission of
pathogens.

a. Ectoparasites

Ectoparasites should not be a problem in the laboratory pigeon colony;

however, incoming birds should be checked during quarantine for lice and
mites.

Treatment with a synthetic pyrethroid is effective and safe, although other

external parasiticides recommended for poultry may also be used*****.

b. Protozoan Diseases

The hypoboscid fly (louse fly) is the vector for the protozoan Hemoproteus
responsible for "pigeon malaria," a severe anemia of particular concern in
the racing homer breed. Treatment lies in control of the vector by
pyrethroids or other insecticides.

Canker (Trichomoniasis): Infection with the protozoan parasite

Trichomonas gallinae is the potentially most serious protozoan disease of
columbids. Its distribution is world wide and it occurs with some frequency
among wild pigeons and those raced by fanciers. However, it should not
be a problem in laboratory pigeons. Natural infection amongst several
species of wild doves has been reported from the USA including Hawaii
(Kocan and Banko, 1974).

c. Helminths

Domestication and intensive confinement rearing of pigeons has increased

awareness of clinical disease and mortality from heavy infestations with
internal parasites such as Ascaridia (round worm), Capillaria (crop worm
and hair worms), Syngamus tracheae (grape worms) and Tetrameres
fissipina, which affect the proventriculus. The capillaria worm is probably
the most widespread and serious internal parasite to pigeons in central
Canada. It may be effectively treated with dimetridazole. Tetramere and
ascarid infestations may also prove serious if heavy enough, and are
reported of frequent occurrence in the USA (Schock and Cooper, 1978).

4. Other Health Considerations

Genetic and nutritional defects will occur occasionally in breeding colonies and
may be controlled by proper management and selection procedures.
Administration of medicaments may be through the feed or drinking water
where dosage is not critical. A better control over the actual dose taken may
be obtained with individually caged birds and measured food and/or water
consumption. Exact dosage will require individual oral administration or
injection. Injection sites have been discussed above (Sampling and
Manipulations).

Sulfa drugs should be used with caution if at all, as they may cause a blood
dyscrasia, (aplastic anemia); if there is any indication of this developing from
a first dose, a repeat treatment will almost always prove fatal.

Finally, the advisability of utilizing the services and expertise on avian health
matters that is available through the veterinary services branches of all
provincial governments cannot be overemphasized.
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