Benghazi University

Biochemistry Department

Carbohydrates Chemistry Course

First Year Medical Students

‫ نجية عبدهللا‬.‫د‬
2021-2022
1
References:

 Lippincott Illustrated reviews biochemistry

Eighth Edition (2020)
Chapter 7

Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry

Twenty-Eighth Edition
Chapter 14

2
Learning objectives
By the end of this lecture the student should be able to
• Define Carbohydrates (CARBs)
• List functions of Carbohydrates
• Classify carbohydrates depending on number of Sugar (s)
• Describe structures of the simplest and most common
Monosaccharides
• Identify the following terms:
Isomers
Epimers
stereoisomerism
Enantiomers
Optical activity
3
 Define carbohydrates (CARBs)??
Carbohydrates are an organic compounds that consists of

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHO).

They are the most abundant organic molecules

in nature.

The empiric formula for many of the simpler

carbohydrates is (CH2O)n, hence the name “hydrate of carbon.”

Note:

4
Functions of carbohydrates:
1. They providing a significant fraction of the dietary calories for
most organisms. (1 gram CHO gives 4 Kcal)
2. They acting as a storage form of energy in the body (Glycogen)
3. They serving as cell membrane components that mediate some
forms of intercellular communication.
4. Carbohydrates serve as a structural component of many
organisms, including the cell walls of bacteria, the exoskeleton
of many insects, and the fibrous cellulose of plants.
5. CHO is important component of Nucleic acids

( Deoxy Ribose and Ribose sugar in DNA and RNA)

5
 Classification of Carbohydrates
• Monosaccharides

are the simplest carbohydrates, they cannot be hydrolyzed to smaller carbohydrates

(e.g glucose, fructose , galactose and mannose )

• Disaccharides

•Two joined monosaccharides

e.g Maltose = Glucose + Glucose

• Oligosaccharides contain 3-10 sugar units

• Polysaccharides contain more than 10 sugar units

6
 • Monosaccharide Structure

- Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates

and contain only one sugar unit

- -They are Derivatives Of Glycerol
- Glycerol is a Sugar alcohol

Glycerol
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Monosaccharides can be classified according to:

 The number of carbon atoms they Contain.

See Figure 7.1

 The functional group (aldehyde or ketone groups)

OR

See Next slide 8

A. carbohydrates with an B. Carbohydrates with
aldehyde functional group Ketone Functional Groups
are called Aldoses, are Called Ketoses.

DHA
glyceraldehyde is an aldose, whereas dihydroxy acetone is a ketose

9
N.B:
Glyceraldehyde:
is a triose monosaccharide with chemical
formula C3H6O3.

Dihydroxyacetone (DHA):
is a triose monosaccharide with chemical
formula C3H6O3.

10
Glucose and galactose are aldoses Fructose is a
sugars ketose sugar
11
12
Note:

Carbohydrates that have a free carbonyl group have

the suffix -ose. e.g Glucose, Galactose and Mannose.

Ketoses have an additional “ul” in their suffix such as xylulose.

There are exceptions, such as fructose, to this rule.

13
General Properties of monosaccharides Structures
Isomers
Epimers
Stereoisomerism
Enantiomers
Optical activity

14
Isomers
are compounds that have the same chemical formula but have
different structures (different connectivity). For example:
Glucose, galactose mannose and fructose are all isomers of each
other , having the same chemical formula, C6H12O6

15
Remember:
The carbons in sugars are numbered beginning at the end that contains the
carbonyl carbon—that is,( the aldehyde or keto group)

Epimers
Carbohydrate isomers that differ in configuration
around only one specific carbon atom
(with the exception of the carbonyl carbon)
are defined as epimers of each other.
For examples
 Glucose and galactose are
C-4 epimers—their structures differ only in
the position of the –OH group at carbon 4

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 Glucose and mannose are C-2 epimers.

 galactose and mannose are NOT epimers

they differ in the position of –OH groups at

two carbons (2 and 4) and are, therefore,

defined only as isomers

17
Stereoisomerism:
Compounds which are identical in composition and differs only in spatial
configuration
Example: D-glyceraldehyde and
L-glyceraldehyde.
(When the hydroxyl group on the reference carbon is on the right in the projection
formula, the sugar is the D isomer; when on the left, it is the L isomer).

18
Enantiomers
A special type of isomerism is found in the pairs of structures that are
Non- Superposable mirror images of each other. These mirror images are called
enantiomers, and the two members of the pair are designated as a D- and an L-
sugar
Majority Of The Sugars In Humans Are D-sugars
D- isomer: -OH group on the last asymmetric carbon is on the right.
L- isomer: -OH group on the last asymmetric carbon is on the left.

Figure 7.5 : Enantiomers (mirror images) of glucose. Designation of D and L is by comparison to

a triose, glyceraldehyde.( See Next slide)
(Note: The asymmetric carbons are shown in green :4 carbons 2,3,4,5 .)19
 N.B: Asymmetric carbon atom (Chiral carbon)

• The carbon atom attached to 4 different atoms or

groups is called asymmetric carbon.

Asymmetric carbon
atom
20
This slide only for understanding, how many chiral
carbon are present in Glucose

21
Optical activity:
 The presence of asymmetric ‘C’ atom in the sugar confers
optical activity of the compound .
 When a beam of polarized light is
passed through an optically active sugar
the plane of polarized light is rotated to
the Right (Dextro rotatory) or to the left (Levo rotatory).
A mixture containing equal number of D (dextrorotatory) and L
(levorotatory) molecules showing no optical activity is known as
Racemic mixture
Glucose is dextrorotatory(+),while fructose is levorotatory(-)
22
Learning objectives

By the end of this lecture the student should be able to

• Describe monosaccharides structures forms
• Recognize hemiacetal, hemiketal, pyran and furan structures
• Define anomeric carbon
• Illustrate the intraconversion between the alpha and beta anomers.
• Differentiate between the Fisher and Haworth projection of
glucose structures
• Identify the forms of glucose structure

23
 Monosaccharides structure forms
Monosaccharides structures are present in two forms:

Open-linear chain A Ring (Cyclic) Form

(acyclic) form in which the aldehyde or
keto group has reacted with an
Less than 1% of each of the alcohol group on the same
monosaccharides with five sugar, making the carbonyl
or more carbons exists in carbon (carbon 1 for an aldose
the open-chain or carbon 2 for a ketose)
asymmetric. This asymmetric
carbon is referred to as the
anomeric carbon

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When an alcohol adds to an aldehyde, the product is called a
hemiacetal; when an alcohol adds to a ketone the resulting product
is a hemiketal
Cyclization of monosaccharides (Ring Form)

Six-member cyclic form of a monosaccharide is known as

a pyranose while, The Five -member cyclic form

Monosaccharide is known as a furanose,

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(Pyran and Furan)

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Anomeric carbon
• Cyclization creates an anomeric carbon (the former carbonyl carbon),
generating the α and β configurations of the sugar, for example,
• α-D-glucopyranose and β-D-glucopryanose.
• These two sugars are both glucose but are anomers of each other.

An aldehyde group on C1 reacts with an

alcohol group on C5 forming
a hemiacetal

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α-D-glucopyranose β-D-glucopryanose
Fischer projection
• The carbon chain is written vertically.
• α-anomer ( α configuration): The –OH is on the acetal or ketal carbon
(anomeric carbon) projects to the same side as the ring structure formed
by the oxygen bridge (to the right).
• β-anomer(β-configuration): : -OH (on anomeric carbon) is on the
opposite side (to the left).-

A: The interconversion (mutarotation) of the α and β anomeric forms of glucose

shown as modified Fischer projection formulas

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 Haworth projection
The plane of the hemiacetal or hemiketal ring is flat on the paper, and the –
-OH and –CH2OH groups project either above or below the plane of
isH,a common way of representing the cyclic structure
the ring.
ofα-anomer
monosaccharides with agroup
means that the hydroxyl simple
(-OH)three-dimensional
attached to C-1 (in
perspective.
aldohexoses) or C-2 (in ketohexoses) is below the plane of the ring ( trans
to the CH2OH group, See the figure below)
β-anomer means that (-OH) is above the plane of the ring
(cis to the CH2OH group, see the figure below) .

B: The interconversion (mutarotation) of the α and β anomeric forms of glucose

shown as modified Haworth projection formulas 30
 Interonversion between anomers
• α and β anomers interconvert in solution via the linear form
• The cyclic forms (α and β ) are in an equilibrium with a small
amount of open chain form.
• They can be spontaneously interconverted (a process called
mutarotation)
• ( i.e. D-glucose solution forms an equilibrium mixture of ~
64% β, 36% α ) See Figure

α- form β-form
Remember
Biomedically, Glucose is the most important Monosaccharide

The Structure of Glucose Can Be Represented in The

following Forms

Straight (linear)-chain
cyclic structure
(Haworth)

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 Glucose structure forms

Straight (linear) form

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Which of the following statements best describes glucose?
A. It is a ketose and usually exists as a furanose ring in solution.
B. It is a C-4 epimer of galactose.
C. It is utilized in biological systems only in the L-isomeric
form.
D. It is a storage form of energy in the body.

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Learning objectives
By the end of this lecture the student should be able to

• List the physical properties of monosaccharides

• Explain the chemical properties of monosaccharides

• Identify Osazone formation technique

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 Physical Properties of monosaccharide

 All monosaccharides are water soluble

 All monosaccharides show optical activity
 All monosaccharides Can exist in α and β form
 All monosaccharide can undergo mutarotation
 The cyclic α and β anomers of a sugar in solution spontaneously
(but slowly) form an equilibrium mixture, a process known as
mutarotation

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Chemical Properties of monosaccharide
1. Reducing properties (they act as reducing agents)

2. Oxidation Reduction Properties

3. Dehydration

4. Formation of Esters

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 Keep in mind
in general, Sugars are classified as

Reducing sugar Non Reducing

sugar

If the hydroxyl group on the

anomeric carbon of a cyclized
sugar is not linked to another
compound by a glycosidic bond,
the ring can open. The sugar can
act as a reducing agent, and is
termed a reducing sugar .
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Chemical Properties of monosaccharide
1. Reducing properties
 All Monosaccharides are Reducing sugars . The reducing property is

attributed to the free aldehyde or keto group of anomeric carbon.

 Monosacharides can react with chromogenic agents (e.g,the Benedict reagent)

causing the reagent to be reduced and colored. The aldehyde group of the
sugar is oxidized to a carboxyl group. This test is called colorimetric test
 A colorimetric test can detect a reducing sugar in urine. A positive result is
indicative of an underlying pathology (because sugars are not normally present
in urine)

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Principles of test
• Cu+2 oxidizes the aldehyde or ketone group of the reducing sugar to form a
carboxyl group. (Glucose acts as reducing agent)

• Cupric (Cu+2) is reduced to cuprous ion (Cu+) to form a reddish precipitate of

cuprous oxide
∆

Reducing
sugar

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2. Oxidation Reduction Properties
A. Oxidation of Aldoses

- Oxidation of the aldehyde functional

group of an aldose to form
a carboxylic acid functional group
produces An aldonic acid

-Oxidation of the terminal hydroxyl group

instead of the terminal aldehyde group yields
A uronic Acid,

-Oxidation of both terminal ends yields

an Aldaric Acid.
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1. Oxidation of Glucose

• Oxidation of aldehyde group (CHOCOOH) result

in the formation of Gluconic acid.

Glucose Gluconic acid

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• Oxidation of terminal alcohol group in glucose
(CH2OH)(COOH) leads to the production of
Glucuronic Acid.
• Glucuronic acid acid is a precursor of ascorbic acid
(vitamin C)

Glucose Glucuronic Acid.

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• Oxidation of both (aldehyde and terminal alcohol) in
glucose gives Glucosaccharic Acid

Glucose Glucosaccharic Acid (glucaric acid)

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2. Oxidation of Galactose
Mucic acid (which form insoluble crystals).This test is used for the
identification of galactose.
Oxidation of most monosaccharides by nitric acid yields soluble
dicarboxylic acids. However, oxidation of galactose yields an
insoluble mucic acid.
 Lactose will also yield a mucic acid, due to hydrolysis of the

glycosidic linkage between its glucose and galactose subunits.

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Keep in mind:

Because ketones do not have hydrogen atom attached to

their carbonyl, they are resistant to oxidation.

46
B. Reduction
When treated with reducing agents, the
aldehyde or keto group of monosaccharides
is reduced to corresponding alcohol:
D-glucose D-sorbitol
D-galactose D-dulcitol
D-fructose D-mannitol + D-sorbitol
D-mannose D-mannitol
D- ribose D-ribitol
Note: Dextrose IV Fluid Is D- Glucose
Beause D-glucose is dextrorotatory sugar
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C. Dehydration
When treated with concentrated sulfuric acid
(H2SO4), monosaccharides undergo dehydration
with an elimination of 3 water molecules giving a
compound called furfural.

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D. Formation of Esters

Esterification, is characterized by the

combining of an alcohol and an acid (with
acid catalysis) to yield an ester plus water

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Esterification
The alcoholic groups of monosaccharide may be
esterified by non-enzymatic or enzymatic
reactions.
Esterification of carbohydrates with phosphoric
acid is a common reaction in metabolism
Glucose-6-phosphate and Glucose-1-phosphate
are good examples (ATP donates phosphate
moiety in ester formation).

50
 Osazone formation

• The technique was developed by

Emil Fischer, a German chemist.

• Osazones are formed when the sugars react with a

compound known as phenylhydrazine at boiling point.
• These sugars are reducing ones which have either a free
aldehyde or a ketone group to react with the
phenylhydrazine.

Note:
Phenylhydrazine is the chemical compound
with the formula C6H5NHNH2. phenylhydrazine

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Osazone formation

General Reaction:

Osazone

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Osazone formation
Phenyl hydrazine in acetic acid, when boiled with
reducing sugars forms Osazone.
Glucose, Fructose and Mannose
Give needle shaped osazone crystal.

Disaccharides osazones
maltose give sunflower shaped

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• Osazone crystals have a characteristic shape under the light
microscope and help in the identification of the sugar type.

Disaccharides - like Lactose - like tight Monosaccharides -

sunflowers balls of needles like needle-shaped or
broomstick
Maltose

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Learning objectives
By the end of this lecture the student should be able to

• List monosaccharides derivatives

• Describe disaccharides , including Maltose, Lactose and Sucrose

and mention reducing and non reducing types

• Define glycosidic bond and recognize O and N linkage

• Recognize Complex carbohydrates

• Identify oligosaccharides
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 Derivatives of Monosaccharides
There are several derivatives of monosaccharides, some of
which are physiologically important.

Sugar acids: Oxidation of aldehyde group result in sugar

acids for e.g Gluconic acid.

Sugar alcohols, They are produced by reduction of aldoses or

ketoses. for eg, sorbitol from Glucose
Amino sugars: When one or more – OH groups of the
monosaccharides are replaced by amino groups, the product
formed is called amino sugar. e.g., D-glucosamine

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 Disaccharides
The disaccharides consist of two monosaccharide (similar or
different) held together by glycosidic bond. in a dehydration
reaction

The disaccharides are Two types

•Reducing disaccharides with free aldehyde or ketone
group. e.g. Maltose, and lactose
•Non reducing disaccharides with no free aldehyde or
ketone group e.g. sucrose and Trehalose

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Glycosidic bond
 The bonds that link sugars are called glycosidic bonds.
 They are formed by enzymes known as glycosyltransferases
that use nucleotide sugars (activated sugars) such as uridine
diphosphate glucose (UDP-G) as substrates.
 Glycosidic bonds between sugars are named according to the
numbers of the connected carbons and with regard to the
position of the anomeric hydroxyl group of the first sugar
involved in the bond. If this anomeric hydroxyl is in the α
configuration, then the linkage is an α-bond. If it is in the β
configuration, then the linkage is a β-bond. 58
 Maltose ( C12 H22 O11) Malt sugar
•Maltose ( C12 H22 O11) is not found in free form in the body.
•it is produced during the digestion of starch by pancreatic amylase.
• Maltose is composed of 2 α –D – Glucose units held together by ( α- 1,4 )
glycosidic bond (dehydration reaction)

Glucosyl-α (1-4) glucose

Because the anomeric end of the second glucose residue is not
involved in the glycosidic linkage, therefore, Maltose is reducing sugar
59
Lactose (Milk Sugar)

 It is synthesized by forming a glycosidic bond between carbon 1 of

β-galactose and carbon 4 of glucose. Therefore, the linkage is a
β(1→4) glycosidic bond (see Fig. 7.3).

Because the anomeric end of the glucose residue is not involved in the
glycosidic linkage, therefore, lactose is reducing sugar.
60
Sucrose (Table sugar)

 It is synthesized by forming α (1→2) glycosidic bond

between glucose and fructose glycosidic bond

Because the anomeric end of both glucose residue and fructose residue are
involved in the glycosidic linkage, therefore, Sucrose is not reducing sugar.

61
Disaccharides on hydrolysis reaction give the
following monosacharides

Maltose + H2O glucose+ glucose

Lactose+ H2O glucose + galactose

Sucrose + H2O glucose + fructose

62
 Glycosidic bond Names
• If the monosaccharide is attached to OH group of another sugar, it is called
O –glycosidic linkage

• If the monosaccharide is attached to NH2 then the bond is called

N-glycosidic linkage

63
O –glycosididic bonds N –glycosididic bonds

64
Complex carbohydrates
Carbohydrates can be attached by glycosidic bonds to
non-carbohydrate structures, including
• Purine and pyrimidine bases (found in nucleic acid)
• aromatic rings (such as those found in steroids and
bilirubin (They are made more soluble by conjugation
with glucuronic acid during their metabolism)
• glycoproteins and proteoglycans)
• Lipids (found in glycolipids).
65
Oligosaccharides

Short chain of 3- 10 monosaccharides joined by “glycosidic bonds”

Chen, Liyan. (2013). Value added products from soybean: removal of anti-nutritional factors via bioprocessing.

66
All of the following sugars are reducing Sugars
Except
a. Glucose
b. Maltose
c. Fructose
d. Sucrose

67
Learning objectives
By the end of this lecture the student should be able to
• Define polysaccharides and their functions

• Classify polysaccharides

• -Differentiate between Glycogen and amylopectin

• Describe Fluctuation of glycogen stores

68
Polysaccharide
polysaccharides are hydrolysable polymers of
more than 10 sugar units. They consist of
monosaccharides held together by glycosidic bonds.

Function of Polysaccharide
Structural and Storage of energy

69
 Polysaccharides are classified into :
 Homo polysaccharides:
Are Polymers Of a single Monosaccharide.
Examples : Starch, Glycogen.

 Hetero polysaccharides:
Are polymers of different monosaccharides.
e. g (Glycosaminoglycans).

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Homo Polysaccharide
Homopolysaccharides exist as branched and
unbranched polymers

Unbranched

Branched
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Starch (Homopolysaccharide)

Starch is a Storage form of CHO in plants

• Source:
Starch is found in cereals, roots and vegetables.

• Structure:
• Starch is a homopolysacharide composed of D-glucose units held together
by α-glycosidic bonds. It is known as glucosan or glucan.

• Note: glucosan: A general term for polysaccharides of glucose, such as starch,

cellulose, and glycogen. A glucan is a polysaccharide derived from D-glucose
linked by glycosidic bonds. There are two types , Alpha and beta-glucans

72
Starch is Composed of two types of polymers:
Amylose: linear chain of glucose units
Amylopectin: branched chain of glucose units

2,000 to 200,000 glucose units

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Glycogen (Homopolysaccharides)

Glycogen is a branched-chain homopolysaccharide made

exclusively from α-D-glucose.
The main stores of glycogen in the body are found in
skeletal muscle and liver, although most other cells store
small amounts of glycogen for their own use.

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Function of Glycogn
 The storage form of glucose
Muscle glycogen

serves as a fuel reserve for the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate

(ATP) during muscle contraction.

Liver glycogen maintains the blood glucose concentration,

particularly during the early stages of a fast

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Amounts of liver and muscle glycogen
Approximately 400 g of glycogen make up
1–2% of the fresh weight of resting muscle
Approximately 100 g of glycogen make up to
10% of the fresh weight of a well-fed adult liver.
Note: In the body, muscle mass is greater than
liver mass. Consequently, most of the body’s
glycogen is found in muscle.
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Fluctuation of glycogen stores
 Liver glycogen stores increase during the well-fed state
, and are depleted during fasting.
 Muscle glycogen is not affected by short periods of
fasting (a few days) and is only moderately decreased in
prolonged fasting (weeks).
 Muscle glycogen is synthesized to replenish muscle
stores after they have been depleted following strenuous
exercise.
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Structure of glycogen
Glycogen is a branched-chain polysaccharide made exclusively from α-D-glucose.
The primary glycosidic bond is an α (1→4) linkage.
After an average of eight to ten glucosyl residues, there is a branch containing
an α (1→6) linkage. These molecules exist in discrete cytoplasmic granules that also
contain most of the enzymes necessary for glycogen synthesis and degradation.

α1,6-glycosidic
bond

α1,4-glycosidic bond 78
Glycogen and amylopectin differ only by the interval in which
the branch point are inserted in the polymer: both are polymers of
α1,4-glucose unit with α1,6-glucose branches;
glycogen branches every 8-10 glucosyl residues, whereas
amylopectin branches every 24-30 glucosly residues.

79
Cellulose (Homopolysaccharides)

• A carbohydrate of plant origin containing

β1,4-glycosidic bonds between glucose residues.

• They are nondigestible carbohydrates to humans.

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Summary Of HomoPolysaccharides types and
related glycosidic bonds

α (1-4) glycosidic
linkage

α (1-4) glycosidic
linkage

α (1-6) glycosidic
linkage

β(1-4) glycosidic linkage

81
Learning objectives
By the end of this lecture the student should be able to
• Define heteropolysaccharides and their functions

• Describe structure of glycosaminoglycan (GAGs)

• Mention functions of GAGs

• Classify GAGs

• -Differentiate between Glycoprotein and proteoglycan

82
Hetro Polysaccharide:
They are the polysaccharides which composed
of different types of sugars.

2 monomer type
Unbranched

Multi monomer type

Branched
83
Hetro Polysaccharides:
They made up of repeating units of sugar derivatives,
namely amino sugar & uronic acids.

Example :glycosaminoglycan (GAG).

84
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) Structure

 Glycosaminoglycans are large complexes of negatively

charged heteropolysaccharide chains. They are generally

associated with

a small amount of protein, Forming proteoglycans, which

typically consist of over 95% carbohydrate

85
 Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) Structure
 GAGs are long, unbranched, heteropolysaccharide composed of
repeating disaccharide chains where one of the sugars is
an N-acetylated amino sugar and the other is an acidic sugar.
(Fig. 14.1)

86
The amino sugar
is either D-glucosamine or
D-galactosamine in which the amino
group is usually acetylated eliminating its
positive charge.
{(N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) or N-
acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc)} , The
acidic sugar
is either D-glucuronic acid or its C-5
epimer, L-iduronic acid. These uronic
sugars contain carboxyl groups that are
negatively charged at physiologic pH and,
together with the sulfate groups, give
GAGs their strongly negative nature.
(Figure 14.2).
87

.
 Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) Properties

 The viscous, lubricating properties of mucous secretions

result from the presence of glycosaminoglycans, which led to
the original naming of these compounds as
mucopolysaccharides 88
Glycosaminoglycan (GAGs) Function
• They have the special ability to bind large amounts of water, thereby

producing the gel-like matrix that forms the basis of the body’s ground

substance, which, along with fibrous structural proteins such as

collagen, elastin, fibrillin-1, and adhesive proteins such as fibronectin,

makes up the extracellular matrix (ECM)

• Hydrated GAGs serve as a flexible support for the ECM, interacting with

the structural and adhesive proteins, and as a molecular sieve, influencing

movement of materials through the ECM.

89
glycoprotein

GAG

GAG

90
The glycosaminoglycans are divided into
six major classes:
Hyaluronic acid
Chondroitin 4-and 6 sulfate
Keratan sulfate
Dramatan sulfate
Heparin
 Heparan sulfate 91
92
The differences between glycoprotein and Proteoglycan
Glycoproteins Proteoglycans
Structure ★ Oligosaccharide ★ Glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chain(s) are
(carbohydrate) chains are attached to a polypeptide side chain.
covalently attached to a
polypeptide side chain.
Nature of Chains ★ Oligosaccharide chains are ★ Glycosaminoglycan chains are long,
short, branched, and may or may linearized, and negatively charged because of
not be negatively charged. the presence of sulfate and uronic acid
functional groups.
Non-protein ★ 10 - 15% by weight 50 - 60% by weight
Content
Subtypes ★ Broadly categorized as N- ★ Classification depends on the nature of the
linked and O-linked saccharides. GAG chains.
Location ★ Glycoproteins are found on ★ Proteoglycans are found in the connective
the cell surface with the tissues
carbohydrate chains placed
outside the cell.
Function ★ Glycoproteins act as integral ★ Proteoglycans provide structural support
membrane proteins, and play a and mechanical strength to the ECM, play a
role in cell-cell recognition and role in the modulation of cell growth
signaling. processes, and provide padding in joints.
★ Thrombospondin ★ Aggrecan
★ Chondronectin ★ Perlecan
★ ABO blood group antigens ★ Neurocan 93
★ Hormones like follicle ★ Syndecan
All of the following are false Except
a. Glycogen is a branched chain of glucose polymers
b. Starch contains amino sugar
c. GAGs contain large amount of proteins
d. Hyaluronic acid contains sulfate group

94